NASA TECHNICAL NOTE N A S A TN

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ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE FOR

DETECTION AND MEASUREMENT
1 OF FATIGUE CRACKS
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by Stunley J. Klimu, Duniel J. Lesco, a n d John C. Freche
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NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION WASHINGTON, D. C. SEPTEMBER 1965

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 TECH LIBRARY KAFB, NM

IIllil111lOl~30087 l 11
llIOI1111lI1111I1
NASA TN D-3007

ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE FOR DETECTION AND

MEASUREMENT O F FATIGUE CRACKS

By Stanley J. Klima, Daniel J. Lesco, and John C. F r e c h e

Lewis R e s e a r c h Center
Cleveland, Ohio

NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION

..
For sale by t h e Clearinghouse for Federal S c i e n t i f i c and T e c h n i c a l Information
Springfield, V i r g i n i a 22151 -
P r i c e $1.00

I I1 I I Il 1 I I I I III
 ULTRASONIC TECHNIQUE FOR DETECTION AND
MEASUREMENT OF FATIGUE CRACKS

by S t a n l e y J. K l i m a , Daniel J. Lesco, and John C. Freche

Lewis Research Center

An u l t r a o n i c system w a s developed and used t o observe t h e formation of

f a t i g u e cracks i n center-notched s h e e t specimens of unalloyed aluminum, two
aluminum a l l o y s , a mild s t e e l (approx 0.035 p e r c e n t carbon), and a nickel-base
a l l o y . The r e f l e c t i o n technique was used t o d e t e c t minute f a t i g u e cracks. The
through-transmission technique w a s used t o a l i m i t e d e x t e n t t o measure r e l a -
t i v e l y long cracks. Actual l e n g t h s of d e t e c t e d c r a c k s were determined by micro-
scopic examination. S t r e s s - l i f e (S-N) curves of l i f e t o i n i t i a l d e t e c t a b l e
cracks as w e l l as S-N curves of l i f e t o f r a c t u r e were obtained.

The r e f l e c t i o n technique w a s used while t h e t e s t w a s i n p r o g r e s s t o d e t e c t

f a t i g u e cracks t h a t ranged i n l e n g t h approximately from 0.0005 t o 0.005 i n c h
f o r unalloyed aluminum, m i l d s t e e l , and I n c o n e l a n a from 0.0005 t o 0.0025 i n c h
f o r 6061-T6 and 2014-T6 aluminum a l l o y s . I n t h e s h a r p l y notched specimens u t i -
l i z e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , cracks were d e t e c t e d w i t h i n approximately 1 t o 3
p e r c e n t of t o t a l specimen l i f e f o r a l l t h e m a t e r i a l s over t h e range of s t r e s s e s
cons i d e r e d.

It w a s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t smaller c r a c k s w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique t h a n
w i t h t h e through-transmission technique. The instrument output from cracks
l o n g e r t h a n approximately 0.010 inch, however, w a s more r e p r o d u c i b l e when t h e
through-transmission technique was used.

The e f f e c t s of crack o r i e n t a t i o n on ins-trument o u t p u t w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n

technique w a s s t u d i e d by means of s l o t s machined i n t o f l a t p l a t e s . S l o t sur-
f a c e s normal t o t h e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves produced t h e g r e a t e s t v o l -
b t a g e output. The f a r t h e r t h e s l o t d e v i a t e d from a p o s i t i o n normal t o t h e wave
d i r e c t i o n , t h e s m a l l e r t h e output became, even though t h e s l o t s u r f a c e area when
p r o j e c t e d on a plane normal t o t h e wave d i r e c t i o n w a s c o n s t a n t .
b

INTRODUCTION

F a t i g u e i n v o l v e s t h e processes of crack i n i t i a t i o n and crack propagation

p r i o r t o f r a c t u r e . Any method t h a t can be used t o d e t e c t small f a t i g u e c r a c k s
n o n d e s t r u c t i v e l y d u r i n g t h e course of a f a t i g u e t e s t would be extremely use-
f u l as a r e s e a r c h t o o l . If t h e method could a l s o b e s u c c e s s f u l l y a p p l i e d i n

I
 t h e f i e l d , i t s u s e f u l n e s s would be even g r e a t e r .

Methods a r e p r e s e n t l y a v a i l a b l e t h a t can be used t o d e t e c t f a t i g u e cracks,

b u t g e n e r a l l y speaking, each has a s s o c i a t e d d i f f i c u l t i e s , more or l e s s severe,
depending on t h e i n t e n d e d a p p l i c a t i o n . For example, commonly used i n s p e c t i o n
methods such as p e n e t r a t i n g - l i q u i d , m a g n e t i c - p a r t i c l e , and r a d i o g r a p h i c t e c h -
niques, when a p p l i e d t o f a t i g u e specimens, a l l r e q u i r e i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e fa-
t i g u e t e s t . A d d i t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s e x i s t because t h e p e n e t r a t i n g - l i q u i d and
m a g n e t i c - p a r t i c l e t e c h n i q u e s can only be used t o d e t e c t cracks a t or near t h e
surface, and t h e use of X-ray techniques poses problems of s a f e t y and i n t e r -
pretation.

O p t i c a l microscopy, another obvious technique, r e q u i r e s highly p o l i s h e d

s u r f a c e s and g e n e r a l l y i n v o l v e s t h e t e r m i n a t i o n of t h e t e s t and t h e s e c t i o n i n g
of t h e specimens p r i o r t o microscopic examination. T e s t i n g many specimens f o r
d i f f e r e n t time i n t e r v a l s makes it p o s s i b l e t o determine when extremely s m a l l
cracks have formed. Such a procedure i s . b o t h expensive and very time consuming.
A r e c e n t refinement of t h i s procedure ( r e f . 1) i n v o l v e s t h e production of rep-
l i c a s of t h e specimen s u r f a c e s u i t a b l e f o r use i n e i t h e r t h e e l e c t r o n or t h e
l i g h t microscope. P l a s t i c r e p l i c a s were o b t a i n e d while t h e specimens remained
i n t h e f a t i g u e machine by simply stopping t h e t e s t p e r i o d i c a l l y . From t h e s e
r e p l i c a s , cracks l e s s t h a n 0.0001 i n c h deep were d e t e c t e d i n f l e x u r e specimens
a f t e r r e l a t i v e l y few l o a d a p p l i c a t i o n s ; however, d e t e c t i o n of cracks by t h i s
method r e q u i r e s h i g h l y p o l i s h e d specimens and s t i l l involves lengthy procedures.

I n an attempt t o d e t e c t f a t i g u e cracks more simply and without i n t e r r u p -

t i o n of t h e t e s t , e l e c t r i c a l and u l t r a s o n i c methods have r e c e n t l y been i n t r o -
duced. These techniques are not as s e n s i t i v e f o r d e t e c t i n g extremely small
c r a c k s as t h e microscope b u t t h e y have p r a c t i c a l advantages because t h e y gener-
a l l y can be more e a s i l y a p p l i e d . An e l e c t r i c p o t e n t i a l technique has been used
t o determine slow crack growth i n t e n s i l e t e s t s ( r e f s . 2 and 3). The f e a s i b i l -
i t y of crack d e t e c t i o n by e l e c t r i c a l impedance measurements has a l s o been dem-
o n s t r a t e d ( r e f s . 4 and 5 ) . Changes i n t h e e l e c t r i c a l r e s i s t a n c e of notched
rotating-beam-type specimens ( r e f . 4 ) were c o r r e l a t e d w i t h depth of f a t i g u e
cracks. The s m a l l e s t cracks t h a t could be d e t e c t e d w i t h c e r t a i n t y were on t h e
o r d e r of 0.005 i n c h i n depth.

U l t r a s o n i c methods, which have been widely used f o r nondestructive inspec-

t i o n purposes, have r e c e n t l y been used t o observe damage i n f a t i g u e specimens.
U l t r a s o n i c s u r f a c e waves have been used ( r e f . 6 ) t o d e t e c t s u r f a c e flaws i n
bending f a t i g u e specimens, b u t crack s i z e s were not determined i n t h i s study.
Very r e c e n t l y , u l t r a s o n i c i n s p e c t i o n techniques were used ( r e f . 7 ) t o d e t e c t
cracks i n t h i n (0.039 i n . ) center-notched s t e e l s h e e t specimens t h a t were
t e s t e d i n a x i a l f a t i g u e . Cracks ranging from 0.003 t o 0.004 inch i n l e n g t h
were d e t e c t e d .

