SCANDPOWER Human Resistance

HUMAN RESISTANCE
AGAINST
THERMAL EFFECTS, EXPLOSION EFFECTS,

TOXIC EFFECTS AND OBSCURATION OF VISION
DNV Technica Scandpower A/S

20 March 2001
Report no. Rev. no. 0 Date: 20 March 2001
Report title:
HUMAN RESISTANCE AGAINST THERMAL EFFECTS, EXPLOSION EFFECTS,
TOXIC EFFECTS, AND OBSCURATION OF VISION
Client: STATOIL
Client specification:
Report summary:
A human impact load study was carried by DNV Technica and Scandpower on behalf of Statoil
in september 1993. The main objective of the study was to carry out a state of the art study on
human impact loads and provide a consistent set of human impact load criteria for use in the
fatality assessment in offshore and onshore risk analyses. Human impact load criteria for the
following loads was established:
- High air temperature

- Thermal incident fluxes
- Explosion loads
- Toxic gases
- Obscuration of vision
It should be noted that the different effects should be seen in light of each other in order to
identify the most critical one. However, often fatal situations are a result of a combination of
the above mentioned parameters, together with panic among personnel.
name date signature

Prepared by DNV Technica: 20 March 2001
H. Hundseid
Scandpower:
K O Ingebrigtsen
Reviewed by DNV Technica: 20 March 2001

K. Ulveseter
Scandpower:
B.I. Bakken
Approved by DNV Technica: 20 March 2001
K. Ulveseter
Scandpower:
B.I. Bakken
Human Resistance Page i of i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. DEFINITIONS 2
3. THERMAL EFFECTS 3
3.1 General 3
3.2 Physiological Effects 3
3.3 Pathological Effects 5
4. EFFECTS OF EXPLOSIONS 9
4.1 General 9
4.2 Overpressure 9
4.3 Fragments 10
4.4 Hole Body Displacement 11
5. TOXIC EFFECTS 12
5.1 General 12
5.2 Effects of CO 13
5.3 Effects of CO2 14
5.4 Effects of Oxygen Depletion 15
5.5 Overall Smoke Effects 16
5.6 Effects of Other Gases 18
6. OBSCURATION OF VISION 20
Appendix A: Thermal Effects

Appendix B: Explosion Effects
Appendix C: Toxic Effects
Appendix D: Obscuration of Vision
m:\gdh\sect21\217438\report1.koi\20 March 2001

Human Resistance Page 1 of 21
1. INTRODUCTION
A study of environmental impact on humans was carried by DNV Technica and

Scandpower on behalf of Statoil in september 1993. The main objective of the study was
to carry out a state of the art study on environmental impacts on humans and provide a
consistent set of criteria for use in fatality assessments in offshore and onshore risk
analyses. Impact criteria for the following loads were established:
- High air temperature

- Thermal incident fluxes
- Explosion loads
- Toxic gases
- Obscuration of vision
It should be noted that the different effects should be seen in light of each other in order
to identify the most critical one. However, fatal situations are often a result of a
combination of the above mentioned parameters, together with panic among personnel.
Probit functions, table values and charts which can be used to calculate the fatality rate
for given loads and exposure times are presented in the following. It is important to use
the results from the probit functions, table values and charts as guidance in the fatality
assessment, rather than absolute values.
In the fatality assessment load and exposure time are important parameters.
Consequence calculations should form the basis for the assessment describing loads as
a function of distance and exposure time taken into account shielding effects.
Possibilities for personnel to escape from the accident venue, effect of protective
measures as clothes and smoke masks are important aspects to address in the fatality
assessment. In general offshore personnel will have less possibilities to escape from a
large accident compared to onshore personnel. However, in general onshore personnel
are lightly clothed compared to offshore personnel, making them more vulnerable to e.g
radiation in the immediate vicinity of the accident.

2. DEFINITIONS
LDxx:
The time related dose (heat radiation over time) which would be lethal to xx percent of the
population.
Thermal dose:
The thermal dose is defined by the following equation:
Thermal dose = In*t (Eq. 2.1)
where I is the incident flux (kW/m2), t is the exposure time (seconds) and n is a constant
equal to 4/3.
LCxx:
The time related dose (Concentration over time) which would be lethal to xx percent of
the population.
Toxic dose:
Toxic dose = Cn*t (Eq. 2.2)
where C is the concentration in ppm, t is the exposure time in minutes and n is a

constant.
Probit:
The range of susceptibility in a population to a harmful consequence can be expressed

mathematically using a criterion in the form of an equation which expresses the percen-
tage of a defined population which will suffer a defined level of harm (normally death)
when it is exposed to a specified dangerous load. This is a "Probit" equation which has
the form:
Pr = a + bLn(In*t)
where Pr is the probit (or the probability measure), a,b and n are constants. I is the radia-
tion intensity given in kW/m2 and t is the exposure time in seconds. The probit, Pr, can
be related to percent fatalities using published tables. Table 2.1, Ref. 1, gives the rela-
tionship between the probit Pr and percent fatalities.
TABLE 2.1: Relationship between the Probit Pr and Percent Fatlities

3. THERMAL EFFECTS
3.1 General
The main effects of high air temperature or incident heat fluxes is of physiological
and pathological art. The impact criteria contained in this section relate to impact
from short and long duration of high air temperature which may cause heat stress
resulting in fatal outcome and of thermal radiation which may cause first, second,
third degree burns or fatal outcome.
Inside living quarters, control rooms or other compartments where personnel

should be safe in a fire situation, the air temperature may become too high leading
to physiological effects on humans such as difficulties with breath resulting in
incapacitation, high pulse or core temperature leading to collapse. In most cases
the air temperature inside the enclosures will not be sufficiently high for that patho-
logical effects such as skin burns to be dominant. However, during escape or at
the evacuation stations personnel may be directly exposed to the fire and thermal
radiation may be more critical than the air temperature and pathological effects will
be dominant.
Type of fire, the distance from the fire and the timeof exposure are very important
parameters in the assessment of fatalities. On an offshore platform it is believed
that personnel will be exposed to a fire for a longer time due to short distances and
more time is needed to evacuate the platform than on an onshore installation.
However, in general offshore personnel are more protectively clothed than onshore
personnel, making them more resistant against thermal radiation.
The majorities of the data are given for lightly clothed personnel which is
representative for onshore personnel. However, some data are also presented for
well clothed personnel which is representative for offshore situations.
Thermal effects is described in detail in Appendix A.
3.2 Physiological Effects
Most physiological effects of thermal radiation onto man involve voluntary exposures
which are relatively lengthy, i.e. at least several minutes. However, inside living quarters,
control rooms or other types of compartments exposed to fire where personnel may stay
for a period of time, they will be exposed to low thermal radiation levels and instead high
air temperature may become the most critical parameter.
Personal trapped inside a helicopter due to a fire following a helicopter crash may be on
excample of a fire where high temperature and not heat radiation becomes critical.
Table 3.1 adopted from Ref. /A.2/ indicates some Physiological Effects of elevated tem-
perature levels on the human individual based on full-scale fire tests.

TABLE 3.1: Elevated Temperature Response on Human Individuals, Ref. /A.2/

Temperature Physiological Response
(oC)
127 Difficult breathing
140 5-min tolerance limit
149 Mouth breathing difficult, temperature limit for escape
160 Rapid, unbearable pain with dry skin
182 Irreversible injury in 30 seconds
203 Respiratory systemes tolerance time less than four
minutes with wet skin
Elevated temperatures have influence on the pulse rate, Ref. /A.3/. The pulse rate climbs
steadily with time and air temperature. The pulse jumps from normal 84 to 120 beats a
minute when the air temperature increases to 100 oC. It further increases to 150
beats/minute after 10 minutes at an air temperature of 113 oC.
In general the maximum air temperature that can be tolerated by the human respiratory
tract is approximately 203 oC, Ref. /A.3/. Above air temperatures of 150 oC, the impact is
dominated by pain from skin burns, which occur in less than 5 minutes. Between air
temperatures of 70 - 150 oC, the impact is dominated by difficulties to breath. It is be-
lieved that below 70 oC the situation inside a compartment will not be fatal, but may of
course lead to an uncomfortable situation for personnel. No probit function has been
developed on this matter, hence special assessment must be made to calculate the
fatality rate among trapped personnel inside compartments if the temperature inside rises
to between 70 - 150 oC. The average time to incapacitation has been proposed as
follows for temperatures between 70 - 150 oC, Ref. /A.3/:
t = 5.33*108/[(T)3.66] (Eq. 3.1)
where
t = exposure time (minutes)

T = temperature (oC)
This equation is also illustrated in Figure 3.1.

FIGURE 3.1: Air Temperature Hazard Limit Curve, Ref. /A.3/
With temperatures of 70 oC and 150 oC inside a compartment, time to incapacitation may

be 94 minutes and 6 minutes respectively based on the above presented equation and
curve.
3.3 Pathological Effects
Pathological effects on humans are relevant to address in the immediate vicinity of the
accident, on unshielded escape ways and evacuation stations and inside enclosures if
radiation becomes a dominant factor (above 150 oC). Pathological effects covered in this
section are:
- Pain
- First degree burns
- Second degree burns
- Third degree burns
- Fatal burns.
Thermal doses required to reach second degree burns and third degree burns are
approximately the same doses as 1% fatality and 50 % fatality respectively to averagely
dressed exposers.
The severity of an injury from heat is determined by the depth of skin to which a tempera-

ture difference of 9 K has occurred. The following burn types are reached for different
depths of skin:

First degree burns < 0.12 mm

Second degree burns <2 mm
Third degree burns >2 mm
Thickness of skin varies from more than 5 mm on the back to only 0.5 mm on the eyelids,
but on average is between 1-2 mm.
In the assessment of fatality rates on an offshore or onshore installation it is important to

take into account the following factors:
- Information prior to fire (alarms)

- Development of accidents
- Personnel reaction time
- Emergency procedures
- Escape time,
- Shielding effects,
- Radiation levels as a function of time,
- Total exposure time,
- Other critical aspects like visibility, toxic gases, explosion loads etc.
In Table 3.2 ranges of thermal doses required to give pain and burns are given, based on
the different sources presented in Appendix A. For a given radiation level or a given ex-
posure time, time or necessary radiation level to pain, first, second or third degree can be
calculated by use of the thermal doses presented in Table 3.2 and equation 2.1 in
Chapter 2.
TABLE 3.2: Ranges of Thermal Doses required to give Pain, Burns and Fatal Outcome
Effect Thermal dose Comments/references
(s*[kW/m2]4/3)
Pain 108 - 127 Ref. /A.4/, bare skin
85 - 129 Ref. /Gas De France/, bare
skin
Significant injury level/ 600 - 800 Ref. /A.7/, bare skin
First degree burns
skin
210 - 700 Ref. /A.12/, bare skin
Second degree burns/ 900 - 1300 Ref. /A.9/,bare skin
1 % lethality level for
average clothing
500 - 3000 Ref. /A.12/, bare skin
Third degree burns/ > 2000 - 3000 Ref. /A.12/, bare skin
50 % lethality level for
average clothing

The fatality rate when personnel is exposed to thermal radiation over a given period of
time can be calculated by use of probit functions. Several probit functions have been
developed based on experiments carried out on animals and humans. The most known
probit functions are the Eisenberg function, Ref. /A.8/, for naked skin and the TNO
function, Ref. /A.11/, for naked skin. The Eisenberg probit function is based on
experiments carried out at nuclear explosions. The TNO model is based on the
Eisenberg probit function adjusted for experiments carried out at hydrocarbon fires.
Compared to the probit function from Eisenberg the TNO model for naked human skin
comes up with higher fatality rate. The thermal dose required for a given lethality level is
in general lower for hydrocarbon fires than for nuclear explosions, because radiation from
hydrocarbon fires is long waved penetrating deeper into the skin compared to the
radiation from nuclear explosions which is short waved. It is believed that the TNO model
is more suitable for use in the estimation of fatality levels than the Eisenberg model in
typical offshore and onshore risk analyses where personnel are directly exposed to the
fire, because the TNO model is based on hydrocarbon fires. However, the calculated
fatality rates should be used as guidance in the fatality assessment more than as
absolute values.
The TNO model, ref. /A.11/ is as follows:
Naked human skin: Pr = -12.8 + 2.56(tl4/3) (Eq. 3.1)
The calculated fatality rates for different thermal incident fluxes and exposure times by
use of the TNO probit function presented above are shown in Table 3.3.
TABLE 3.3: Fatality Rate as a Function of Radiation Level and Exposure Time
TNO probit model
Exposure time (Naked human skin, Eq. 3.1)
(seconds) Fatality rate (%)
10 kW/m2 20 kW/m2 30 kW/m2
10 0 5 39
20 1 53 93
30 11 87 100
40 31 97 100
50 53 99 100
60 71 100 100
If the probit function is not directly used in the fatality assessment, it is recommended to
use the following radiation levels for lightly clothed personnel as 100 % fatality limit in the
below given exposure time intervals:

16 kW/m2 - Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

10 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 0.5 minute to 1 minute
4 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 1 minute to 2 minutes
2 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 2 minutes to 10 minutes
The critical radiation levels are based on the TNO probit function assuming that the 50 %
fatality limit represents the lethal dose for an average person and that incapacitation
occurs close to the lethal dose, i.e. 75 % of the LD50 is set as the incapacitation dose
here. This corresponds to 81 % of the lethal incident radiation flux.
For clothed personnel the Neisser curve, Ref. /A.12/ is recommended to use assuming
that the 50 % fatality limit represents the lethal dose for an average person and that
incapacitation occurs close to the lethal dose, i.e. 75 % of the LD50 is set as the incapaci-
tation dose. This corresponds to 81 % of the lethal incident radiation flux. It is re-
commended to use the following radiation levels for clothed personnel as 100 % fatality
limit in the below given exposure time intervals:
25 kW/m2 - Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

13 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 0.5 to 1 minute
8 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 1 minute to 2 minutes
4 kW/m2 - Exposure time from 2 minutes to 10 minutes
The approach assumes a constant heat load over the exposure period. In reality, most
fires will initially expand and then decay with time, and thus the radiation received at any
given point will also be a function of time. A full integration of the dose received may be
performed if greater detail is required.

4. EFFECTS OF EXPLOSIONS
4.1 General
People can survive fairly strong blast waves and in accidental explosions there are very
few cases in which the blast effect has killed people directly. Typical injuries following an
explosion are caused by
- burn
- hitting fragments
- buildings or other structures falling down or being disintegrated
- persons falling or "flying" and subsequently hitting a solid object (Whole body dis-
placement).
Appendix B presents a detailed presentation of the different effects from an explosion

and can be used in a detailed consequence study. Most of the background of the mate-
rial presented in Appendix B are based on tests performed by explosives and not HC
explosions. This must be taken into account when the formulas and figures from
Appendix B are used.
Important parameters for determining the effects and the risk from an explosion are
- maximum overpressure
- time to reach the maximum overpressure
- indoor or outdoor exposure of people
- possibility at flying fragments
- designed pressure sustainability of building.
In a risk analysis the most important effects are
- flying fragments hitting personal

- to hole body displacement resulting in impact damage
- damage due to impact coused by collapsed structures
4.2 Overpressure
Figure 4.1 shows lethality as function of overpressure and duration of the blast wave. If
the long axis of body is parallel to blast winds and the subject is facing any direction the
acceptable overpressure will increase. If the thorax is near a reflecting surface that is
perpendicular to the blast winds the acceptable overpressure will decrease.

FIGURE 4.1: Survival Curves for Man
For comparison a blast wave in the order of 25 kPa to 50 kPa is the threshold for
eardrum perforation. For more information about lethality see Appendix B.
4.3 Fragments
Flying fragments from en explosion are more dangerous than the bare overpressure.
Fragments may be debris from demolished buildings caused by the explosion or loose
equipment in the building.
Fragments from glass breakage is a very common type of serious and extreme
dangerous type of fragments, possibility for glass fragments must be determined during
an analysis of explosion effects. The pressure needed for breakage of conventional
glass is:
- 1 % level glass breakage ∆ppeak = 1.7 kPa

Table 4.1 shows the expected effects of flying missiles from an explosion.

TABLE 4.1: Injuries from Missiles

Injury Peak overpressure Impact velocity Impulse
(kPa / bar) (m/s) (N s/m2)
Skin laceration threshold 7 - 15 / 15 512
0.07 - 0.15
Serious wound threshold 15 - 20 / 30 1024
0.15 - 0.2
Serious wounds near 50 % 25 - 35 / 55 1877
probability 0.25 - 0.35
4.4 Hole Body Displacement
Explosion effects also involve whole-body displacements and subsequent impact. During
the whole-body displacement, blast overpressure and impulses interact with the body in
such a manner that it is essentially picked up and translated.
The head is the most vulnerable part of the body for injuries from whole-body displace-
ment. The whole-body displacement (accelerations) is a function of the size, shape and
mass of the person and the blast forces.
50 % of the people being picked up and translated with a speed more than 0.6 m/s
will suffer minor injuries. One percent of those with a speed of about 4 m/s will suffer in-
juries like ruptured organs and bone fractures. If thrown against a solid wall about 40 %
will suffer major injuries.
Table 4.2 shows the expected effects from hole body displacement.
TABLE 4.2: Criteria for Tertial Damage involving Total Body Impact
Total body impact tolerance Related impact velocity
(m/s)
Most "Safe" 3.05
Lethality Threshold 6.40
Lethality 50 % 16.46
Lethality Near 100 % 42.06

5. TOXIC EFFECTS
5.1 General
Effect of toxic gases can be divided into two categories:
- Local irritant which may cause incapacitation mainly by effects on the eyes and the
upper respiratory tract which may impair escape capability and sometimes cause
delayed death due to lung damage
- Systematically acting agents which cause damage to the body via the blood and
distribution in the body, so called narcotic gases.
The main toxic gases of fire effluents are carbon monoxide, (CO), carbon dioxide, (CO2),
hydrogen sulphide, (H2S), nitrogen oxides, (NOx), ammonia, (NH3), sulphur dioxide, (SO2)
and hydrogen fluoride, (HF). CO and CO2 are classified as narcotic gases, while the
other are classified as irritants. The individual effects of CO, CO2 and O2 depletion are
discussed in detail, before the combined effect of all is derived. The effect of irritants are
also discussed in this section.
Although CO is not the most toxic of the above mentioned gases, it is present in relatively
high concentrations in smoke, and so its effects are usually dominant.
There is a lot of uncertainties in the calculation of amount of smoke produced in a fire

situation and amount of toxic gases in the smoke. This depends on type of burning fuel
and ventilation conditions.
The proportion of toxic gases in smoke depends on the chemical structure of the burning
materials and the degree of ventilation to the fire. The differences between different
hydrocarbons are quite small, and ventilation has the main effect. Fires in which the ven-
tilation is restricted occurs only for fires in modules or compartments. These fires will
either be fuel controlled or ventilation controlled. In general, reduced ventilation greatly
increases the ratio of CO, while the O2 and the CO2 remain more or less unaffected.
Typical gas concentrations close to the fire are given in Table 5.1 collated by Bonn, Ref.
/C.2/, based on Ref. /C.3/, /C.4/ and /C.5/.

TABLE 5.1: Initial Gas Concentrations in Smoke, Ref. /C.2/

Gas Concentration in smoke (%)
Well ventilated fire Under ventilated fire
Gas fire Liquid fire Gas fire Liquid fire
CO 0.04 0.08 3 3.1
CO2 10.9 11.8 8.2 9.2
O2 0 0 0 0
On an onshore installation the possibilities to escape from the accident are greater than
on an offshore installation. Based on this offshore personnel will be exposed to toxic
gases over a longer time period leading to in general lower acceptable concentrations
than on an onshore installation.
The consequences of inhalation of toxic chemicals can only be derived from animal ex-
periments. The uncertainties in translating animal data to data relevant for humans are
large and therefore "safety factors" are included in the modelling. In general animals
have a higher adsorption rate and humans have a higher respiratory rate in accident
situations.
Toxic effects are discussed in detail in Appendix C.
5.2 Effects of CO
Extensive investigations examining human fire fatalities have shown carbon monoxide to
be the primary toxicant in many deaths due to smoke inhalation, Ref. /C.6/ and /C.7/.
The toxicity of carbon monoxide is due to the formation of blood carboxyhemoglobin,
which results in a reduced ability of the blood to transport oxygen to critical body organs
referred to as anaemic anoxia. There exist further evidence that relatively low levels of
carboxyhemoglobin saturation may have adverse effects on reaction time which is impor-
tant to escape from a fire. The toxicity of carbon monoxide may be modified by heat
stresses. Experiments on test animals under heat stress showed that blood carboxyhe-
moglobin concentrations at the time of death were much lower than in animals not
stressed by heat.
The following physiological effects on human individuals from carbon monoxide is given
below based on Ref. /C.9/:
1500 ppm Headache after 15 minutes, collapse after 30 minutes,

death after 1 hour
2000 ppm Headache after 10 minutes, collapse after 20 minutes,

death after 45 minutes
3000 ppm Maximum "safe" exposure for 5 minutes, danger of collapse

in 10 minutes

6000 ppm Headache and dizziness in 1 to 2 minutes, danger of death

in 10 to 15 minutes
12800 ppm Immediate effect, unconscious after 2 to 3 breaths, danger

of death in 1 to 3 minutes
The above presented effects of CO indicates that with several thousand ppm of CO in the
atmosphere will cause very critical situations on an offshore installation or an onshore
installation.
Several probit functions have been developed based on experiments data from animals.
They are presented in Appendix C. However, the following probit function is recommen-
ded to use in the fatality assessment, Ref. /C.12/:
Pr = -37.98 + 3.7ln(C*t) (Eq. 5.1)
In Table 5.2 the lethality levels for different CO concentrations and exposure times by use
of the probit equation are presented. In this table also the necessary CO concentrations
and exposure time for a 50 % lethality level are presented.
TABLE 5.2: Lethality Level for Different CO Concentrations and Exposure Times by
Use of the Recommended Probit Function
Fatality rate (%)
Probit Function Concentration/exposure
time for 50 % lethality
2000 ppm 6000 ppm 10000 ppm
10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes
exposure exposure exposure
Eq. 5.1 0 1.5 35 2000 ppm 54 min
4000 ppm 27 min
6000 ppm 18 min
8000 ppm 13 min
10 000 ppm 11 min
Based on a 50 % lethality level it can be concluded that the probit function is more or less
consistent with the previous presented threshold limits.
5.3 Effects of CO2
While carbon dioxide is not particular toxic at levels normally observed in fires, moderate
concentrations do stimulate the rate of breathing. This condition may contribute to the
overall hazard of a fire gas environment by causing accelerated uptake of toxicants and
irritants. The rate and depth of breathing are increased 50 % by 20 000 ppm carbon dio-
xide and doubled by 30 000 ppm carbon dioxide in air. At 50 000 ppm, breathing

becomes laboured and difficult for some individuals, although this concentration of
carbon dioxide has been inhaled for up to one hour without serious aftereffects.
Table 5.3 illustrates carbon dioxide responses, Ref. /C.15/.
TABLE 5.3: Carbon Dioxide Responses, Ref. /C.15/

Concentration of carbon dioxide Responses
(ppm)
100 000 Approaches threshold of unconsciousness in 30 minutes
120 000 Threshold of unconsciousness reached in 5 minutes
150 000 Exposure limit 1 minutes
200 000 Unconsciousness occurs in less than 1 minute
These values are also referred to in Ref. /C.10/.
No probit functions have been found in the literature describing the lethality level of diffe-
rent CO2 concentrations and exposure time. Based on this the following 100 % fatal
limits of CO2 are recommended to use for different exposure times:
150 000 ppm of CO2 Exposure time < 5 minutes

120 000 ppm of CO2 Exposure time 5 - 30 minutes
100 000 ppm of CO2 Exposure time > 30 minutes
5.4 Effects of Oxygen Depletion
Oxygen constitutes 21 % by volume of clean air. Decreases in oxygen concentration

down to about 15 % are counteracted by the body increasing the flow of blood to the
brain, and only minor effects on motor coordination are apparent.
Oxygen concentrations below 15 % by volume produce oxygen starvation effects such as

increased breathing, faulty judgement and rapid onset of fatigue.
Oxygen concentrations below 10 % cause rapid loss of judgement and comprehension

followed by loss of consciousness, leading to death within a few minutes. This is taken to
be the limiting oxygen concentration for escape lasting a few seconds. If escape is not
possible within few seconds, incapacitation and death is assumed to occur.
Oxygen concentrations of 10 % and 15 % require a clean air content in the mixing gas of
47 % and 71 % respectively. These would be achieved when the gas is diluted to 52 %
and 29 % respectively of its concentration. A gas concentration of 52 % would cause
death unless escape is possible in a few seconds.
Table 5.4 indicates the responses of human individuals to different reduced levels of
oxygen in air, Ref. /C.15/.