O f t h e methods described, t h e u l t r a s o n i c method was s e l e c t e d f o r f u r t h e r

study i n t h e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n . This method afforded c e r t a i n advantages
because it w a s not l i m i t e d t o t h e d e t e c t i o n of surface cracks, d i d not r e q u i r e
t h e i n t e r r u p t i o n of t h e f a t i g u e test, and could be used w i t h many m a t e r i a l s
r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r e l e c t r i c a l o r magnetic p r o p e r t i e s . Also, t h i s method does

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 n o t r e q u i r e t h a t specimens be i n s u l a t e d from t h e t e s t apparatus as i s necessary
f o r t h e e l e c t r i c a l methods,. A program w a s t h e r e f o r e i n i t i a t e d a t t h e NASA
Lewis Research Center t o f u r t h e r develop t h e u l t r a s o n i c method and t o apply it
t o f a t i g u e t e s t i n g of v a r i o u s m a t e r i a l s . Axial t e n s i l e f a t i g u e t e s t s were run
w i t h center-notched s h e e t specimens of unalloyed aluminum, two aluminum a l l o y s ,
a mild s t e e l , and a nickel-base a l l o y . S t r e s s - l i f e (S-N) curves based on l i f e
t o i n i t i a l d e t e c t a b l e cracks as w e l l as S-fi curves of l i f e t o f r a c t u r e were ob-
t a i n e d . Metallographic s t u d i e s were made t o measure a c t u a l l e n g t h s of t h e de-
t e c t e d cracks.

DEVELOPMENT OF ULTWONIC FATIGUE-CMCK-DETECTION SYSTEM

P r i n c i p l e s of U l t r a s o n i c Crack D e t e c t i o n

The p r i n c i p l e s of u l t r a s o n i c wave propagation can be found i n r e f e r e n c e s 8

t o 10. A b r i e f review of t h e t h e o r y involved, a d e s c r i p t i o n of t h e crack-
d e t e c t i o n system, and t h e manner of i t s a p p l i c a t i o n a r e p r e s e n t e d i n t h e follow-
ing sections.

Fatigue-crack d e t e c t i o n by r e f l e c t i o n technique. - D e t e c t i o n of f a t i g u e
cracks by t h e r e f l e c t i o n of u l t r a s o n i c energy i s s i m i l a r t o t h e use of r a d a r i n
t h e d e t e c t i o n of d i s t a n t o b j e c t s . Acoustic energy, i n t h e form of pulsed enve-
l o p e s of high-frequency waves, i s t r a n s m i t t e d from a t r a n s d u c e r i n t o t h e t e s t
specimen. A f t e r t h e p u l s e i s t r a n s m i t t e d , t h e t r a n s d u c e r a c t s as a r e c e i v e r f o r
energy r e f l e c t e d from any d i s c o n t i n u i t y i n t h e specimen. The m e t a l - a i r i n t e r -
f a c e of a f a t i g u e crack c o n s t i t u t e s such a d i s c o n t i n u i t y . The low d e n s i t y of
a i r and t h e r e l a t i v e l y low v e l o c i t y of u l t r a s o n i c waves i n a i r r e s u l t i n an
a c o u s t i c mismatch t h a t causes t h e r e f l e c t i o n of i n c i d e n t u l t r a s o n i c waves. The
amount of energy r e f l e c t e d from a crack i s d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o t h e crack area,
t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e i n c i d e n t u l t r a s o n i c wave, and t h e o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e crack.

Fatigue-crack d e t e c t i o n by through-transmission technique. - A second t e c h -

nique f o r the- d e t e c t i o n of d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s by means of u l t r a s o n i c energy does
not depend on t h e measurement of r e f l e c t e d energy. It employs two t r a n s d u c e r s :
one a c t s as a t r a n s m i t t e r , t h e o t h e r as a r e c e i v e r . The p r i n c i p l e of o p e r a t i o n
i s based on t h e f a c t ' t h a t a crack i n t h e r e g i o n of t h e specimen between t h e
t r a n s d u c e r s w i l l decrease t h e energy t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e r e c e i v e r . The amount of
energy r e c e i v e d i s i n v e r s e l y r e l a t e d t o t h e crack a r e a .

> A limit on t h e s i z e of t h e s m a l l e s t crack t h a t can be d e t e c t e d w i t h t h i s

technique i s imposed by t h e requirement t h a t a very s m a l l change i n an i n i t i a l l y
large signal must b e measured. Under t h e s e conditions, s m a l l changes can be
difficult t o resolve.

System Design

A block diagram of t h e u l t r a s o n i c c r a c k - d e t e c t i o n system i s shown i n f i g -

ure 1. A commercial u l t r a s o n i c f l a w d e t e c t o r w a s used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .
The commercial u n i t contained a p u l s e g e n e r a t o r t o d r i v e t h e p i e z o e l e c t r i c

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 I I
Cathcde- II
Specimen Amplifier = raytube
I
I
I/
1 I
I
II
!I
-.
I'
I
Pulse Integrator
Transducer generator 7 Time gate = circuitry i 1 Filter Oscillograph

rFlaw detector
r - - r Specimen and two
1 transducers for
th rough-transmission '
technique

Figure 2. - Commercial flaw detector and test specimens with attached transducers.

crystal. It a l s o contained t h e necessary a m p l i f i e r s and a cathode-ray tube

t h a t amplified and d i s p l a y e d t h e r e f l e c t e d energy p a t t e r n , and time g a t i n g and
i n t e g r a t o r c i r c u i t r y . A f i l t e r and an o s c i l l o g r a p h were added. The o s c i l l o -
graph was used t o o b t a i n a permanent r e c o r d of t h e s i g n a l r e f l e c t e d from t h e
notch o r crack i n t h e specimen. The commercial t r a n s d u c e r w a s modified t o per-
m i t i t s a p p l i c a t i o n t o t h e d e t e c t i o n of f a t i g u e cracks i n notched-sheet speci-
mens. A photograph of t h e commercial f l a w d e t e c t o r and specimens w i t h a t t a c h e d
t r a n s d u c e r s f o r use w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n and through-transmission techniques i s
shown i n f i g u r e 2.

U l t r a s o n i c t r a n s d u c e r design. -
Figure 3 shows a sketch of t h e t r a n s d u c e r
designs used with t h e c r a c k - d e t e c t i o n device. The t r a n s d u c e r used with t h e

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 Piezoelectric
couolina. "
monitor crystal -.
Lucite
wedge-,
waves (from
Piezoelecti-ic specimen-transducer
drive interface)
crystal-- Specimen-,

I / j-'. s
Incident waves I , o.25,, Crack
i
I Reflected waves
Transmitted waves-. (from

(a) Transducer used with reflection technique.

Transmitting transducer -

i f
Incident waves ; ,-Crack '.-Transmitted
Reflected waveA wave
(b) Transducers used with through-transmission technique.
Figure 3. - Schematic diagram of ultrasonic transducers used with crack-detection device.

r e f l e c t i o n technique c o n s i s t e d of a l u c i t e wedge on which were mounted two p i -

e z o e l e c t r i c c r y s t a l s ( f i g . 3 ( a ) ) . A r e c t a n g u l a r (1.0 by 0.5 i n . ) piezoelec-
t r i c c r y s t a l w a s used t o generate u l t r a s o n i c waves of f i x e d frequency and t o
r e c e i v e t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s . U t i l i z a t i o n of t h i s t r a n s d u c e r design w i t h s h e e t
f a t i g u e specimens permitted t h e t e s t s e c t i o n t o be flooded w i t h shear ( t r a n s -
v e r s e ) waves. The d i r e c t i o n of v i b r a t i o n i n shear waves i s t r a n s v e r s e t o t h e
d i r e c t i o n of wave propagation.

The shear-wave mode w a s used because it permitted u l t r a s o n i c energy t o be

t r a n s m i t t e d through t h e specimen s u r f a c e and subsequently t o be propagated along
t h e l e n g t h of t h e specimen. Also, t h e v e l o c i t y of shear waves i s one-half t h a t
of t h e l o n g i t u d i n a l waves. This permitted d e t e c t i o n of smaller flaws because
of t h e decreased wavelength a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e shear wave.

The wave mode and t h e angle of e n t r y of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves i n t o t h e t e s t

specimen were c o n t r o l l e d by t h e wedge angle 0 and t h e r e f r a c t i o n of t h e i n c i -
dent waves a t t h e wedge-specimen i n t e r f a c e . It was necessary t h a t t h e wedge
m a t e r i a l have an a c o u s t i c a l propagation v e l o c i t y l e s s t h a n t h e shear wave veloc-
i t y i n t h e specimen m a t e r i a l s . Lucite p l a s t i c possessed t h e r e q u i r e d v e l o c i t y
characteristic. The optimum wedge angle 0 w a s experimentally determined f o r
each f a t i g u e specimen m a t e r i a l by t h e method of r e f e r e n c e 11. These d a t a are
summarized i n t a b l e I.