TABLE 5.4: Human Responses due to reduced Levels of Oxygen in Air, Ref. /C.15/
Concentration of oxygen in air Responses
(%)
11 Headache, dizziness, early fatigue, tolerance
time 30 minutes
9 Shortness of breath, quickened pulse, slight
cyanosis, nausea, tolerance time 5 minutes
7 Above symptoms becomes serious, stupor
sets in, unconsciousness occurs tolerance
time 3 minutes
6 Heart contractions stop 6 to 8 minutes after
respiration stops
3-2 Death occurs within 45 seconds
No probit functions are found in the literature describing the lethality level for personnel
when exposed to different concentrations of oxygen in the air and exposure time.
Based on this the following fatal limits of O2 depletion are recommended to use for
different exposure times:
10 % of O2 Exposure time < 5 minutes

15 % of O2 Exposure time > 5 minutes
5.5 Overall Smoke Effects
The combined effects of CO, CO2 and oxygen depletion are the main causes of
fatalities in smoke. The criteria for them are compared in Table 5.5. For the under
ventilated fires, CO has the main effect, which depends strongly on exposure time. For
well-ventilated fires, CO production is much reduced and oxygen depletion appear to
have main effect.

TABLE 5.5: Smoke Concentration to prevent Escape in Few Minutes

Smoke concentration (%) to prevent escape in few minutes
Gas
CO - - 33 32
CO2 92 85 - -
O2 56 56 56 56
Comb. effects 52 48 19 18
Based on this the following concentrations of smoke may cause very critical situations
(nearly 100 % fatality rate) among exposed personnel after few seconds:
52 % of smoke in well ventilated gas fuelled fires

48 % of smoke in well ventilated liquid fuelled fires
19 % in under ventilated gas fuelled fires
18 % in under ventilated liquid fuelled fires
The combined effects of CO, CO2 and oxygen depletion are a difficult task and the
above presented values should be used as guidance only to identify the problem.

5.6 Effects of Other Gases
Table 5.6 illustrates the effects likely to be experienced by humans exposed to various
concentrations of H2S.
TABLE 5.6: Effects on People exposed to H2S

Concentration Effect
(ppm)
20 - 30 Conjunctivitis
50 Objection to light after 4 hours exposure. Lacrimation
150 - 200 Objection to light, irritation of mucous membranes, headache
200 - 400 Slight symptoms of poisoning after several hours
250 - 600 Pulmonary edema and bronchial pneumonia after prolonged exposure
500 - 1000 Painful eye irritation, vomiting.
1000 Immediate acute poisoning
1000 - 2000 Lethal after 30 to 60 minutes
> 2000 Acute lethal poisoning
Several probit functions have been developed based on experiments data from
animals. They are presented in Appendix C. However, the following probit function,
Ref. /C.21/, is recommended to use in the fatality assessment:
Pr = -31.42 + 3.008ln(C1.43*t) (Eq. 5.2)
The probit function is to some degree more conservative than the values presented in
Table 5.6.
The toxicological effects of NOx, NH3, SO2 and HF are given in Table 5.7.
TABLE 5.7: Toxicological Effects of NOx, NH3, SO2 and HF, Ref. /C.16/
Toxicant Toxicological Effects
NOx Strong pulmonary irritant capable of causing
immediate death as well as delayed injury
NH3 Pungent, unbearable odour; irritant to eyes and nose
SO2 A strong irritant, intolerable well below lethal
concentrations
HF Respiratory irritants
In Table 5.8 predicted lethal concentrations for humans and published values are

given.
TABLE 5.8: Predicted Lethal Concentrations for Humans and published Values,
Ref. /C.17/
Toxicant Human LC50 (ppm) predicted from metabolic rate Human lethal con-
centrations (ppm)
Ref. /16/
5-min 30-min
NH3 55 000 2 000
SO2 17 000 8 000 600 - 800 (few min)
HF 44 000 4 600
NOx 410 180 250 (few min)
Several probit functions have been developed for NH3, SO2, and HF. Below probit
function for each of these gases are presented to use in the fatality assessment:
NH3, Ref. /C.18/:

Pr = -9.82 + 0.71ln(C2*t), LC50 = 15 240 ppm,
5 minutes exposure (Eq. 5.3)
SO2, ref/C.19/:
Pr = -15.67 + 2.1ln(C*t), LC50 = 3 765 ppm,
HF, ref/C.20/:
Pr = -48.33 + 4.853ln(C*t), LC50 = 11 845 ppm,
No probit model is found in the literature for NOx.
The presented LC50 values for NH3, SO2, and HF in Table 5.7 is not so conservative as
the LC50 values received at by use of the probit functions.

6. OBSCURATION OF VISION
The absence of vision may delay or prevent escape from fires and cause people to be
exposed to the fire gases for an unacceptable long period of time. While the exposure
to high concentrations of toxic and hot gases usually will be significant only in the
vicinity of the fire, the effect of reduced visibility may also be significant far away from
the fire source. For example, in multi-compartment buildings, the smoke blocking
effect may be significant in rooms far away from the room of fire origin.
Moreover, the smoke blocking effect is reported to be the first condition becoming
critical of the three hazardous conditions of fires i.e. heat stresses, obscuration of
vision, toxic effects.
The hazard of smoke is characterized by three factors. The first threat is reduced visi-
bility due to soot. The second is that hot smoke can cause pain and injuries, and the
third is that a concentration of toxic and irritating components can lead to incapacitation
or death. The relative order of these factors can be found by comparison of threshold
values with actual exposure in a fire scenario.
A visibility of 4-5 m is about the threshold of diminished performance, and this is the
smoke level that one should have in mind when designing smoke ventilation systems.
A visibility of less than one arm length will be of no help at all when escaping from a fire
environment.
Important factors to consider in a risk analysis with regard to obscuration of vision (and
time to escape) are
- exposure to smoke
- arrangement of escapeways (layout, sign, illumination, railing, etc.)
- training of personnel
- familiarization with the installation.
Obscuration of vision is described in detail in Appendix D.

1.

APPENDIX A
THERMAL EFFECTS
Appendix A: Thermal Effects Page i of i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
A1.INTRODUCTION A-1
A2.DEFINITIONS A-2
A3.PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS A-3
A4.PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS A-5
A5.CONCLUSIONS A-12
REFERENCES A-15
m:\gdh\sect21\217438\app-a.ver\20 March 2001

Appendix A: Thermal Effects Page A-1 of 15
A1.INTRODUCTION
The objective of this appendix is to provide a consistent set of human impact heat load criteria
for use in offshore and onshore risk analyses in the fatality assessment. The two main
effects of high air temperature or incident heat fluxes are of physiological and patho-
logical art. The impact criteria contained in this appendix relate to impact from short and
long duration of high air temperature which may cause heat stress resulting in fatal
outcome and of thermal radiation which may cause first, second, third degree burns or
fatal outcome.
Inside living quarters, control rooms or other compartments where personnel in reality should
be safe in a fire situation, the air temperature may become too high leading to physio-
logical effects on humans such as difficulties with breath resulting in incapacitation, high
pulse or core temperature leading to collapse. In most cases the air temperature inside
the enclosures will not be sufficiently high for that pathological effects such as skin burns
to be dominant. However, during escape or on the evacuation stations personnel may be
directly exposed to the fire and thermal radiation may be more critical than the air
temperature and pathological effects will be dominant.
It should be noted that the effect of heat loads on humans should be seen in light of other
critical effects as poor visibility, high concentration of toxic gases, explosion loads etc. in
order to identify the most critical one. However, often fatal situations are a result of a
combination of the above mentioned parameters together with panic among personnel.
The fatality rates for different high air temperatures/thermal radiation levels and
exposure times, presented in this appendix should be used as a guidance in the
assessment of fatalities, rather than absolute values.
A substantial body of experimental data exists and forms the basis for effect estimation of high
air temperatures and thermal radiation. Two approaches are used:
-Simple tabulations or charts based on experimental results

-Theoretical models based on the physiology of skin burn response.
To assess the chances of escape and survival it is relevant to address the following points:
-How high air temperature is needed inside an enclosure in order to cause incapacitation?
-How extensive and of what degree does a burn injury need to be incapable or disable?
-How quickly does any incapacitation/disability take effect?
Type of fire, distance from the fire and the exposure time are very important parameters in the
assessment of fatalities. On an offshore platform it is believed that personnel will be
exposed to a fire for a longer time due to short distances and more time needed to eva-
cuate the platform than on an onshore installation where they can run away until they are
no longer exposed to the fire. However, in general offshore personnel are more clothed
than onshore personnel better protecting them against thermal radiation.
The majority of data are given for lightly clothed personnel which are representative for onshore
personnel. However, some data are also presented for well clothed personnel which are
representative for offshore personnel.

A2.DEFINITIONS
The severity of an injury from heat is determined by the depth of skin to which a temperature
difference of 9 K has occurred. The following burn types are reached for different depth
of skin, Ref. /A.13/:
First degree burns < 0.12mm

Second degree burns < 2mm
Third degree burns>2mm
Thickness of skin varies from more than 5 mm on the back to only 0.5 mm on the eyelids, but
on average is between 1-2 mm.
LDxx:
The time related dose (heat radiation over time) which would be lethal to xx percent of the
population.
Thermal dose:
The thermal dose is defined by the following equation:
Thermal dose = In*t
where I is the incident flux (kW/m2), t is the exposure time (seconds) and n is a constant equal
to 4/3.
Probit:
The range of susceptibility in a population to a harmful consequence can be expressed mathe-

matically using a criterion in the form of an equation which expresses the percentage of a
defined population which will suffer a defined level of harm (normally death) when it is
exposed to a specified dangerous load. This is a "Probit" equation which has the form:
Pr = a + bLn(In*t)
where Pr is the probit (or the probability measure), a,b and n are constants. I is the radiation
intensity given in kW/m2 and t is the exposure time in seconds. The probit, Pr, can be
related to percent fatalities using published tables. Table A.1, Ref. /A.1/, gives the
relationship between the probit Pr and percent fatalities.

TABLE A.1: Relationship between the Probit Pr and Percent Fatalities
A3.PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Most physiological effects of thermal radiation on man involve voluntary exposures which are
relatively lengthy, i.e. at least many minutes. The characteristics effects involve high
pulse rate, increased and laboured respiration, high sweat losses and increased body
core temperature. These effects can be precipitated to a degree by increasing the inci-
dent heat flux but eventually tolerance becomes pain/burn injury limiting as pathological
effects start to predominate. However, inside living quarters, control rooms or other types
of compartments exposed to fire where personnel may stay for a period of time high air
temperature may become a critical parameter instead of thermal radiation.
Table A.2 adopted from Ref. /A.2/ indicates some physiological effects of elevated temperature
levels on the human individual based on full-scale fire tests.
TABLE A.2: Elevated Temperature Response on Human Individuals, Ref. /A.2/

Temperature (oC) Physiological response
127 Difficult breathing
140 5-min tolerance limit
149 Mouth breathing difficult, temperature limit for
escape
160 Rapid, unbearable pain with dry skin
182 Irreversible injury in 30 seconds
203 Respiratory systems tolerance time less than
four minutes with wet skin

Elevated temperatures have influence on the pulse rate, Ref. /A.3/. It climbs steadily with time
and air temperature. The pulse jumps from normal 84 to 120 beats a minute when the air
temperature increase to 100 oC. It further increases to 150 beats/minutes after 10
minutes at an air temperature of 113 oC.
In general the maximum air temperature that can be tolerated by the human respiratory tract is
approximately 203 oC, Ref. /A.3/. Above air temperatures of 150 oC, the impact is
dominated by pain from burns to skin, which occur in less than 5 minutes. Between air
temperatures of 70 - 150 oC, the impact is dominated by difficulties to breath. It is
believed that under 70 oC the situation inside a compartment will not be fatal, but of
course may lead to an uncomfortable situation for personnel. No probit function has
been developed on this matter, hence special assessment must be carried out to calcu-
late the fatality rate among trapped personnel inside compartments if the temperature in-
side arises to between 70 - 150 oC. The average time to incapacitation has been pro-
posed as follows for temperatures between 70 - 150 oC, Ref. /A.3/:
t = 5.33*108/[(T)3.66] (Eq. A.3.1)
where
t=exposure time (minutes)

T=temperature (oC)
This equation is also illustrated in Figure A.1.
FIGURE A.1: Air Temperature Hazard Limit Curve, Ref. /A.3/

With a temperature of 70 oC and 150 oC inside a compartment, time to incapacitation may be

94 minutes and 6 minutes respectively based on the above presented equation and
curve.
The temperature increase inside a compartment should be carried out by use of well-known
temperature response programs.
A4.PATHOLOGICAL EFFECTS
Pathological effects on humans are relevant to address in the immediate vicinity of the acci-
dent, on unshielded escape ways and evacuation stations and inside enclosures if radia-
tion becomes a dominant factor (above 150 oC). Pathological effects covered in this
section are:
-Pain
-First degree burns
-Second degree burns
-Third degree burns
-Fatal burns.
Thermal doses required to reach second degree burns and third degree burns are approxi-
mately the same doses as 1 % fatality and 50 % fatality respectively to averagely dressed
exposers.
API RP 521, Ref. /A.4/, provides a short review of the effect of thermal radiation on people.
This is based on the experiments of Stoll, Ref. /A.5/ and Buettner, Ref. /A.6/. The data on
time for pain threshold is summarized in Table A.3. It is stated that burns follow the pain
threshold "fairly quickly". It should be noted that the values presented in Table A.3 are for
bare skin and may be representative for lightly clothed personnel. Higher pain threshold
limits are expected for clothed personnel.

TABLE A.3:Exposure Times necessary to reach the Pain Threshold on Bare Skin, Ref. /A.1/
Time to pain threshold Radiation intensity
(seconds) (kW/m2)
60 1.74
40 2.33
30 2.90
16 4.73
9 6.94
6 9.46
4 11.67
2 19.87
As can be seen from Table A.3 the pain threshold for bare skin is reached fairly quickly.
However, longer exposure times are required for the given radiation levels for that the
situation to become fatal.
Mudan, Ref. /A.7/, summarizes the data of Eisenberg et al., Ref. /A.8/ for a range of burn
injuries, including fatality, and of Mixter, Ref. /A.9/, for second-degree burns in Figure A.2
for bare skin. It should be noted that presented values are for bare skin.
FIGURE A.2: Serious Injury/Fatality Levels for Thermal Radiations

In Figure A.2 significant injury threshold, first degree burn, is reached after 40 seconds and 10
seconds for incident thermal fluxes of 10 kW/m2 and 20 kW/m2 respectively. This figure
indicates that the time from pain threshold to significant injury threshold is very limited.
From Figure A.2 it can be seen that second degree burn is reached after about 50 seconds and
20 seconds with a thermal incident flux of 10 kW/m2 and 20 kW/m2 respectively. A 50 %
fatality limit is reached after 100 seconds and 80 seconds for a thermal incident flux of 10
kW/m2 and 20 kW/m2 respectively. This also demonstrates the importance of the
exposure duration; small time differences may lead to different consequences for a given
radiation level. Based on this it is important in the fatality assessment to take into
account that the radiation level from process fires often will be reduced with time due to
reduction in flame sizes as a result of reduced leak rates as pressure decreases in the
leaking segment.
Eisenberg et al., Ref. /A.7/, has developed a probit model to estimate injury levels for a given
thermal dose from pool and flash fires, based on nuclear explosion data. The Eisenberg
probit model is as follows for bare skin:
Pr = -14.9 + 2.56ln(tI4/3) (Eq. A.4.1)
From Figure A.2 the flux levels corresponding to 50 % fatalities for 10 and 100 s are 90 and 14
kW/m2, respectively. Using the probit model developed by Eisenberg the flux levels
corresponding to 50 % fatalities for 10 and 100 s are 61 kW/m2 and 11 kW/m2 respec-
tively. These radiation levels differ from those in Figure A.2 by about 30 %. It is stated in
the literature that it is unlikely that much greater accuracy can be achieved,
Ref. /A.10/.
TNO in the Netherlands has developed one probit model for naked human skin, which is as
follows:
Naked human skin: Pr = -12.8 + 2.56ln(tI4/3) (Eq. A.4.2)
The model is based on the Eisenberg probit function adjusted for experiments carried out on
hydrocarbon fires.
Compared to the probit function to Eisenberg the TNO model come up with higher fatality rate.
This is said that it is based on the differences between radiation from nuclear explosions
(UV radiation) which is short waved and from fires of hydrocarbons and similar (infra-ref
radiation) which is long waved. The long waved radiation has a deeper penetration depth
into the skin than the short waved leading to a more serious burn.
The calculated fatality rate for different thermal incident fluxes and exposure times by use of the
two probit functions presented above are shown in Table A.4.

TABLE A.4: Fatality Rate as a Function Radiation Level and Exposure Time
Exposure Eisenberg probit model TNO probit models
time (Eq. A.4.1) (Eq. A.4.2)
(seconds) Fatality rate (%) Fatality rate (%)
10 kW/m2 20 kW/m2 30 kW/m2 10 kW/m2 20 kW/m2 30 kW/m2
10 0 0 0 0 5 39
20 0 2.5 27 1 53 93
30 0 16 66 11 87 100
40 0 41 88 31 97 100
50 2.5 62 96 53 99 100
60 6 79 98 71 100 100
As can be seen from this table the results are rather different for various thermal radiation and
exposure times. The probit model developed by TNO is more conservative than the
Eisenberg probit model.
Thermal effects models are solidly based on experimental work on man and animals. Often
thermal effect data relates to bare skin. People wearing heavy clothes or being shielded
would be much less likely to be injured. TNO have their own model without ignition of
clothing, the extent to which first, second or third degree burns will occur, from a global
point of view, must be taken equal to 14 % (the fraction of the always unprotected skin
area) of the values calculated with the help of probit functions for radiation injury without
protecting clothing. This model implies that the fatality level among clothed personnel will
never be more than 14 %. This model has a lot of weaknesses, and it is recommended
to use with care. To take into account clothes, conductivity through clothes and the
ignition temperature of clothes should also be considered.
In Figure A.3 adopted from Ref. /A.12/, the radiation level as a function of exposure time is
illustrated for different degree of burns and fatality limits for lightly clothed personnel.
With a thermal incident flux of 25 kW/m2 and an exposure time of 20 seconds the fatality
rate will be 11 % by use of the Eisenberg probit model, 81 % (bare skin) and 11 %
(clothed personnel) by use of the two TNO probit models and 1 % from Figure A.3. In
Figure A.3 the curves for pain, threshold of injury, second and third degree burns are also
given. Compared to the API values for pain in Table A.3 the values for pain in Figure A.3
is more or less similar. The curve for threshold of injury is slightly more conservative in
Figure A.3 than the curve illustrated in Figure A.2. The curve for second degree burns in
Figure A.3 is more or less the same curve as illustrated in Figure A.2.

FIGURE A.3:Radiation Level as a Function of Exposure Time illustrated for Different Degree of
Burns and Fatality Limits
Gas de France has developed curves showing results from different sources. The results are
presented in Figure A.4. The different curves for pain and first degree burns are more or
less similar to each other.

FIGURE A.4:Effect of Thermal Incident Flux on Humans as a Function of Exposure Time
Figure A.5 adopted from Ref. /A.12/ is a comparison of various data relating extent of burn
injury to incident thermal radiation.

FIGURE A.5:Comparison of Various Data relating Extent of Burn Injury to Incident Thermal
Radiation, Ref. /A.12/

A5.CONCLUSIONS
Based on this review it is found that large differences exist in predicted fatality rates between
various table values, charts and probit functions. However, the different sources give an
indication of ranges of thermal doses required to give pain, burns and fatal outcome.
In the assessment of fatality rates among personnel trapped in compartments exposed to fire,
equation A.3.1 can be used as guidance as long high air temperature is more critical than
radiation.
In Table A.5 ranges of thermal doses required to give pain, burns and fatal outcome are given,
based on the different sources presented in the previous sections. For a given radiation
level or a given exposure time, time or necessary radiation level to pain, first degree,
second degree, third degree and fatal outcome can be calculated by use of the thermal
doses presented and equation for thermal dose given in Chapter A2.

TABLE A.5: Ranges of Thermal Doses required to give Pain, Burns and Fatal Outcome
Effect Thermal dose Comments/references
(s*[kW/m2]4/3)
Physiological effects; problems Temperature range Incapacitation after 94 - 6
with the respiratory system 70 oC - 150 oC minutes. Ref. /3/
Pain 108 - 127 Ref. /4/, bare skin
skin
Significant injury level/ 600 - 800 Ref. /7/, bare skin
first degree burns
skin
210 - 700 Ref. /12/, bare skin
Second degree burns/ 900 - 1300 Ref. /9/,bare skin
1 % lethality level for average
clothing
500 - 3000 Ref. /12/, bare skin
957 Ref. /8/, Eisenberg probit
model based on results from
nuclear explosions, bare skin,
LD1
421 Ref. /11/, TNO probit model
based on results from hydro-
carbon fires, bare skin,
LD1
Third degree burns/ > 2000 - 3000 Ref. /12/, bare skin
50 % lethality level for average
clothing
2377 Ref. /8/, Eisenberg probit
model based on results from
nuclear explosions, bare skin,
LD50
1046 Ref. /11/, TNO probit model
based on results from hydro-
carbon fires, bare skin, LD50
It is believed that the TNO model is more suitable to use in the estimation of fatality levels
among lightly clothed personnel than the Eisenberg model in typical offshore and on-
shore risk analyses where personnel are directly exposed to the fire, because this model
is correlated to take into account radiation from hydrocarbon fires. However, the cal-

culated fatality rates should be used as guidance in the fatality assessment more than as
absolute values.
If the probit function is not directly used in the fatality assessment, it is recommended to use the
following radiation levels for lightly clothed personnel as 100 % fatality limit in the below
given exposure time intervals:
16 kW/m2-Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

10 kW/m2-Exposure time from 0.5 minute to 1 minute
4 kW/m2-Exposure time from 1 minute to 2 minutes
2 kW/m2-Exposure time from 2 minutes - 10 minutes
The critical radiation levels are based on use of the TNO probit function assuming that the 50 %
fatality limit represent the lethal dose for an average person and that incapacitation
occurs close to the lethal dose, i.e. 75 % of the LD50 is set as the incapacitation dose
here. This corresponds to 81 % of the lethal incident radiation flux.
For clothed personnel the Neisser curve is recommended to use assuming that the 50 % fata-
lity limit represent the lethal dose for and average person and that incapacitation occurs
close to the lethal dose, i.e. 75 % of the LD50 is set as the incapacitation dose. This
corresponds to 81 % of the lethal incident radiation flux. It is recommended to use the
following radiation levels for clothed personnel as 100 % fatality limit in the below given
exposure time intervals:
25 kW/m2-Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

13 kW/m2-Exposure time from 0.5 to 1 minute
8 kW/m2-Exposure time from 1 minute to 2 minutes
4 kW/m2-Exposure time from 2 minutes to 10 minutes
The approach assumes a constant source of heat load over the exposure period. In reality,
most fires will initially expand and then decay with time, and thus the radiation received at
any given point will also be a function of time. A full integration of the received dose may
be performed if greater detail is required.
In the assessment of fatality rates on an offshore or onshore installation it is important to take

into account the following factors:
-Information prior to fire (e.g. alarms)

-Development of accident
-Reaction time among personnel
-Emergency procedures
-Escape time,
-Shielding effects,
-Radiation levels as a function of time,
-Total exposure time,
-Other critical aspects like visibility, toxic gases, explosion loads etc.