It w a s a l s o necessary t o provide a coupling medium between t h e wedge and

t h e f a t i g u e specimen t o e l i m i n a t e a i r from t h e i n t e r f a c e and t o allow t h e t r a n s -

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 TABLE I. - WEDGE ANGLE FOR MAxlMUM mission of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves i n t o t h e s -p e c i -
men. The coupling medium must have an a c o u s t i -
ULTRASONIC SHEAR WAVE AMPLITUDE c a l impedance similar t o t h a t of t h e wedge and
IN SPEClMEN MATERIALS t h e specimen and be s u f f i c i e n t l y f l u i d t o f i l l
a l l a i r pockets. Because changes i n t h i c k n e s s
of t h e coupling l a y e r would a f f e c t t h e amount
of energy t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e specimen, a f l u i d
t h a t would t e n d t o r e t a i n i t s consistency dur-
i n g t h e t e s t w a s r e q u i r e d . The coupling mate-
2014-T6 Aluminum 0.060 53.5 r i a l used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n w a s a molyb-
.064 53.5
denum d i s u l p h i d e l u b r i c a n t normally used t o
6061-T6 Aluminum
prevent s e i z u r e of mating p a r t s a t high temper-
1100 Aluminum .064 53.5 a t u r e . Other coupling m a t e r i a l s , an epoyy type
bonding agent f o r example, provided good t r a n s -
Mild steel .053 46.0
mission p r i o r t o t e s t i n g , b u t t h e bond quickly
Inconel .046 46.0 f a i l e d i n f a t i g u e because t h e t r a n s d u c e r w a s
~ ~~~

p o s i t i o n e d on a s t r e s s e d a r e a of t h e specimen.

Although a r a t h e r h i g h degree of coupling e f f i c i e n c y was a t t a i n e d w i t h t h e

molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e l u b r i c a n t , not a l l of t h e u l t r a s o n i c energy generated i n
t h e wedge by t h e d r i v e c r y s t a l was t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e specimen because of t h e
d i s c o n t i n u i t y a t t h e wedge-specimen i n t e r f a c e . The energy t h a t d i d not e n t e r
t h e specimen was r e f l e c t e d back i n t o t h e wedge as shown i n f i g u r e 3 ( a ) . Changes
i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e s e r e f l e c t e d waves during t h e course of a t e s t were i n -
d i c a t i v e of changes i n coupling e f f i c i e n c y . An a d d i t i o n a l c r y s t a l (coupling
monitor c r y s t a l ) was mounted on t h e o t h e r end of t h e wedge t o monitor t h e s e
changes. This c r y s t a l w a s used only as a r e c e i v e r and was manually switched t o
t h e a m p l i f i e r i n p u t a t i n t e r v a l s . I n general, t h e changes i n t h e i n t e n s i t y of
t h e r e f l e c t e d waves d e t e c t e d by t h i s c r y s t a l were s m a l l . The d i s t a n c e from t h e
wedge-specimen i n t e r f a c e t o t h e coupling monitor c r y s t a l was such t h a t energy
r e f l e c t e d from t h e wedge-monitor c r y s t a l i n t e r f a c e reached t h e d r i v e c r y s t a l
w e l l a f t e r any r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e cracks w i t h i n t h e specimen were received.
This i n s u r e d t h a t intrawedge r e f l e c t i o n s would not be i n t e r p r e t e d a s specimen
cracking.

When t h e through-transmission technique w a s used, two t r a n s d u c e r s were

needed: one t o t r a n s m i t u l t r a s o n i c waves, t h e o t h e r t o r e c e i v e them ( f i g .
3 ( b ) ) . A s may be seen from t h e f i g u r e , some of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves introduced
t o t h e specimen p a s s through it and a r e d e t e c t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g transducer.
Some of t h e waves a r e r e f l e c t e d from t h e crack ( d o t t e d arrow) and a r e t h e r e f o r e
n o t d e t e c t e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g t r a n s d u c e r . Space l i m i t a t i o n s precluded t h e use
of coupling monitor c r y s t a l s when t h i s technique w a s u t i l i z e d . The coupling
e f f i c i e n c y was assumed t o remain e s s e n t i a l l y constant.

- S p e c i a l t r a n s d u c e r c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and t h e i r r e l a t i o n t o t r a n s d u c e r de-
--
sign. Although l u c i t e has a c o u s t i c a l p r o p e r t i e s s u i t a b l e f o r providing wave
r e f r a c t i o n and i s r e a d i l y machinable, it has a l i m i t a t i o n i n t h a t a t t e n u a t i o n
of u l t r a s o n i c waves i n t h i s medium i s much g r e a t e r t h a n it i s i n metals. Thus
a l i m i t a t i o n w a s imposed on t h e maximum frequency t h a t could be used because
a t t e n u a t i o n of u l t r a s o n i c energy a t h i g h e r f r e q u e n c i e s i s much g r e a t e r t h a n it
i s a t low f r e q u e n c i e s . The h i g h e r t h e wave frequency ( s h o r t e r wavelength),

6
 however, t h e s m a l l e r t h e f l a w t h a t can be
detected. Consequently, a c r y s t a l w a s
chosen t h a t had as h i g h a frequency as
p o s s i b l e without encountering excessive
u l t r a s o n i c wave a t t e n u a t i o n i n t h e wedge.
It w a s experimentally determined t h a t a
frequency of 5 megacycles w a s t h e p r a c t i -
c a l maximum w i t h t h e a v a i l a b l e equipment.

Comparisons made of s e v e r a l 5-
megacycle, 1.0- by 0.5-inch c r y s t a l s d i s -
c l o s e d v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e i r response t o t h e
presence of flaws. I n o r d e r t o o b t a i n r e -
p e a t a b i l i t y i n t h e experiments, t h e cry-
s t a l s were not interchanged.
-.M -.25 0 .25 .M
Flaw position relative to transducer centerline, in. P l o t s were a l s o made of t h e vari-
ationsin
Figure 4. - Variations in sensitivity across typical l - i n c h sensitivity to
transducer. Distance from flaw, 0.25 inch. a c r o s s t h e long dimension of each c r y s t a l .
V a r i a t i o n s were determined by measuring
t h e r e f l e c t e d energy from a 0.050-inch-long s l o t i n an aluminum a l l o y s h e e t as
t h e t r a n s d u c e r w a s moved l a t e r a l l y p a s t t h e s l o t . Measurements were t a k e n a t
i n t e r v a l s of approximately 0.06 inch. A p l o t showing t h e v a r i a t i o n i n s e n s i -
t i v i t y f o r t h e 1.0-inch c r y s t a l used i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s shown i n f i g u r e 4.
The c r y s t a l w a s mounted on a 53.5' wedge, and measurements were made a t a d i s -
t a n c e of 0.25 i n c h from t h e f l a w . The g e n e r a l shape of t h e curve i s t y p i c a l of
a l l t h e c r y s t a l s checked. The c e n t r a l v a r i a t i o n s can be a t t r i b u t e d t o "near
zone" e f f e c t s . When t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e l i e s w i t h i n an a r e a very near t h e
t r a n s d u c e r (near-zone), i n t e r f e r e n c e p a t t e r n s can cause maximums and minimums
i n t h e energy r e c e i v e d a t t h e c r y s t a l as a f u n c t i o n of f l a w l o c a t i o n . When t h e
d i s t a n c e from c r y s t a l t o f l a w was r e l a t i v e l y l a r g e (approx 3 i n . ), only a s i n g l e
s e n s i t i v i t y peak w a s observed.

A f t e r t h e r e g i o n of maximum s e n s i t i v i t y of t h e t r a n s d u c e r w a s determined,
t h e t r a n s d u c e r was subsequently mounted on f a t i g u e specimens t o u t i l i z e t h i s
r e g i o n t o advantage. Despite t h e near-zone s e n s i t i v i t y p a t t e r n s , t h e p o s i t i o n -
i n g of t h e t r a n s d u c e r approximately 1 / 4 i n c h from t h e t e s t s e c t i o n of t h e s p e c i -
men provided optimum crack measurement s e n s i t i v i t y because wave a t t e n u a t i o n and
d i s p e r s i o n were minimized.

0perat.io.n- of. system e l e c t r o n i c s . - U l t r a s o n i c p u l s e s were t r a n s m i t t e d a t

t h e r a t e of 500 p e r second w i t h a p u l s e time of about 1 microsecond. Since a
t y p i c a l v e l o c i t y f o r u l t r a s o n i c shear waves i n t h e specimens used i n t h i s i n -
v e s t i g a t i o n was about 0 . 1 i n c h p e r microsecond, s u f f i c i e n t time w a s provided
between p u l s e s f o r a l l r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s t o r e t u r n t o t h e d r i v e c r y s t a l when
t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique w a s employed. A r e f l e c t i o n s i g n a l f r o m t h e end of the
specimen would r e t u r n t o t h e d r i v e c r y s t a l a f t e r r e f l e c t i o n s from f l a w s i n t h e
t e s t s e c t i o n had been received. These r e f l e c t e d p u l s e s were reconverted t o
e l e c t r i c a l s i g n a l s by t h e d r i v e c r y s t a l , amplified, and d i s p l a y e d on t h e
cathode-ray tube.