REFERENCES
/A.1/Finney, J.C.: "Probit Analysis", London; Cambridge University Press.
/A.2/Bryan, John L.: "Damageability of Buildings, Contents and Personnel from Exposure to
Fire", Department of Fire Protection Engineering, University of Maryland, Fire Safety
Journal, 11 (1986), p. 15-31.
/A.3/Spieth, Gaume, Luoto and Klinch: "A Combined Hazard Index Fire Test Methodology for
Aircraft Cabin Materials", Vols. I and II, DOT/FAA/CT-82/36-1 and DOT/FAA/CT-82/36-11
Department of Transportation, Atlantic City, April 1982.
/A.4/API RP 521, Third Edition, November 1991.
/A.5/Stoll A. M, Green L.C: "The Production of Burns by Thermal Radiation of Medium

Intensity", Paper No. 58-A-219, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New York,
1958.
/A.6/Buettner K.J.K: "Heat Transfer and Safe Exposure Time for Man in Extreme Thermal
Environment", Paper No. 57-SA-20, American Society of Mechanical Engineers, New
York, 1957.
/A.7/Mudan, K.S: "Thermal Radiation Hazards from Hydrocarbon Pool Fires", Proc. Energy
Combustion Science 10(1), 59-80 (ISBN 0360-1285).
/A.8/Eisenberg, N.A, Lynch, C.J, Breeding, R.J:"Vulnerability Model - A Simulation System for
Assessing Damage Resulting from Marine Spills", U.S. Coast Guard, Office of Research
and Development Report No. CG-D-136-75, NTIS AD-015-245, Springfield.
/A.9/Mixter, G.: "The Empirical Relation Between Time and Intensity of Applied Thermal Energy
in Production of 2+ Burns in Pigs", University of Rochester Report No. UR-316.
/A.10/Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis, Centre for Chemical
Process Safety of The American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 1989.
/A.11/TNO: "Methods for the Determination of Possible Damage to People and Objects
Resulting from Releases of Hazardous Materials", CPR 16E, Voorburg, December.
/A.12/Hymes, I: "The Physiological and Pathological Effects of Thermal Radiation", United

Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority, 1983.

APPENDIX B
EXPLOSION EFFECTS ON PEOPLE

Appendix B: Explosion Effects on People Page i of i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
B1 EXPLOSION EFFECTS ON PEOPLE B-1

B1.1 Introduction B-1
B1.2 Definitions B-2
B1.3 Overpressure B-4
B1.3.1 General B-4
B1.3.2 Effects on People B-5
B1.4 Secondary Effects B-9
B1.4.1 General B-9
B1.5 Tertiary Effects B-12
B1.5.1 General B-12
B1.6 Miscellaneous Blast Effects B-14
B1.7 Official used Limits B-16
REFERENCES B-17
m:\gdh\sect21\217438\app-b.koi\20 March 2001

Appendix B: Explosion Effects on People Page B-1 of 20
B1 EXPLOSION EFFECTS ON PEOPLE
B1.1 Introduction
People can survive fairly strong blast waves and in very few cases of accidental explosion the
blast effect has killed people directly (Ref. i). Typically injuries following an explosion are
- burning
- fragments hitting the person
- buildings or other structure falling down or being disintegrated
-persons falling or "flying" and subsequently hitting a solid object (whole body displace-
ment).
The advantage of explosion and fragment consequence models is that the models are based
on experimental data. A weakness relates to the difference between indoor and outdoor
effects. People may be killed indoors due to building collapse at lower overpressure
than outdoors due to overpressure alone, hence secondary effects are important.
For gas explosions the positive duration of the blast pressure is generally > 100 milliseconds
compared to explosions caused by explosives (detonations) with a positive duration in
the range of some milliseconds.
This chapter presents a detailed presentation of the different effects from an explosion and can
be used in a detailed consequence study. Most of the background of the material
presented is based on tests performed by explosives and not HC explosions. This must
be taken into account when the formulas and figures from Appendix B are used.
Important parameters when determining the effects and the risk from an explosion are
-maximum overpressure
-time to reach the maximum overpressure
-indoor or outdoor exposure of people
-possibility of flying fragments
-design pressure of building.
In a risk analysis the most important effects are
- flying fragments hitting personal

- to hole body displacement resulting in impact damage
-damage due to impact coused by collapsed structures

B1.2 Definitions
The definitions used in this appendix are from Ref. /B.1/.
Units:1 kPa=0.01 bar

1 Pa=1·10-5 bar
1 bar=100 kPa
1 bar=14.5 psi
Explosion
We define an explosion as an event leading to a rapid increase of pressure. This pressure

increase can be caused by nuclear reactions, loss of containment in high pressure
vessels, high explosives, metal water vapour explosions, run-a-way reactions, com-
bustion of dust, mist or gas (including vapours) in air or in other oxidisers.
Gas Explosions
We define a gas explosion as a process where combustion of a premixed gas cloud, i.e. fuel-air
or fuel-oxidiser, is causing rapid increase of pressure. Gas explosions may occur inside
process equipment or pipes, in buildings or offshore modules, in open process areas or in
unconfined areas.
The consequences of a gas explosion will depend on the environment in which the gas clous is
contained or which the gas cloud engulfs. Therefore it has been common to classify a
gas explosion from the environment where the explosion takes plase:
i)Confined Gas Explosions with vessels, pipes, channels or tunnels

ii)Partly Confined Gas explosions in a compartment, buildings or offshore modules
iii)Unconfined Gas Explosions in process plants and other unconfined areas.
It should be pointed out that these terms are not strictly defined. In an accidental event it may
be hard to classify the explosion. As an example an unconfined explosion in a process
plant may also involve partly confined explosions in compartments into which the gas
cloud has leaked.
Deflagrations
A deflagration is defined as a combustion wave propagating at subsonic velocity relative to the

unburnt gas immediately ahead of the flame, i.e. the burning velocity, U, is smaller than
the speed of sound, C, in the unburnt gas. The velocity of the unburnt gas ahead of the
flame is produced by the expansion of the combustion products.
In an accidental gas explosion the deflagration is the common mode of flame propagation. In
this mode the flame speed, S, ranges from 1 m/s up to 500 - 1000 m/s corresponding to
explosion pressures between a few mbar and several bar.
For strong deflagrations, shock waves may propagate ahead of the deflagration (i.e the flame).
Detonation

A detonation is defined as a combustion wave propagating at supersonic velocity relative to the

unburnt gas immediately ahead of the flame, i.e. the detonation velocity, D, is higher than
the speed of sound, C, in the unburnt gas.
Shock Wave
A shock wave in a gas can be defined as a fully developed compression wave of large
amplitude, across which density, pressure and particle velocity change drastically
(McGraw-Hill, 1978).
FIGURE B.1: A Shock Wave followed by a Rarefraction Wave
A shock wave propagates at supersonic velocity relative to the gas immediately ahead of the
shock, i.e. the gas ahead is undisturbed by the shock. The propagation velocity of the
shock wave depends on the pressure ratio across the wave. Increasing pressure gives
higher propagation velocity.
Blast Wave
A blast wave can be defined as the air wave set in motion by an explosion (McGraw-Hill, 1978).
FIGURE B.2: Free Field Blast Wave

The term blast wave includes both sonic compression waves, shock waves and rarefraction
waves. Figure B.3 illustrates in principle different types of blast waves. We can have
i)a shock wave followed by a rarefraction wave

ii)a shock wave followed by a sonic compression wave and then a rarefraction wave
iii)a sonic compression wave and a rarefraction wave.
The type of blast wave depends on how and when the energy is released in the explosion and
the distance from the explosion area. For strong explosions category i) is typical. Weak
explosions give initially category iii), but the wave can be shocking up and end as
category i) when it propagates away from the explosion.
FIGURE B.3: Blast Waves
B1.3 Overpressure
B1.3.1 General
Changes in pressure due to the occurrence of the air blast may result in injuries or even fatal
effect on people. The effect of the blast overpressure depends on the peak overpres-
sure, the rate of the rise of the pressure and the duration of the positive phase and the
blast wave. A very rapid rise of the overpressure will result in more severe injuries than
a slower rise of the pressure. Damages and injuries will also increase with the duration
of the positive phase of the overpressure.
The air blast is a function of the quantity of energetic material taking part in the explosion, the
distance from the source of explosion and the influence of obstacles. For conventional
explosions (TNT etc.) parameters like rate of pressure build up, maximum overpressure
and the duration of the positive phase are well defined by curves and formulas. For gas
explosions there are more uncertainties and advanced computer models must be used to
determine the explosion characteristics.
Almost all the formulas found in the literature describe an open free field explosion. Indoor
explosion will give reflection and more complex conditions and secondary effects like
building collapse. If a person is subjected to a blast wave and is close to a wall the in-
juries will be more severe than for the same blast wave in the free field situation.

Ear perforation
The most vulnerable part of the human body to injury from overpressure is the ear. The ear is
not a vital organ, but it is the most sensitive organ with respect to blast waves. The ear
can respond to very low energy as a pressure of 2 · 10-5 Pa (Ref. ii).
Lung injuries
The most vulnerable parts in the torso/abdomen area are lungs, stomach and bowels, e.g. the
interface between media of different densities. Criteria for lung injuries are fairly well
described in the literature (Ref. iii), but injuries of the stomach and bowels have only been
discussed in the recent years.
For lung injuries the time of the positive duration of the blast wave is important. For durations
less than 50 milliseconds the duration is significant for the resulting damage, for durations
more than 50 milliseconds only the pressure is of importance.
Extremities
Extremities like hands, arms, legs and feet are susceptible to injuries is exposed to very high
pressure.
B1.3.2 Effects on People
In the following the accidental effects to the human body is elaborated.
Lung Damage
The orientation of the body is very important for the level of injuries from a blast wave (Ref.
/B.ii/), for example the 1 % mortality level for personnel end-on to the blast is 280 kPa
and it is 200 kPa if personnel are standing or prone broadside to the blast, this for
explosions with duration of more than 100 ms, see Figure B.4.
For explosions with duration of less than 100 ms the incident overpressure a man can with-
stand will increase. A man of 60 kg exposed to an explosion with a short duration of 1
ms and standing body end-on to the blast, the overpressure for 50 % fatality probability
is on the order of 2800 kPa (Ref. /B.ii/).



FIGURE B.4: Survival Curves for Man (Ref. /B.iii/)
From Ref. iv the following data are presented for lethality from direct blast effects and lung
haemorrhage. This data are for explosion with short durations.
TABLE B.1: Probability of Fatality (Lung Haemorrhage Ref. /B.iv/)

Probability of fatality Peak overpressure
(%) (kPa/bar)
1 (Threshold) 100 / 1
10 120 / 1.2
50 140 / 1.4
90 175 / 1.75
99 200 / 2
The effect of blast wave positive duration is dependent on the ambient atmospheric pressure
and the mass of the human body. Figure B.5 presents the scaled overpressure as
function of the scaled impulse for different levels of lung damage to man. Impulse is
defined as :
(Eq. A.1)
where
Ps = peak incident overpressure (Pa)

T = positive duration (sec)
Scaled impulse is defined as :

(Eq. A.2)
where
p0 = ambient atmospheric pressure (Pa)

m = mass of human body (kg)
The scaled incident overpressure is defined as :
(Eq. A.3)
FIGURE B.5: Survival Curves for Lung Damage (Ref. /B.ii/)
Ear Damage
It is generally accepted that the threshold of eardrum perforation is between 25 kPa (0.25
bar) and 50 kPa (0.5 bar) (Ref. /B.ii/, /B.iv/, v, vi). With overpressure less than 25 kPa

(0.25 bar) persons may still feel pain and/or temporary deafness. With a pressure of
100 kPa (1 bar) the probability for eardrum perforation is 50 % (Ref. /B.ii/, /B.v/, /B.vi/).
Figure B.6 shows human ear damage curves for blast waves arriving at normal angle of in-
cidence.

FIGURE B.6:Human Ear Damage Curves for Blast Waves arriving at Normal Angle (Ref.
/B.ii/)
B1.4 Secondary Effects
B1.4.1 General
Secondary effects involve impact by missiles from the exploding device itself or from objects
located in the nearby environment that are accelerated after interaction with the blast
wave. Parametres that affects the extent of damage to a human body due to im-
pingement of a fragment include the mass, velocity, shape, density, cross-sectional
area and angle of impact. Pathophysiological effects include skin laceration,
penetration of vital organs, blunt trauma, and skull and bone fracture.
The fragment impact is usually presented as the V50 velocity, e.g. the velocity at which one
expects 50 % of the impact missiles will perforate an object. Some data are presented
as the minimum energy to make a soldier incapable to continue fighting.
Head and Neck
The head and neck represent only about 10 % of the projected body area, but they are the
most critical area with respect to fatal injuries. The most sensitive area include the
brain, the brain stem and the eye.

Chest and Abdomen
The most sensitive in the chest are the heart, major blood vessels, spinal cord, trachea,
esophagus and lungs.
Extremities
The most serious fragmentation injuries to the extremities can produce an amputation.
Steel Fragments
vii
To make a soldier incapable to fight the necessary energy needed is (Ref. ):
- 80 Joules (Rifle bullet)

- 200 Joules (Fragment from mortar).
viii
Ref. suggests that projectiles with a kinetic energy of 100 Joules can cause fatalities.
Ref. /B.ii/ presents a formula for 50 % probability for perforation by steel cubes of isolated
human and goat skin:
Eq. (A.4)
where
A =Cross-sectional area of the projectile along the trajectories (m2)

M = Mass of the projectile (kg)
k = 1247.1 kg/ms
b = 22.03 m/s
Glass Fragments
The expected pressure needed for glass breakage is presented in Ref. /B.iv/:

Ref. /B.ii/ presents the 50 % probability of glass fragments penetrating abdominal cavity, this
is presented in Table B.2.

TABLE B.2: 50 % Probability of Glass Fragments penetrating an Abdominal Cavity

Mass of glass Impact velocity A/M A/M
fragment (m/s) (3.175 mm thick fragment) (6.35 mm thick fragment)
(kg) (m2/kg) (m2/kg)
0.0001 125 0.1136 0.1603
0.0005 84 0.0507 0.0717
0.001 75 0.0358 0.0517
0.01 55 0.0113 0.0160
Ref. /B.iv/ presents the needed impact velocity for a 10 g glass missile as function of different
levels of injuries, this is shown in Table B.3.
TABLE B.3: Injuries from Missile (Ref. /B.iv/)

Injury Peak overpressure Impact velocity Impulse
(kPa/bar) (m/s) (N s/m2)
Skin laceration threshold 7 - 15 / 15 512
0.07 - 0.15
Serious wound threshold 15 - 20 / 30 1024
0.15 - 0.2
Serious wounds near 100 50 - 55 / 90 3071
% probability 0.5 - 0.55
Non-Penetrating Fragments
Very little information is available for expected injuries caused by non-penetrating fragments.
However, for fragment with mass 5.54 kg damage categories as function of impact
velocity are presented in Table B.4.

TABLE B.4:Tentative Criteria for Indirect Blast Effect from non-penetrating Fragments (4.54
Kg Fragments)
Event Extend of damage Impact velocity (m/s)
Cerebral Concussion Most "safe" 3.05
Threshold 4.57
Skull Fracture Most "safe" 3.05
Threshold 4.57
Near 100 % 7.01
B1.5 Tertiary Effects
B1.5.1 General
Tertiary effects involve whole-body displacement and subsequent impact. During the
whole-body displacement, blast overpressure and impulses interact with the body in
such a manner that it is essentially picked up and translated.
The head is the most vulnerable part of the body to injuries from whole-body displacement.
The whole-body displacement (accelerations) is a function of the size, shape and
mass of the person and the blast forces.
50 % of the people being picked up and translated with a speed more than 0.6 m/s
(Ref. /B.vi/) will suffer minor injuries. One percent of those with a speed of about 4 m/s will
suffer injuries like ruptured organs and bone fractures. If thrown against a solid wall
about 40 % will suffer major injuries.
Figure B.7. (Ref. /B.2/) presents the lethality due to skull fracture as function of incidental
overpressure and scaled impulse. Figure B.8. (Ref. /B.Error! Bookmark not
defined./) presents the lethality from hole body translation as function of incidental
overpressure and scaled impulse. (See equation 2.1 - 2.2) .
By calculating the scaled impulse the related impact velocity can be obtained from Figures
B.4 and B.5. By using Table B.5 and B.6 the lethality due to damage to the head by
total body translation can be found.

TABLE B.5: Criteria for Tertial Damage to the Head (Ref. /B.ii/)
Skull fracture tolerance Related impact velocity
(m/s)
Most "safe" 3.05
Threshold 3.96
50 % 5.49
Near 100 % 7.01
TABLE B.6: Criteria for Tertial Damage involving Total Body Impact (Ref. /B.ii/)
Total body impact tolerance Related impact velocity
(m/s)
Most "safe" 3.05
Lethality threshold 6.40
Lethality 50 % 16.46
Lethality near 100 % 42.06

FIGURE B.7: Skull Fracture (Ref. /B.ii/)

FIGURE B.8: Lethality from Hole Body Translation (Ref. /B.ii/)
B1.6 Miscellaneous Blast Effects

ix
Ref. presents various damage levels as function of pressure. The results are presented
in Table B.7.
TABLE B.7: Damage produced by blast as presented in Ref /B.ix/

Pressure Damage
(kPa)
0.13 Annoying noise (137 dB), if of low frequency (10-15 Hz)
0.2 Occasional breaking of large glass windows already under strain
0.27 Loud noise (143 dB). Sonic boom glass failure
0.67 Breakage for windows, small, under strain
1 Typical pressure for glass failure
2 "Safe distance" (probability 0.95 no serious damage beyond this value)
Missile limit
Some damage to house ceilings; 10 % window glass broken

Pressure Damage
(kPa)
2.7 Limited minor structural damage
3 - 6.7 Large and small windows usually shattered; occasional damage to
window frames
4.7 Minor damager to house structures
6.7 Partial demolition of houses, made uninhabitable
6.7 - 13 Corrugated asbestos shattered.
Corrugated steel or aluminium panels, fastenings fail, followed by
buckling.
Wood panels (standard housing) fastenings fail, panels blown in
9 Steel frame of clad building slightly distorted
13 Partial collapse of walls and roofs of houses
13 - 20 Concrete or cinder block walls, not reinforced, shattered
15 Lower limit of serious structural damage
17 50 % destruction of brickwork of house
20 Heavy machines (3000 lb) in industrial building suffered little damage.
Steel frame building distorted and pulled away from foundations
20 - 27 Frameless, self-framing steel panel building demolished.
Rupture of oil storage tanks
27 Cladding of light industrial buildings ruptured
34 Wooden utilities poles (telegraph, etc.) snapped.
Tall hydraulic press (40,000 lb) in building slightly damaged
34 - 47 Nearly complete destruction of houses
47 Loaded train wagons overturned
47 - 53 Brick panels, 8-12 in thick, not reinforced, fail by shearing or flexure
60 Loaded train box-cars completely demolished
67 Probable total destruction buildings.
Heavy (7,000 lb) machine tools moved and badly damaged. Very heavy
(12,000 lb) machines tools survived
200 Limit of crater tip

B1.7 Official used Limits
The Norwegian Armed Forces regulation for safe storage of ammunition (Ref. x) presents a
maximum level for incidental overpressure and fragment impact. These levels are:
Max pressure 5 kPa, max pressure level for third party, e.g. road, house
Max fragment impactAccept one fragment per. 56 m2 with an energy less than 80
Joules, e.g. one fragment with an energy of more than80
Joules is not accepted.
Directorate for Fire and Explosion Prevention (DBE) uses the same criteria for maximum
levels of overpressure and fragment impact (Ref. xi) as presented by the Norwegian
Armed Forces.

REFERENCES
i.Dag Bjerketvedt, Jan Roar Bakke: "Gas Explosion Handbook", Version 1.1, Chr. Michelsen Research CMR-93-A25003,
January 1993.
ii.A short course on Explosion Hazards Evaluation, Woutwest Research Institute, Houston.
iii.Donald R. Richmond, Arnfinn Jenssen: "Compendium on the Biological Effects of Complex Blast Waves", Norwegian
Defence Construction Service and HQ Defence Command Norway Joint Medical Service, May 1992.
iv.Frank P. Less: "Loss Prevention in the Process Industry", Volum 1 & 2,

Butterworth & Co., 1980.
v.R.J. L'Abbé, Med.-Eng. Systems - Canada: "Explosion Effects on People", I. Eng. presentation held at the First World
Seminar on the Explosion Phenomena and on the Application of Explosion Protection Techniques in Practice,
Brussels, 17-21 February 1992.
vi.Vapenverkan: "Informasjon utarbetad vid FOA om verkan av olika vapentyper mot markmål", FOA, Liber Allmänna
Förlaget.
vii.Forsvarets Bygningstjeneste, Direktoratet for Sivilt Beredskap: "Fortifikasjonshåndboken 1990, Del 1 - Våpenvirkninger",
1990.
viii.Center for Chemical Process Safety: "Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis", New York, 1989.
ix.V.J. Clancey: Diagnostic Features of Explosion Damage", 6th International Meeting on Forensic Sciences, Edinburgh,
Scotland, 1972.
x.Telephone conversation with Hans Øium, Hærens Forsyningskommando, Ammunisjonskontrollen: "Tjenesterelement for
Forsvaret, Undergruppe 738, Lagring av ammunisjon/eksplosiver", utgitt 1. januar 1984, mai 1993.
xi.Telephone conversation with Mr. Lian, Directorate for Fire and Explosion Prevention, August 1993.

APPENDIX C
TOXIC EFFECTS
Appendix C: Toxic Effects Page i of i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
C1.INTRODUCTION C-1
C2.DEFINITIONS C-2
C3.SMOKE COMPOSITION C-3
C4.EFFECTS OF CO C-4
C5.EFFECTS OF CO2 C-7
C6.EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION C-8
C7.OVERALL SMOKE EFFECTS C-9
C8.EFFECTS OF OTHER GASES C-9
C9.CONCLUSIONS C-13
REFERENCES C-15
m:\gdh\sect21\217438\app-c.ver\20 March 2001

Appendix C: Toxic Effects Page C-1 of 16
C1.INTRODUCTION
The objective of this appendix is to provide a consistent set of toxicity limits for personnel on
offshore and onshore installations in critical situations.
Effect of toxic gases can be divided into two categories:
-Local irritantia which may cause incapacitation mainly by effects on the eyes and the upper
respiratory tract which may impair escape capability and sometimes cause delayed
death due to lung damage
-Systematically acting agents which cause damage to the body via the blood and distribution in
the body, so called narcotic gases.
The main toxic gases of fire effluents are carbon monoxide,(CO), carbon dioxide,(CO2),
hydrogen sulphide, (H2S), nitrogen oxides, (NOx), ammonia, (NH3), sulphur dioxide, (SO2)
and hydrogen fluoride, (HF). CO and CO2 are classified as narcotic gases, while the
other are classified as irritants. The individual effects of CO, CO2 and O2 depletion are
discussed in detail, before the combined effect of all is derived. The effects of irritants
are briefly discussed in this section.
Although CO is not the most toxic of the above mentioned gases, it is present in relatively high
concentrations in smoke, and so its effects are usually dominant.
It should be noted that the effect of toxic gases on humans should be seen in light of other
critical effects as poor visibility, high air temperatures or radiation levels, explosion loads
etc. in order to identify the most critical one. However, often fatal situations are a result
of a combination of the above mentioned parameters together with panic among per-
sonnel. The fatality rates for different concentrations and exposure times, pre-
sented in this appendix should be used as a guidance in the assessment of fatali-
ties, rather than absolute values.
There is a lot of uncertainties in the calculation of amount of smoke produced in a fire situation
and amount of toxic gases in the smoke. This depends on type of burning fuel and
ventilation conditions. Gas dispersion calculations should be carried out to establish
how the concentration of toxic gases vary with time and distance from the source.
On an onshore installation the possibilities to escape from the accident are greater than on an
offshore installation. Based on this offshore personnel will be exposed to toxic gases
over a longer time period leading to in general lower acceptable concentrations than on
an onshore installation.