7
 I1 Il 1 IIII I Il Il I I

When t h e through-transmission technique w a s employed, only t h a t p o r t i o n . o f

t h e u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e which was not r e f l e c t e d by specimen d i s c o n t i n u i t i e s w a s
r e c e i v e d by t h e r e c e i v i n g t r a n s d u c e r . It was n o t necessary t o allow time be-
tween p u l s e s f o r t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l s t o r e t u r n t o t h e c r y s t a l .

The commercial u l t r a s o n i c equipment i n c l u d e d a time g a t e and i n t e g r a t o r

c i r c u i t r y ( f i g . 1, p. 4). The g a t e allowed only t h e r e f l e c t e d (or t r a n s m i t t e d )
s i g n a l s o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a p r e s e l e c t e d t i m e i n t e r v a l a f t e r each t r a n s m i t t e d
p u l s e t o pass through t o t h e i n t e g r a t o r c i r c u i t r y . Since t h e d i s t a n c e +,raveled
by an u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o time, t h e time g a t e may be i n t e r -
p r e t e d as a "propagation-distance" gate. The o u t p u t of t h e a m p l i f i e r was t h e r e -
f o r e g a t e d f o r t h e specimen p o s i t i o n a t which f a t i g u e cracking was expected t o
occur when t h e r e f l e c t i o n - t e c h n i q u e was used. Extraneous r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e
transducer-specimen i n t e r f a c e and r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e end of t h e specimen were
blocked by t h i s g a t e . With t h e 'through-transmission technique t h e a m p l i f i e r
w a s g a t e d f o r t h e time a t which t h e t r a n s m i t t e d p u l s e reached t h e r e c e i v e r .

The i n t e g r a t o r c i r c u i t r y provided a de ( d i r e c t c u r r e n t ) voltage l e v e l pro-

p o r t i o n a l t o t h e s i g n a l t h a t passed through t h e time gate. A f t e r t h e s i g n a l
w a s f i l t e r e d t o remove minor f l u c t u a t i o n s i n t h e i n t e g r a t o r output, t h e r e s u l t -
i n g de v o l t a g e was recorded on an o s c i l l o g r a p h . Changes i n t h e recorded de v o l -
t a g e s were p r o p o r t i o n a l t o changes i n t h e amount of u l t r a s o n i c energy received.
S e n s i t i v i t y could be i n c r e a s e d by proper adjustments of t h e a m p l i f i e r and t h e
integrator circuitry.

Output v o l t a g e as a f u n c t i o n of f l a w o r i e n t a t i o n . -
F a t i g u e cracks may be
e i t h e r i n a p o s i t i o n normal t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of propagation of t h e u l t r a s o n i c
waves or .at some angle to them. An attempt was made t o determine t h e e f f e c t of
macroscopic crack o r i e n t a t i o n on t h e amplitude of u l t r a s o n i c waves r e c e i v e d by
t h e t r a n s d u c e r when t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique w a s employed.

S l o t s 0.05 i n c h i n l e n g t h were machined through a 0.060-inch-thick alumi-

num a l l o y p l a t e t o simulate crack s u r f a c e s a t v a r i o u s a n g l e s t o t h e u l t r a s o n i c
waves. These s l o t c o n f i g u r a t i o n s and t h e corresponding normalized output vol-
t a g e s are shown i n table 11. The p r o j e c t e d a r e a of each c o n f i g u r a t i o n w a s main-
t a i n e d equal w i t h r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of wave propagation. The angle be-
tween t h e s l o t and a plane normal t o t h e p l a t e i s d e s i g n a t e d as cp f o r uni-
p l a n a r s l o t s and as cp' f o r b i p l a n a r s l o t s . The a n g l e between t h e s l o t and a
plane normal t o t h e edge of t h e p l a t e i s d e s i g n a t e d as a.

The output from each s l o t shown i n t h e table i s r e l a t i v e t o t h e output

from a s l o t l y i n g normal t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves. The
t r a n s d u c e r - t o - s l o t d i s t a n c e w a s s e t a t 0.25 i n c h for a l l t e s t s ( s e e f i g . 3 ( a ) ) .
The arrows i n t h e f l a w o r i e n t a t i o n sketches i n d i c a t e t h e propagation d i r e c t i o n
of t h e u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e s . The amplitude of t h e r e f l e c t e d wave decreased as t h e
o r i e n t a t i o n of t h e s l o t v a r i e d from a p o s i t i o n normal t o t h e u l t r a s o n i c wave
( t a b l e 11). The output f o r v a r i a t i o n s i n cp and cp' can be approximated by
t h e cosine f u n c t i o n for t h e given angle. The decrease i n output with an i n -
c r e a s e i n a i s much more pronounced t h a n t h e decrease t h a t occurs w i t h an
i n c r e a s e i n cp. This pronounced decrease might be expected because a value
of a of 4 5 O would r e f l e c t id-trasonic energy i n a d i r e c t i o n p a r a l l e l to t h e

8
LABLE 11. - O T J " VOLTAGE AS FUNCTION OF FLAW ORIENTATION
-

Flaw Orientation Normalized

angle, output
&e@; voltage
a = 00 cp

0 1.00

10 .96

30 .96

45 .74

I..-

a = 00 cp'

0 1.00

30 .81

45 .75

/I
%I--
-
cp = 00 a

0 1.00

10 .92

30 .30

45 .00

9
transducer f a c e and would t h e o r e t i c a l l y r e s u l t i n zero output.

The r e s u l t s obtained with s l o t s of predetermined o r i e n t a t i o n can be ap-

p l i e d t o explain d i f f e r e n c e s i n u l t r a s o n i c r e f l e c t i o n from f a t i g u e cracks whose
surfaces l i e a t d i f f e r e n t angles with r e s p e c t t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of u l t r a s o n i c
waves. Thus, a crack t h a t l i e s on t h e macroscopic shear plane of a specimen
would not appear as l a r g e as one l y i n g normal t o t h e specimen surface when t h e
d i r e c t i o n of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves i s p a r a l l e l t o t h e specimen axis.

Because t h e use of t h e through-transmission technique depends primarily on

a blocking of t h e t r a n s m i t t e d waves by t h e p r o j e c t e d a r e a of a crack, t h e tech-
nique i s r e l a t i v e l y independent of crack o r i e n t a t i o n . Consequently, t h e e f f e c t
of crack o r i e n t a t i o n on output voltage w a s not i n v e s t i g a t e d f o r t h i s technique.

MAIERIALS AND FATIGUE TEST PROCEDURE

Specimen M a t e r i a l s

Five m a t e r i a l s were t e s t e d i n a x i a l t e n s i l e f a t i g u e : unalloyed aluminum,

two aluminum a l l o y s (6061-T6 and 2014-T6), mild s t e e l (approx 0.035 percent
carbon), and Inconel. These m a t e r i a l s represent t h r e e c l a s s e s of widely used
metals of d i f f e r e n t d e n s i t i e s and a t t e n u a t i o n c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s . The t e n s i l e
s t r e n g t h s of notched specimens a r e l i s t e d i n t a b l e 111. Sheet specimens were
employed, with thicknesses ranging from 0.046 inch f o r Inconel t o 0.064 inch
f o r unalloyed aluminum. A sketch of t h e t e s t specimens i s shown i n f i g u r e 5.
Center-notched specimens were used so t h a t e c c e n t r i c loading would be reduced
a f t e r cracks were formed and, also, so t h a t t h e cracks would appear i n a region
of t h e specimen positioned i n l i n e with t h a t p a r t of t h e p i e z o e l e c t r i c c r y s t a l
having t h e most s e n s i t i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .

TABLE 111. - NOTCHED ULTIMATE

TENSILE STRFNGTHS OF MATERIALS

UTILIZED IN THIS INVESTIGATION

[Notch r o o t radius, <0.0007 i n . 1

Material Tensile strength,

psi

1100 Aluminum 1 2 000

6061-T6 48 000 Max. rad., 0.0007J “-Diam., 1,13

2014-T6 57 700 Figure 5. - Notched-sheet fatigue specimen. (Dimensions are i n
inches. )
Mild s t e e l 50 900

Inconel 67 200

10
 Fatigue T e s t s

Test
__ -~ conditions. - Specimens of a l l f i v e m a t e r i a l s were s u b j e c t e d t o axial
t e n s i l e loads t h a t were a l t e r n a t e l y i n c r e a s e d and decreased i n a s i n u s o i d a l p a t -
t e r n . The frequency w a s e i t h e r 1 6 o r 1970 c y c l e s p e r minute depending on t h e
expected specimen c y c l i c l i f e . The r a t i o of minimum s t r e s s t o maximum s t r e s s
w a s maintained a t 0 . 1 4 f o r a l l t h e m a t e r i a l s i n v e s t i g a t e d . A l l t e s t s were con-
ducted a t ambient temperatures i n a i r . A t l e a s t t h r e e specimens were t e s t e d a t
each stress l e v e l t o o b t a i n d a t a f o r t h e i n c l i n e d p o r t i o n of t h e S-N curves
r e p r e s e n t i n g c y c l i c l i f e t o i n i t i a l d e t e c t a b l e cracks. S-N curves i n d i c a t i n g
l i f e t o f r a c t u r e were a l s o obtained f o r a l l of t h e m a t e r i a l s . For 2014-T6
aluminum, an i n t e r m e d i a t e S-N curve w a s obtained t h a t i n d i c a t e s t h e number of
c y c l e s t o form cracks having an average l e n g t h of 0.077 inch.

Fatigue t e s t s were conducted i n an a x i a l t e n s i l e f a t i g u e machine. The

method of o p e r a t i o n i s described i n r e f e r e n c e 1 2 . B r i e f l y , mean t e n s i l e l o a d s
were a p p l i e d by a h y d r a u l i c piston, which a l s o compensated f o r specimen elonga-
t i o n during t e s t . S i n u s o i d a l a l t e r n a t i n g l o a d s were a p p l i e d by a c a l i b r a t e d ,
cam-operated l e v e r a r m . A l o a d c e l l mounted i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e specimen was
used t o monitor t h e c y c l i c l o a d during t e s t .

Application
~ - of u l t r a s- o n i c d__ -
e t e c.t.i o n device t o f a t i g u e t e s t s . The
u l t r a s o n i c - r e f l e c t i o n technique was u t i l i z e d t o d e t e c t cracks l e s s t h a n 0.005
i n c h i n l e n g t h i n a l l t h e m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d . When t h i s technique was used, t h e
t r a n s d u c e r w a s p o s i t i o n e d on t h e specimen 0.25 i n c h from t h e specimen notch.
The t r a n s d u c e r was a t t a c h e d t o t h e specimen w i t h C-type clamps ( s e e f i g . 2,
p. 4) arranged s o t h a t t h e y d i d not i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e passage of u l t r a s o n i c
waves through t h e specimen. The r e f l e c t i o n s from t h e c e n t e r of t h e notch were
damped i n p a r t by t h e a p p l i c a t i o n of adhesive t a p e t o t h e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e of
t h e notch. The a m p l i f i e r suppression (dc b i a s ) w a s t h e n a d j u s t e d t o reduce t h e
remaining notch s i g n a l t o a l o w output l e v e l which was used as t h e zero l e v e l
f o r crack d e t e c t i o n . Changes i n t h e recorded output i n d i c a t e d f a t i g u e cracking
a t t h e notches. The specimens made from t h e s o f t e r m a t e r i a l s were run f o r
10 c y c l e s or l e s s b e f o r e t h e zero adjustment was made. This w a s done because,
a t t h e higher s t r e s s e s , t h e notch w a s deformed to varying degrees i n t h e f i r s t
few cycles, which caused an instrument zero s h i f t before cracking occurred.

The through-transmission technique r e q u i r e d t h e p o s i t i o n i n g of a r e c e i v i n g

t r a n s d u c e r on t h e s i d e of t h e notch opposite t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g transducer. In
t h i s case, a m p l i f i e r g a i n and suppression were a d j u s t e d t o provide a f u l l - s c a l e
s i g n a l of t h e r e c e i v e d energy p r i o r t o s t r e s s cycling. A decrease i n t h e s i g -
n a l w a s i n d i c a t i v e of t h e presence of a crack.

Crack-length measurement. - Upon f i r s t d e t e c t i o n of a crack, some s p e c i -

mens were removed from t h e f a t i g u e machine and s e c t i o n e d f o r microscopic exam-
i n a t i o n . A f t e r sectioning, t h e specimen s u r f a c e w a s ground ( u s u a l l y u n t i l one-
h a l f t h e specimen t h i c k n e s s remained), polished, and etched t o b e t t e r d e f i n e
t h e crack. The image of t h e a r e a containing t h e crack w a s p r o j e c t e d on a metal-
lograph screen a t a magnification of 500, and t h e l e n g t h of t h e crack image was
measured t o t h e n e a r e s t O.Ol.0 i n c h ( c r a c k - l e n g t h v a r i a t i o n of 0.00002 i n . ) .
V a r i a t i o n of crack l e n g t h w i t h i n an i n d i v i d u a l specimen was determined by

11
 p o l i s h i n g r e p r e s e n t a t i v e samples t o v a r i o u s depths and r e p e a t i n g crack-length
measurements.

Specimens w i t h l o n g e r c r a c k s (approx 0.07 i n . ) were f i r s t broken i n t e n -

sion, and t h e f a t i g u e - c r a c k e d p o r t i o n of t h e f r a c t u r e s u r f a c e was t h e n measured
d i r e c t l y w i t h a r u l e r a t a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of 10. I n some i n s t a n c e s , s u r f a c e
crack l e n g t h was observed a t m a g n i f i c a t i o n s of 40 and 100 during t e s t by means
of a microscope mounted on t h e f a t i g u e machine. I n t h i s way p r o g r e s s i v e crack
l e n g t h s determined from t h e same specimen could be p l o t t e d a g a i n s t u l t r a s o n i c
response .
A s d e s c r i b e d previously, t h e amplitude of t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l i s dependent
on t h e i n t e n s i t y of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves as w e l l as on t h e crack a r e a . The i n -
t e n s i t y of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves p a s s i n g through a u n i t a r e a of t h e specimen
c r o s s s e c t i o n i s , i n t u r n , i n v e r s e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e specimen t h i c k n e s s .
Since t h e crack a r e a f o r a given crack l e n g t h i s p r o p o r t i o n a l t o specimen t h i c k -
ness, t h e r e c e i v e d s i g n a l f o r shear waves i s t h e r e f o r e a f u n c t i o n of t h e crack
length, independent of specimen t h i c k n e s s . Consequently, d e s c r i p t i o n of f a t i g u e
cracks was made i n terms of l e n g t h and provided a s t a n d a r d i z e d comparison f o r
a l l the materials investigated.

FATIGUE REXJLTS

The S-N curves showing c y c l i c l i f e t o i n i t i a l d e t e c t a b l e f a t i g u e cracks

and c y c l i c l i f e t o f r a c t u r e a r e shown i n f i g u r e 6. I n d i v i d u a l data p o i n t s show-
i n g measured crack l e n g t h s a r e l i s t e d i n t a b l e I V .

Data Obtained With R e f l e c t i o n Technique

The r e f l e c t i o n technique w a s found t o be most s e n s i t i v e t o t h e i n i t i a l de-

t e c t i o n of f a t i g u e cracks, and a l l of t h e i n i t i a l c r a c k d e t e c t i o n data were ob-
t a i n e d i n t h i s manner. Crack l e n g t h s as shown i n t h e f i g u r e and l i s % e d i n
t a b l e I V r e p r e s e n t t h e SM of t h e l e n g t h of cracks emanating from b o t h ends of
t h e specimen c e n t e r notch. The l e n g t h of f i r s t d e t e c t a b l e c r a c k s i n 1100 alumi-
num, m i l d s t e e l , and Inconel, ranged approximately from 0.0005 t o 0.005 i n c h
( f i g s . 6 ( a ) , (a), and ( e ) ) . I n 6061-T6 and 2014-T6 aluminum a l l o y s , t h e l e n g t h
of t h e f i r s t d e t e c t a b l e c r a c k s was somewhat l e s s , ranging approximately from
0.0005 t o 0.0025 i n c h ( f i g s . 6 ( b ) and ( e ) ) . For t h e s m a l l i n i t i a l l y d e t e c t e d
cracks ( a l l l e s s t h a n 0.005 i n . ) , c r a c k - l e n g t h v a r i a t i o n w i t h t h i c k n e s s w i t h i n
an i n d i v i d u a l specimen was determined, for r e p r e s e n t a t i v e specimens of a l l mate-
r i a l s t e s t e d , by measuring crack l e n g t h a t t h r e e p o s i t i o n s along t h e t h i c k n e s s
dimension. The maximum v a r i a t i o n of crack l e n g t h w i t h t h i c k n e s s w a s found t o
b e approximately 0.001 inch. Figure 7 shows photomicrographs of both notch
r o o t s of a r e p r e s e n t a t i v e 2014-T6 specimen a f t e r s u c c e s s i v e l y g r i n d i n g away 27,
50, and 82 percent of t h e specimen t h i c k n e s s . The v a r i a t i o n i n crack l e n g t h i n
t h i s case was only 0.0003 inch.