C2.DEFINITIONS
LCxx:
The time related dose (Concentration over time) which would be lethal to xx percent of the
population.
Toxic dose:
Toxic dose = Cn*t
where C is the concentration in ppm, t is the expsoure time in minutes and n is a constant.
Probit:
The range of susceptibility in a population to a harmful consequence can be expressed mathe-

matically using a criterion in the form of an equation which expresses the percentage of a
defined population which will suffer a defined level of harm (normally death) when it is
exposed to a specified dangerous load. This is a "Probit" equation which has the form:
Pr = a + bLn(Cn*t)
where Pr is the probit (or the probability measure), a,b and n are constants. C is the con-
centration in ppm and t is the exposure time in minutes. The probit, Pr, can be related to
percent fatalities using published tables. Table C.1, Ref. /C.1/, gives the relationship
between the probit Pr and percent fatalities.
TABLE C.1: Relationship between the Probit Pr and Percent Fatalities

C3.SMOKE COMPOSITION
Combustion gases from burning hydrocarbons consists mainly of a mixture of nitrogen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide and water vapour. Because of the high proportion of nitrogen
in the air, hot nitrogen tends to dominate the combustion products.
The proportion of toxic gases in smoke depends on the chemical structure of the burning mate-
rials and the degree of ventilation to the fire. The differences between different hydro-
carbons are quite small, and ventilation has the main effect. Fires in which the ven-
tilation is restricted occurs only for fires in modules or compartments. These fires will
either be fuel controlled or ventilation controlled. In general, reduced ventilation greatly
increases the ratio of CO, while the O2 and the CO2 remain more or less unaffected.
Typical gas concentrations close to the fire are given in Table C.2 collated by Bonn,
Ref. /C.2/, based on Ref. /C.3/, /C.4/ and /C.5/.
TABLE C.2: Initial Gas Concentrations in Smoke, Ref. /C.2/

Gas Concentration in smoke (%)
CO 0.04 0.08 3 3.1
CO2 10.9 11.8 8.2 9.2
O2 0 0 0 0
The individual effects of CO, CO2 and O2 depletion are discussed below, before the combined
effect of all is derived.

C4.EFFECTS OF CO
Extensive investigations examining human fire fatalities have shown carbon monoxide to be the
primary toxicant in many deaths due to smoke inhalation, Ref. /C.6/ and /C.7/. The
toxicity of carbon monoxide is due to the formation of blood carboxyhemoglobin, which
results in a reduced ability of the blood to transport oxygen to critical body organs refer-
red to as anaemic anoxia. There exist further evidence that relatively low levels of car-
boxyhemoglobin saturation may have adverse effects on reaction time which is important
to escape from a fire. The toxicity of carbon monoxide may be modified by heat
stresses. Experiments on test animals under heat stress showed that blood carboxyhe-
moglobin concentrations at the time of death were much lower than in animals not
stressed with heat.
Responses of humans to inhalation of carbon monoxide are summarized below, taken from
Ref. /8/:
100 ppm Allowable exposure for several hours

400 - 500 ppmNo appreciable effect after 1 hour
600 - 700 ppmJust appreciable effect after 1 hour
1000 - 1200 ppmUnpleasant after 1 hour
1500 - 2000 ppmDangerous when inhaled for 1 hour
4000 ppmFatal when inhaled for less than 1 hour
10000 ppmFatal when inhaled for 1 minute
The following physiological effects on human individuals from carbon monoxide is given below
based on Ref. /C.9/:
1500 ppmHeadache after 15 minutes, collapse after 30 minutes, death after 1 hour
2000ppmHeadache after 10 minutes, collapse after 20 minutes, death after 45 minutes
3000ppmMaximum "safe" exposure for 5 minutes, danger of collapse in 10 minutes
6000ppmHeadache and dizziness in 1 to 2 minutes, danger of death in 10 to 15 minutes
12800ppmImmediate effect, unconscious after 2 to 3 breaths, danger of death in 1 to 3 minutes
Another reference is Ref. /C.10/ which presents the following effects of carbon monoxide on
human individuals:
800ppmLead to headache and dizziness after 45 minutes.

3200ppmLead to headache after 5 - 10 minutes and dead after 20 minutes
6400ppmLead to headache after 2 - 3 minutes, and death after 10 - 15 minutes
The above presented effects of CO indicates that with several thousand ppm of CO in the
atmosphere will cause very critical situations on a platform or an onshore installation.
The consequences of inhalation of toxic chemicals can only be derived from animal ex-
periments. The uncertainties in translating animal data to data relevant for humans are
large and therefore "safety factors" are included in the modelling. In general animals
have a higher adsorption rate and humans have a higher respiratory rate in accident
situations.

Below 3 probit functions with references are presented:
Ref. /C.12/:Pr = -37.98 + 3.7ln(C*t) (Eq. C.4.1)

Ref. /C.13/:Pr = -7.26 + 1ln(C*t) (Eq. C.4.2)
Ref. /C.14/:Pr = -38.23 + 3.7ln(C*t) (Eq. C.4.3)
In Table C.3 the lethality levels for different CO concentrations and exposure times by use of
the different probit equations are presented. In this table also the necessary CO
concentrations and exposure time for a 50 % lethality level is presented.

TABLE C.3:Lethality Level for Different CO Concentrations and Exposure Times by Use of
Different Probit Functions
Fatality rate (%)
Probit functions Concentration/exposure
time for 50 % lethality
2000 ppm 6000 ppm 10000 ppm
10 minutes 10 minutes 10 minutes
exposure exposure exposure
Eq. C.4.1 0 1.5 35 2000 ppm 54 min
4000 ppm 27 min
6000 ppm 18 min
8000 ppm 13 min
10000 11 min
ppm
Eq. C.4.2 0.5 10 23 2000 ppm 105 min
4000 ppm 53 min
6000 ppm 35 min
8000 ppm 26 min
10000 21 min
ppm
Eq. C.4.3 0 0 26 2000 ppm 60 min
4000 ppm 30 min
6000 ppm 20 min
8000 ppm 15 min
10000 12 min
ppm
For different CO concentrations and exposure times the calculated lethality levels from the
different probit functions are in the same order of magnitude. Based on a 50 % lethality
level it can also be concluded that the probit functions are consistent with the previous
presented threshold limits.
It is recommended to use Eq. C.4.1 in the fatality assessment. This equation is best docu-
mented.
C5.EFFECTS OF CO2

While carbon dioxide is not particular toxic at levels normally observed in fires, moderate
concentrations do stimulate the rate of breathing. This condition may contribute to the
overall hazard of a fire gas environment by causing accelerated uptake of toxicants and
irritants. The rate and depth of breathing are increased 50 % by 20 000 ppm carbon
dioxide and doubled by 30 000 ppm carbon dioxide in air. At 50 000 ppm, breathing
becomes laboured and difficult for some individuals, although this concentration of
carbon dioxide has been inhaled for up to one hour without serious aftereffects.
Table C.4 illustrates carbon dioxide responses, Ref. /C.15/.
TABLE C.4: Carbon Dioxide Responses, Ref. /C.15/

Concentration of carbon dioxide Responses
(ppm)
100 000 Approaches threshold of unconsciousness in
30 minutes
120 000 Threshold of unconsciousness reached in 5 minutes
150 000 Exposure limit 1 minutes
200 000 Unconsciousness occurs in less than 1 minute
No probit functions have been found in the literature describing the lethality level of different
CO2 concentrations and exposure time. Tests carried out on rats indicated that even
with CO2 concentrations up to 150 000 and exposure times up to 30 minutes, no deaths
among the rats were reported. The following 100 % fatal limits of CO2 are recommended
to use for different exposure times:
150 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time < 5 minutes

120 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time 5 - 30 minutes
100 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time > 30 minutes

C6.EFFECTS OF OXYGEN DEPLETION
Oxygen constitutes 21 % by volume of clean air. Decreases in oxygen concentration down to

about 15 % are counteracted by the body increasing the flow of blood to the brain, and
only minor effects on motor coordination are apparent.
Oxygen concentrations below 15 % by volume produce oxygen starvation effects such as

increased breathing, faulty judgement and rapid onset of fatigue.
Oxygen concentrations below 10 % cause rapid loss of judgement and comprehension

followed by loss of consciousness, leading to death within a few minutes. This is taken
to be the limiting oxygen concentration for escape lasting a few seconds. If escape is
not possible within few seconds, incapacitation and death is assumed to occur.
Oxygen concentrations of 10 % and 15 % require a clean air content in the mixing gas of 47 %
and 71 % respectively. These would be achieved when the gas is diluted to 52 % and
29 % respectively of its concentration. A gas concentration of 52 % would cause death
unless escape is possible in a few seconds.
Table C.5 indicates the responses of human individuals to different reduced levels of oxygen in
air, Ref. /C.15/.
TABLE C.5: Human Responses due to reduced Levels of Oxygen in Air, Ref. /C.15/
Concentration of oxygen in air Responses
(%)
11 Headache, dizziness, early fatigue, tolerance
time 30 minutes
9 Shortness of breath, quickened pulse, slight
cyanosis, nausea, tolerance time 5 minutes
7 Above symptoms becomes serious, stupor sets
in, unconsciousness occurs tolerance time 3
minutes
6 Heart contractions stop 6 to 8 minutes after
respiration stops
3-2 Death occurs within 45 seconds
No probit functions are found in the literature describing the lethality level for personnel when
exposed to different concentrations of oxygen in the air and exposure time.
The following 100 % fatal limits of O2 depletion are recommended to use for different exposure
times:
10 % of O2Exposure time < 5 minutes

15 % of O2Exposure time > 5 minutes
C7.OVERALL SMOKE EFFECTS
The combined effects of CO, CO2 and oxygen depletion are the main causes of fatalities in
smoke. The criteria for them are compared in Table C.6. For the under ventilated fires,
CO has the main effect, which depends strongly on exposure time. For well-ventilated
fires, CO production is much reduced and oxygen depletion appear to have main effect.
If their effects are assumed to be additive, an overall combustion gas concentration of
e.g. 0.33 x 0.56 = 19% would cause death from smoke by under ventilated gas fuelled
fires, unless escape is possible in a few seconds.
TABLE C.6: Smoke Concentration to Prevent Escape in Few Minutes

Gas Smoke concentration (%) to prevent escape in few minutes
CO - - 33 32
CO2 92 85 - -
O2 56 56 56 56
Comb. effects 52 48 19 18
Based on this the following concentrations of smoke may cause very critical situations (nearly
100 % fatality rate) among exposed personnel after few seconds:
52 % of smoke in well ventilated gas fuelled fires

48 % of smoke in well ventilated liquid fuelled fires
19 % in under ventilated gas fuelled fires
18 % in under ventilated liquid fuelled fires
The combined effects of CO, CO2 and oxygen depletion are a difficult task and the above
presented values should be used as guidance only to identify the problem.
C8.EFFECTS OF OTHER GASES
Table C.7 illustrates the effects likely to be experienced by humans exposed to various
concentrations of H2S.