It has long been known t h a t f a t i g u e cracks can e x i s t i n m a t e r i a l s without

f a i l u r e o c c u r r i n g w i t h i n a span of c y c l i c l i f e t h a t can, f o r a l l . p r a c t i c a 1

12
 .0005to 0.0042 in. 0 Cycles to initial detect-
able cracks
A Cycles to fracture
0 Cycles to obtain inter-
mediate crack lengths
Arrows denote that sDecimen did
21 1 IIII I ,111 I I Ill I
(a) 1100 Aluminum.
I Ill I I111 I I Id I , o.~4to
not fracture.
+rack length,

40~103

0.0025 in.
c
E
v)

2 10
u
5 0 1.111 I IIII I I111 I Ill1 I IIII I I111
.-E Ib) 6061-T6 Aluminum. (c) 2014-T6 Aluminum.
Y

r Crack length,
0.0011 to 0.0050 in.

t
O b '04

0.0047 in. 1'ob,

10 A-

Cycles
(d) Mild steel. (e) Inconel.
Figure 6. - Stress-life (S-N) curves showing cycles to first detectable cracks and cycles to fracture for center-notched sheet
specimens. Ratio of minimum to maximum stress, 0.14.

purposes, be considered i n f i n i t e . It i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o note t h a t evidence of

such cracks w a s obtained w i t h t h e u l t r a s o n i c c r a c k - d e t e c t i o n device f o r 2014-T6
aluminum i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n ( f i g . 6 ( c ) ) . Cracks were d e t e c t e d i n t h r e e
specimens t e s t e d a t a m a x i m u m c y c l i c stress of 7650 pounds p e r square inch.
Two specimens were removed from t h e f a t i g u e machine a t t h e time of crack d e t e c -
t i o n ; t h e t h i r d w a s run t o lo7 c y c l e s before t h e t e s t w a s terminated. F i g u r e 8
shows a comparison between t h e cracks i n one of t h e specimens t h a t w a s removed
from t e s t a f t e r d e t e c t i o n of t h e i n i t i a l crack and i n t h e specimen t e s t e d for
l o 7 cycles. Crack l e n g t h s i n b o t h i n s t a n c e s a r e v i r t u a l l y t h e same.

Data Obtained With Through-Transmission Technique

The through-transmission technique w a s u t i l i z e d w i t h t h e u l t r a s o n i c crack-

d e t e c t i o n device t o i n d i c a t e t h e presence of cracks having a l e n g t h g r e a t e r
t h a n 0.010 i n c h i n 2014-T6 aluminum. The S-N curve r e p r e s e n t i n g t h e number of
c y c l e s u n t i l cracks of approximately 0.062 t o 0.082 inch i n l e n g t h were formed
i s shown i n f i g u r e 6 ( c ) . I n d i v i d u a l data p o i n t s f o r t h i s curve a r e given i n

13
 TABLE IV. - SUMMARY OF CRACK-DETECTION DATA

( a ) 1100 Aluminum. (b) 6061-T6 Aluminum a l l o y .

*-
Average c r a c k l e n g t h , 0.0023 i n c h . Average c r a c k l e n g t h , 0.0012 i n c h .

1 Maximum

st;;;s,l
Length of
cyclic i n i t i a l detectable
c r ianc k
.,

Average ingle tes

Maximum]

stress,
Lenath of

crack,

Single tes
Ii n i t Cvcles
I
crack

Average S i n g l e t e s
to
i i l detectable

I Average
Percent
,f average
l i f e to
fracture

'}
m..p
1200
.0008 1200 .0017 29
.0014 0.0017 1900
.0028 2600
]
m7qL
.0032 3500 26 250 0.0005
.
0012 59 40
.0014
.0017
.0022
,0037
0.0021
17 500 0.0005
.0009
.
0010
183 -
061
1
.0017
.0033
.0032
.0035
t 0.0029

0.0024
2700
6000
8 750

ZTZl
0.0010
.
0012

,0014
'
8900
______ I

( c ) 2014-T6 Aluminum a l l o y .

Average l e n g t h of f i r s t d e t e c t a b l e crack, 0.0011 i n c h ; average l e n g t h of i n t e r n e d i a t e c r a c k , 0.077 i n c h .

( d ) Mild s t e e l . ( e ) Inconel.

Average crack l e n g t h , 0.0025 i n c h . Average c r a c k l e n g t h , 0.0026 i n c h .

Maximum Length of Cycles t o Percent Cycles t o Percent

l n l t i a l detectable f average
stress, crack, craci( l i f e to stress, crack, crack l i f e to
Psi in. fracture fracture

I ;1
S i n g l e teSt!Average
35 000 0.0012

1 I}
.i.imI--
662 1.9 43 750 0.0007
,0024 1 000 m; ~)o.oo2s % 695 3.2

26 250 o{iii 10
.;020! %
3 100
2 2001 1.5
1 148

2.0
17 500 0.0021 15 400
,0050 0.0035 28 500 24 900 3.0 4 300
,0035 30 900 13 600 }ll 700 2.3
17 300
17 500 0.0029 ~ o ~ o o 1 9 41 100 }48 450 0.8
55 800

56 500
} 6 8 050
No
79 600 Yailures

14
 27 Percent of thickness ground off
4 7
P
a
4

50 Percent of thickness ground off

"R.
w

%-65 -1416
82 Percent of thickness ground off
Figure 7. - Photomicrographs of M14-T6 aluminum alloy showing variation of crack length
with specimen thickness. (Only notch tips are shown.) X500.

15
 l1l11ll111 I I

P
,R *
.e

I 0
\?c
*~% . a‘
.
b;
9
*.
6.
* . * -I b-4.
.
O001in ? 0.

(a) Test stopped at first indication of crack, 4.9X104 cycles.

(b) Test continued aRer first indication of crack to 1.7X107 cycles.

Figure 8. - 2014-T6 Aluminum alloy specimens tested at stress near endurance limit.
(Only notch tips are shown.) X500.

16
i!
,

t a b l e IV(c). These d a t a were taken t o o b t a i n an i n d i c a t i o n of t h e reproduc-

i b i l i t y of t h e instrument output for cracks much l a r g e r t h a n those which were
d e t e c t e d with t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique.

A f u l l - s c a l e s i g n a l change on t h e oscillograph w a s i n d i c a t i v e of crack

lengths ranging between 0.062 to 0.082 i n c h with t h e exception of one specimen
i n which t h e l e n g t h of t h e crack w a s found t o be 0.104 inch. I n t h i s instance,
coupling changes may have a f f e c t e d t h e r e s u l t s . Except f o r t h i s s i n g l e case
t h e r e s u l t s were f a i r l y reproducible. The l a t t e r p o i n t i s not p l o t t e d i n f i g -
ure 6 ( c ) . Reported crack lengths represent t h e average of a s e r i e s of measure-
ments made a t f i v e p o s i t i o n s through t h e thickness of each specimen. Consider-
ably g r e a t e r v a r i a t i o n i n crack l e n g t h with specimen t h i c k n e s s occurred for
t h e s e longer cracks t h a n occurred f o r t h e much s h o r t e r cracks d e t e c t e d by t h e
r e f l e c t i o n technique. Crack l e n g t h i n any given specimen v a r i e d as much as
0.035 inch with t h e longest portion usually l o c a t e d about midway between t h e
surfaces. These data. i n d i c a t e t h a t . t h e through-transmission technique i s ap-
p a r e n t l y s u i t a b l e f o r measuring r e l a t i v e l y long f a t i g u e cracks t h a t can occur
r e l a t i v e l y l a t e i n specimen l i f e .

DISCUSSION

Certain a s p e c t s of t h e operation of t h i s crack-detection system, including

o p e r a t i o n a l l i m i t a t i o n s and t h e general a p p l i c a b i l i t y of t h e system, are dis-
cussed i n t h e subsequent sections.

C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of Fatigue Crack-Detection Device

~
Considerations p e r-t- i n e n t t o L n i t i a l crack detection. - Detection of cracks
l ~ _ c _ . -

by u l t r a s o n i c techniques i s normally l i m i t e d t o those cracks t h a t present a r e -

f l e c t i n g a r e a with dimensions g r e a t e r than one-half t h e u l t r a s o n i c wavelength.
The wavelength of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves generated i n t h i s system w a s approxi-
mately 0.026 inch; however, cracks as s m a l l as 0.0005 inch were detected be-
cause of t h e manner i n which t h e crack-detection system w a s applied.

With t h e employment of notched specimens a high-amplitude s i g n a l w a s ob-

t a i n e d from t h e notch. This s i g n a l was much l a r g e r t h a n those a r i s i n g from
o t h e r sources such as g r a i n boundaries, which could otherwise confuse i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n of t h e s i g n a l s . Since t h e crack propagates from t h e notch roots, t h e
c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h a b l e notch s i g n a l w i l l increase f u r t h e r , t h u s making it pos-
s i b l e t o d e t e c t minute cracks by monitoring t h e l a r g e signal. I f no reference
i n d i c a t i o n ( e . g., r e f l e c t i o n from t h e notch) were available, t h e s h o r t e s t de-
t e c t a b l e crack probably would have been 0.013 inch or g r e a t e r .

It was determined from s e v e r a l preliminary t e s t s t h a t a recorded voltage

increase i n t h e notch s i g n a l of about 10 percent of f u l l s c a l e was needed t o
ensure t h a t t h e instrument had detected a crack. Resolution of t h e recorded
voltage w a s t o w i t h i n 2 percent of f u l l scale. A voltage l e v e l of about 10 per-
cent of f u l l s c a l e w a s t h e r e f o r e chosen t o allow f o r p o s s i b l e experimental e r -
rors caused by such t h i n g s as minor e l e c t r o n i c f l u c t u a t i o n s , s l i g h t v a r i a t i o n s

17
 I

- I
TABLE V. CRACK-MEASURFMENT DATA FOR

6061-T6 ALUMINUM FOR VOLTAGE OUTPUTS PI"

O F 5.5 AND 11 PERCENT O F FULL SCALE Speci-

I
Specimen Crack length,
in.

O E
~

1 0.0005
2 ,0005
3 .0008
4 .0009 0 2 4 6 8 10x10-'
5 .0010 Crack length, in.
6 .0010
Figure 9. - Crack-detection characteristics for M14-T6
7 .0012
aluminum.
8 .0012
9 .0014
10 .0014
11 .0017 i n c r i t i c a l p o s i t i o n i n g of t h e t r a n s d u c e r on
12 .0019 t h e specimen, s l i g h t d i f f e r e n c e s i n crack o r i -
13 .0025 e n t a t i o n , and changes i n coupling e f f i c i e n c y
Average .0012 during t h e t e s t . O f t h e s e sources of p o s s i b l e
e r r o r , t h e changes i n coupling e f f i c i e n c y prob-
a b l y had t h e g r e a t e s t e f f e c t on t h e reproduc-
.14 0.0016 i b i l i t y of c r a c k - d e t e c t i o n data. Since t h e
15 .0017 t r a n s d u c e r w a s mounted on a s t r e s s e d a r e a of
16 .0025
17 .0026 t h e specimen, t h e r e w a s some r e l a t i v e motion
18 .0029 between t h e t r a n s d u c e r and t h e specimen. This
19 .0029 motion could have caused changes i n t h e a b i l i t y
20 .0042
.0044
of t h e f l u i d coupling (molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e )
21
Average .0029 t o t r a n s m i t u l t r a s o n i c waves. These changes
could a c t e i t h e r t o improve or d e t e r i o r a t e t h e
coupling e f f i c i e n c y . For example, i f t h e cou-
) l i n g e f f i c i e n c y were improved b e f o r e a crack formed, t h e instrument might give
an i n d i c a t i o n of crack formation because t h e r e f l e c t e d s i g n a l from t h e notch
would be increased; conversely, i f t h e coupling e f f i c i e n c y d e t e r i o r a t e d , i n d i -
c a t i o n of a crack might be delayed. I n general, changes i n coupling e f f i c i e n c y

Relation between output v o l t a g e and crack l e n g t h w i t h r e f l e c t i o n t e c h -

nique. - The r e l a t i o n between output voltage and crack l e n g t h w a s i n v e s t i g a t e d
f o r two of t h e m a t e r i a l s : 6061-T6 and 2014-T6 aluminum. Table V shows crack-
d e t e c t i o n d a t a f o r specimens of 6061-T6 aluminum a l l o y examined a f t e r i n s t r u -
ment outputs of 5.5 and 11 percent of f u l l s c a l e had been obtained. The aver-
age crack l e n g t h f o r t h e lower output voltage w a s 0.0012 inch, while f o r t h e
h i g h e r output it w a s 0.0029 inch. Thus, it i s evident t h a t t h e output voltage
was d i r e c t l y r e l a t e d t o crack length. The spread i n crack l e n g t h r e l a t i v e t o
t h e average crack length, however, i s g r e a t e r f o r t h e lower voltage output t h a n
f o r t h e higher v o l t a g e output.

The r e l a t i o n between instrument output and crack l e n g t h was f u r t h e r ex-

p l o r e d w i t h 2014-T6 aluminum. Figure 9 shows a p l o t of crack l e n g t h a g a i n s t

18
o u t p u t v o l t a g e for t h i s m a t e r i a l . The crack l e n g t h s were measured on t h e spec-
imen s u r f a c e w i t h a microscope a t a m a g n i f i c a t i o n of 100 while t h e t e s t s p e c i -
men w a s under l o a d i n t h e f a t i g u e machine. The d a t a p o i n t s were t a k e n from
f i v e specimens f a t i g u e d a t d i f f e r e n t stress l e v e l s . The output w a s l i n e a r w i t h
r e s p e c t t o crack l e n g t h over t h e f u l l s c a l e of t h e o s c i l l o g r a p h . The d e v i a t i o n
from t h e curve, r e f e r e n c e d t o f u l l s c a l e (0.008 i n . ) , i s about +25 percent.

For crack l e n g t h s g r e a t e r t h a n 0,010 i n c h t h e r e l a t i o n between o u t p u t v o l -

t a g e and crack l e n g t h was no l o n g e r l i n e a r , and s c a t t e r i n c r e a s e d markedly;
t h e r e f o r e , c a l i b r a t i o n of t h e instrument f o r l o n g e r crack l e n g t h s w i t h t h e r e -
f l e c t i o n technique w a s n o t p o s s i b l e . The d a t a of f i g u r e 9, however, i n d i c a t e
t h a t t h e instrument h a s a t l e a s t a l i m i t e d c a p a b i l i t y f o r s p e c i f y i n g c r a c k
l e n g t h as w e l l as d e t e c t i n g t h e presence of s m a l l f a t i g u e cracks.

g c f e c t of c y c l i c s t r e s s on s e n s i t i v i t y t o presence of s m a l l cracks. Re--

sponses from t h e l o a d c e l l mountgd i n s e r i e s w i t h t h e specimen were recorded
simultaneously w i t h u l t r a s o n i c output voltage. The presence of a crack could
be noted e a r l i e r i n c y c l i c l i f e i f measurements were t a k e n while t h e specimen
w a s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e maximum c y c l i c s t r e s s t h a n while it w a s s u b j e c t e d t o t h e
minimum c y c l i c s t r e s s because t h e a d j a c e n t m e t a l s u r f a c e s c r e a t e d by a s m a l l
crack a r e p u l l e d a p a r t t o a g r e a t e r degree a t maximum l o a d than a t any o t h e r
t e n s i l e load. Consequently, u l t r a s o n i c waves would t e n d t o be r e f l e c t e d a t
high loads; whereas, t h e y would t e n d t o be t r a n s m i t t e d a c r o s s t h e crack i n t e r -
f a c e a t low loads. I n view of t h i s , it appears t h a t output voltage r e a d i n g s
should always coincide w i t h t h e a p p l i e d c y c l i c s t r e s s a t which t h e crack sur-
f a c e s a r e most widely s e p a r a t e d i n o r d e r f o r t h i s instrument t o be o p e r a t e d i n
t h e most e f f i c i e n t manner p o s s i b l e f o r t h e d e t e c t i o n of s m a l l cracks.

General Observations

The f a t i g u e d a t a show t h a t , i n t h e s h a r p l y notched specimens u t i l i z e d ,

cracks were d e t e c t e d w i t h i n 1 to, 3 percent of t h e t o t a l l i f e to f r a c t u r e f o r a l l
m a t e r i a l s t e s t e d over t h e range of s t r e s s e s considered. Although t h e materials
v a r i e d widely i n mechanical p r o p e r t i e s , it w a s n e v e r t h e l e s s p o s s i b l e t o d e t e c t
cracks w i t h t h i s device a t a very s m a l l f r a c t i o n of t h e t o t a l l i f e t o f r a c t u r e .
It should be noted t h a t , although approximately t h e same f r a c t i o n of t o t a l l i f e
t o f r a c t u r e w a s used i n forming t h e f i r s t d e t e c t a b l e cracks i n a l l t h e m a t e r i a l s
i n v e s t i g a t e d , t h e a c t u a l number of c y c l e s r e q u i r e d t o form such cracks v a r i e d
considerably from m a t e r i a l t o m a t e r i a l . This i s e v i d e n t from t a b l e N ( p . 1 4 ) .

I n order t o determine whether t h e u l t r a s o n i c t e s t i n g apparatus had a d e l e -

t e r i o u s e f f e c t on f a t i g u e behavior, specimens of mild s t e e l and 2014-T6 aluminum
were f a t i g u e t e s t e d t o f a i l u r e without t h e t r a n s d u c e r a t t a c h e d . F a t i g u e l i f e
w a s e s s e n t i a l l y i d e n t i c a l w i t h t h a t obtained f o r s i m i l a r l y s t r e s s e d specimens
s u b j e c t e d t o simultaneous u l t r a s o n i c p u l s e s and f a t i g u e t e s t i n g . Thus, t h e e f -
f e c t s of t h e a d d i t i o n a l m a s s a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e t r a n s d u c e r and clamp, t h e p r e s -
ence of molybdenum d i s u l p h i d e on a p o r t i o n of t h e specimen surface, and t h e
a c o u s t i c a l energy a s s o c i a t e d w i t h u l t r a s o n i c t e s t i n g d i d not a d v e r s e l y a f f e c t
fatigue l i f e .

19
 Although t h e u l t r a s o n i c system f o r d e t e c t i n g f a t i g u e cracks developed i n
t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s intended p r i m a r i l y f o r use as a r e s e a r c h t o o l , t h e r e -
s u l t s i n d i c a t e t h a t it may a l s o have a p p l i c a t i o n s f o r f a t i g u e crack d e t e c t i o n
i n t h e f i e l d . For example, t h e notched specimen employed i n t h i s study may be
considered analogous t o c r i t i c a l l y s t r e s s e d a i r p l a n e components containing
stress r i s e r s . By d e t e c t i n g s m a l l f l a w s i n such components while a prototype
a i r p l a n e i s being s u b j e c t e d t o a n t i c i p a t e d f a t i g u e l o a d s on t h e ground, sub-
s t a n t i a l savings i n time might be achieved over cumbersome v i s u a l i n s p e c t i o n
techniques. Similarly, a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e device t o known c r i t i c a l l y s t r e s s e d
s e c t i o n s of an a i r c r a f t a f t e r s p e c i f i e d periods of f l i g h t time might i n d i c a t e
t h e presence of minute cracks e a r l y enough t o allow time f o r remedial measures
t o be taken. F u r t h e r r e s e a r c h i s of course needed t o make t h i s u l t r a s o n i c
crack-detection system s u i t a b l e f o r such p r a c t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n s .

SUMMARY OF RESULTS

An u l t r a s o n i c system was developed and used t o d e t e c t and measure minute

f a t i g u e cracks i n center-notched s h e e t specimens of unalloyed aluminum, two
aluminum a l l o y s , a mild s t e e l , and a nickel-base a l l o y . Both r e f l e c t i o n and
through-transmission techniques were employed. Actual l e n g t h s of d e t e c t e d
cracks were determined by metallographic examination. S t r e s s - l i f e (S-N) curves
of l i f e t o i n i t i a l d e t e c t a b l e crack as w e l l as l i f e t o f r a c t u r e were obtained.

1. With t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique, f a t i g u e cracks t h a t ranged approximately

from 0.0005 t o 0.005 i n c h i n l e n g t h were d e t e c t e d during f a t i g u e t e s t i n g of t h e
more d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l s ( i . e . , pure aluminum, mild s t e e l , and I n c o n e l ) and
cracks ranging approximately from 0.0005 t o 0.0025 inch i n l e n g t h were d e t e c t e d
i n t h e l e s s d u c t i l e m a t e r i a l s (6061-T6 and 2014-T6 aluminum a l l o y s ) .

2. I n t h e sharply notched specimens u t i l i z e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n , cracks

were d e t e c t e d w i t h i n approximately 1 to 3 percent of t o t a l specimen l i f e , f o r
a l l of t h e m a t e r i a l s considered, over t h e range of s t r e s s e s considered.

3. The r e f l e c t i o n technique was more s e n s i t i v e t o t h e d e t e c t i o n of minute

f a t i g u e cracks t h a n t h e through-transmission technique. Thus, it was p o s s i b l e
t o d e t e c t much smaller cracks w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n technique.

4. The through-transmission technique gave c o n s i s t e n t l y reproducible out-

put voltages f o r cracks on t h e order of 0.062 t o 0.082 i n c h i n 2014-T6 aluminum.
This r e p r o d u c i b i l i t y w a s b e t t e r t h a n t h a t obtained w i t h t h e r e f l e c t i o n tech-
nique for s i m i l a r l y long cracks. The through-transmission technique t h u s ap-
pears t o be b e t t e r s u i t e d f o r measuring t h e l e n g t h of cracks g r e a t e r than about
0.010 inch.

5. The e f f e c t s of crack o r i e n t a t i o n on output v o l t a g e with t h e r e f l e c t i o n

technique was s t u d i e d by means of s l o t s machined i n t o f l a t p l a t e s . S l o t sur-
f a c e s normal t o t h e d i r e c t i o n of t h e u l t r a s o n i c waves produced t h e g r e a t e s t out-
put voltage. The f u r t h e r t h e s l o t surface d e v i a t e d from a p o s i t i o n normal t o

20
t h e wave propagation d i r e c t i o n , t h e smaller t h e o u t p u t became, even though t h e
s l o t surface area when p r o j e c t e d on a plane normal t o t h e wave was constant.

L e w i s Research Center,
N a t i o n a l Aeronautics and Space Administration,
Cleveland, Ohio, June 10, 1965.

1. Hunter, M. S.; and Fricke, W. G., Jr. : Metallographic Aspects of F a t i g u e

Behaviour of Aluminum. ASTM Proc., vol. 54, no. 154, 1954, pp. 717-732;
Discussion, pp. 733-736.

2. A n c t i l , A. A.; Kula, E. B.; and DiCesare, E. : E l e c t r i c P o t e n t i a l Technique

f o r Determining Slow Crack Growth. ASTM Proc., vol. 63, 1963, pp. 799-
808.

3. Srawley, John E.; and Brown, W i l l i a m F., Jr. : F r a c t u r e Toughness Testing.

NASA TN D-2599, 1965.

4. Lyst, J. 0.; and Babilon, C. F. : D e t e c t i n g F a t i g u e Cracks i n Notched

F a t i g u e Specimens by Changes i n E l e c t r i c a l Resistance. Materials Res.
and Standards, vol. 2, no. 6, June 1962, p. 485.

5. Carlsson, Janne: Determination of Crack Lengths by Impedance Measurement.

Rept. No. He-988, A e r o n a u t i c a l R e s . I n s t . (Sweden), 1962.

6. Rasmussen, J. G.: P r e d i c t i o n of F a t i g u e F a i l u r e Using U l t r a s o n i c Surface

Waves. J. SOC. for Nondestructive Testing, vol. 20, no. 2, Mar.-Apr.
1962, pp. 103-110.

7. Rublev, Ya. A.; and Danilov, Yu. S. : U l t r a s o n i c D e t e c t i o n of F a t i g u e

Cracks During Repeated S t a t i c T e s t s . I n d u s t r i a l Lab., vol. 29, Apr. 1964,
pp. 1306-1309.

8. Hinsley, J. F. : Non-destructive Testing. MacDonald and Evans Ltd.

(London), 1959.

9. C a r l i n , Benson. : Ultrasonics. Second ed., McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc. ,

1960.

10. Banks, B.; Oldfield, G. E.; and Rawding H.: U l t r a s o n i c Flaw D e t e c t i o n i n

Metals. I l i f f e Books Ltd. (London), 1962.

11. Brosens, P i e r r e J.; Hakimi, Nader A. G.; and Khabbaz, Ghassan R.: Detection
of F a t i g u e Damage w i t h Rayleigh Waves. Rept. No. 60-307, A e r o n a u t i c a l
Res. Labs., Aug. 1960.

21

I1 I I I I I
12. Klima, Stanley J.; Nachtigall, Alfred J.; and Hoffman, Charles A.:
Preliminary Investigation of Effect of Hydrogen on Stress-Rupture and
Fatigue Properties of an Iron-, a Nickel-, and a Cobalt-Base Alloy.
NASA TN D-1458, 1962.

22 NASA-Langley, 1965 E-2965

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