TABLE C.7: Effects on People exposed to H2S

Concentration Effect
(ppm)
20 - 30 Conjunctivitis
50 Objection to light after 4 hours exposure. Lacri-
mation
150 - 200 Objection to light, irritation of mucous mem-
branes, headache
200 - 400 Slight symptoms of poisoning after several
hours
250 - 600 Pulmonary edema and bronchial pneumonia
after prolonged exposure
500 - 1000 Painful eye irritation, vomiting.
1000 Immediate acute poisoning
1000 - 2000 Lethal after 30 to 60 minutes
> 2000 Acute lethal poisoning
Below 3 probit functions with references are presented:
Ref. /C.21/:Pr = -31.42 + 3.008ln(C1.43*t) (Eq. C.8.1)

Ref. /C.19/:Pr = -42.77 + 2.9ln(C2*t) (Eq. C.8.2)
Ref. /C.22/:Pr = -40.9 + 2.36ln(C2.17*t) (Eq. C.8.3)
In Figure C.1 the probits between the 1% and 99% fatality for a 10 minute exposure are
illustrated. As can be seen from these curves there are some differences between the
curves. However, the figure illustrates that with 1000 - 2000 ppm with hydrogen sulphide
in the air the fatality rate will be between 50 - 100% with 10 minutes exposure.

FIGURE C.1: Illustration of Different Probit Functions for H2S
It is recognised that the concentrations for fatalities presented in Table C.5 may not agree with
those predicted using the probits given above. However, both illustrate that with
concentrations of hydrogen sulphide in the air in the order of
1000-2000 ppm will have fatal outcomes.
It is recommended to use Eq. C.8.1 in the calculation of fatality rate for different H2S con-
centrations and exposure times.
Limiting concentrations for H2S exposure suggested by various regulatory authorities are
presented in Table C.8:

TABLE C.8: Limiting Concentrations for H2S Exposure suggested by Various Regulatory
Authorities
Regulation body/reference Concentration
NIOSH (1990) - industrial standard for 10-min exposure 10 ppm
Threshold Limit Values, Germany and Sweden 10 ppm
American Standards Association
* Max. concentrations for prolonged exposure 20 ppm
* 1 hour exposure with no serious consequence 170-300 ppm
* Dangerous after 0.5 - 1.0 hour exposure 400-700 ppm
NIOSH/OSHA Immediately Dangerous to Life and Health, 300 ppm

IDLH (0.5 hour exposure)
EPA Level of Concern (1/10 of IDLH) 30 ppm
The toxicological effects of NOx, NH3, SO2 and HF are given in Table C.9.
TABLE C.9: Toxicological Effects of NOx, NH3, SO2 and HF, Ref. /C.16/
Toxicant Toxicological effects
NOx Strong pulmonary irritant capable of causing
immediate death as well as delayed injury
NH3 Pungent, unbearable odour; irritant to eyes and
nose
SO2 A strong irritant, intolerable well below lethal
concentrations
HF Respiratory irritants
In Table C.10 predicted lethal concentrations for humans and published values are given.

TABLE C.10:Predicted Lethal Concentrations for Humans and ublished Values,

Ref. /17/
Toxicant Human lethal concentrations
(ppm), Ref. /16/
NH3 5 000 - 10 000

SO2 600 - 800 (few min)
HF 50 - 250
NOx 250 (few min)
Several probit functions have been developed for NH3, SO2, and HF. Below probit function
for each of these gases are presented to use as guidance in the fatality assessment:
NH3, Ref. /C.18/:
Pr = -9.82 + 0.71ln(C2*t), LC50 = 15 240 ppm, 5 minutes exposure (Eq. C.9.1)
SO2, Ref. /C.19/:
Pr = -15.67 + 2.1ln(C*t), LC50 = 3 765 ppm, 5 minutes exposure (Eq. C.9.2)
HF, Ref. /C.20/:
Pr = -48.33 + 4.853ln(C*t), LC50 = 11 845 ppm, 5 minutes exposure (Eq. C.9.3)
No probit model is found in the literature for NOx.
The presented LC50 values for NH3, SO2, and HF in Table C.10 is not so conservative as the
LC50 values received at by use of the probit functions.
C9.CONCLUSIONS
Based on review of toxic limits for different gases it is recommended to use the following
probit functions for CO, H2S, NH3, HF and SO2 in the fatality assessment if personnel is
exposed to these gases:
COPr=-37.98 + 3.7ln(C*t)
H2SPr=-31.42 + 3.008ln(C1.43*t)
NH3Pr=-9.82 + 0.71ln(C2*t)
SO2Pr=-15.67 + 2.1ln(C*t)
HFPr=-48.33 + 4.853ln(C*t)

No probit functions are found in the litterature for CO2, O2 depletion and NOx.
The following 100% fatal limits of CO2 are recommended to use for different exposure times:
150 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time < 5 minutes

120 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time 5 - 30 minutes
100 000 ppm of CO2Exposure time > 30 minutes
The following 100 % fatal limits of O2 depletion are recommended to use for different expo-
sure times:
10 % of O2Exposure time < 5 minutes

15 % of O2Exposure time > 5 minutes

REFERENCES
/C.1/Finney, C.M: "Probit Analysis", University of Cambridge Press.
/C.2/Bonn, R: "Smoke & Gas Detectors for Temporary Refuges", BP Exploration, 4th
International Conference on Offshore Loss Prevention, A Systematic Approach,
Aberdeen, Scotland, 3-5 March 1993, published by the BHR Group, 1993.
/C.3/Johnson, D.W: "Airborne Observations of the Physical and Chemical Characteristics of

the Kuwait Oil Smoke Plume", Nature Vol. 353, p. 617-6217, 1992.
/C.4/Tewarson, A: "Generation of Heat and Chemical Compounds in Fire", The SFPE

Handbook on Fire and Protection Engineering, NFPA, 1990 .
/C.5/Wighus, R et al.: "Smoke Hazard in Offshore Platform Fires", SINTEF Report

STF25-A91007, 1991.
/C.6/W. A. Harland and W.D. Wooley: "Fire Fatality Study", University of Glasgow,
Information Paper, IP 18/79, Building Research Establishment, Borehamwood, 1979.
/C.7/B. M. Halpin and W. G. Berl: "Human Fatalities From Unwanted Fires", Report
NBS-GCR-79-168, National Bureau of Standards, Washington DC, 1978.
/C.8/R. E. Reinke and C. F. Reinhardt: "Fires, toxicity and plastics", Modern Plastics,
February 1973.
/C.9/A. J. Pryor: "Full-Scale Evaluation of the Fire Hazard of Interior Wall Finishes",
Southwest Research Institute, San Antonio, 1968.
/C.10/Handbuch der gefahrlichen Guter Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg, New York, 1980.
/C.11/N. Irving Sax: "Dangerous Properties of Industrial Materials", Sixth Edition, Van
Nostrand Reinhold Company, 1984 .
/C.12/ten Berge W.F: "Inloed van Toxische Stoffen", DSM Memo 1156 CVM/78, December
1978.
/C.13/de Weger D. et al: "Consequences of Exposure to Toxic Gases Following Industrial

Disasters", Journal of Loss Prevention in the Process Industry, Vol. 4, July 1991.
/C.14/SAFETI.
/C.15/Bryan, J.L: "Damageability of Buildings, Content and Personnel from Exposure to Fire",
Fire Safety Journal, 11, 1986.
/C.16/Terrill, J.B., Montogomery, R.R.and Reinhardt, C.F.: "Toxic Gases from Fires",
Science, 200, 1978.
/C.17/Hilado, C.J and Cumming, H.J: "A review of Available LC50 Data", Fire Safety Center,
University of San Francisco, San Francisco, California 94117, 1977.

/C.18/Payne M.P, Delic J. and Turner R.M.: "Toxicology of Substances in Relation to Major
Hazards; Ammonia", HSE 1990, HMSO.
/C.20/Turner R.M. and Fairhurst S.:"Toxicology of Substances in Relation to Major Hazards;

Clorine", HSE,HMSO.
/C.21/Perry, W.W. and Articola, W.J: "Study to Modify the Vulnerability Model of the Risk
Management System", CG-D-22-80, US Coast Guard, Washington DC, 1980.
/C.22/Lehmann K.B.: "Experimentele Studien uber den Einfluss Technisch und Hygienisch
Wichtiger Gase und Dampfe auf den Organ ismus", Arch. Hyg. 14 (1982), p.
135-189

APPENDIX D
OBSCURATION OF VISION
Appendix D: Obscuration of Vision Page i of i
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
D1 OBSCURATION OF VISION D-1

D1.1 Absence of vision D-1
D1.2 Impact of Smoke D-2
REFERENCES D-4
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Appendix D: Obscuration of Vision Page D-1 of 5
D1 OBSCURATION OF VISION
D1.1 Absence of vision
The absence of vision may delay or prevent escape from fires and cause people to be exposed
to the fire gases for an unacceptable long period of time. While the exposure to high
concentrations of toxic and hot gases usually will be significant only in the vicinity of the
fire, the effect of reduced visibility may also be significant far away from the fire source.
For example, in multi-compartment buildings, the smoke blocking effect may be
significant in rooms far away from the room of fire origin (Ref. i).
Moreover, the smoke blocking effect is reported to be the first condition becoming critical of the
three hazardous conditions of fires i.e. heat stresses, obscuration of vision, toxic effects.
Measure of Light Obscuration
Light obscuration is often expressed by the concept of "optical density" per unit path length, D/L
(m-1), which is determined by monitoring the attenuation, D (-), of a beam of light passing
through the smoke over a distance L. The optical density per unit path length (D/L) can
be expressed by the following expression:
or! Eq. (D.1)
where I o is the light intensity of a standardized light source and I L is the light intensity after
passing through the smoke over the distance L.
Limits of Smoke Tolerance
Several authors (e.g. Jin, Ref. ii) have carried out experiments designed to test the ability of
human to function effectively in a smoky environment. Jin, Ref. /D.ii/, draws the con-
clusion that an optical density of 0.25 m-1 (corresponding to a visibility of 4-5 m) is about
the threshold of diminished performance, and that this is the smoke level that one should
have in mind when designing smoke ventilation systems.
A report from the Benjamin/Clarke Associates Inc., Ref. iii, states that the visibility of less than
one arm length will be of no help at all when escaping from a fire environment.
According to the report of Benjamin/Clarke Associates Inc., Ref. /D.iii/, smoke detectors usually
respond to an optical density per unit path length in the interval of 0.005 to 0.05 m-1. The
time available for safe escape is the time it takes for the smoke level to increase from
detection point to the hazard point either due to smoke blocking, toxicity or heat stresses
(It should in this context be noted that for risk analysis poruses detector layout, ventilation
characteristica etc. will be of importance). For each of the three critical conditions (i.e.
heat stresses, smoke obscuration and toxicity), Friedman, Ref. iv, defined a level, when it
is reached in a fire, it represents a serious threat. Several types of materials (e.g. filter
paper, several types of PU-foam, nylon. polystyrene, PVC, and several types of branched
polyethylene) were burned and all three effects were compared. The result of this
extensive investigation was that obscuration of vision was the first threat to reach critical

levels for all materials except from one (i.e. filter paper).
Friedman, Ref. /D.iv/, maintains that in exponential growing fires, escape time is rather in-
dependent of smoke properties of the burning material. Flame spread or burning rate
characteristics of the material are much more important.
D1.2 Impact of Smoke
The hazard of smoke is characterized by three factors. The first threat is reduced visibility due
to soot. The second is that hot smoke can cause pain and injuries, and the third is that a
concentration of toxic and irritating components can lead to incapacitation or death. The
relative order of these factors can be found by comparison of threshold values with actual
exposure in a fire scenario, also see Appendix A,B and C.
Reduced Visibility
When a soot concentration is determined by modelling of soot production rates and dispersion,
this can be converted to a length of vision. Soot particles block light passage, and the
length of vision is determined by the strength of the light source, the soot concentration
and to some extent the wavelength of the emitted light.
The visibility of an object is determined by the contrast between the object and its background.
Light emitting signs are for example two to four times easier to see than light reflecting
signs.


FIGURE D.1:Visibility of Front illuminated Sign Versus Optical Density (Per Meter Smoke
Thickness), Ref. v

REFERENCES
i.Jan P. Stensaas: "Toxicity, Visibility and Heat Stresses of Fire Effluents - Human Tenability Limits", Report no. STF25
A91022, Norwegian Fire Research Laboratory, May 1992.
ii.T. Jin: "Human Behaviour in Fire Smoke", p. 324, (Preliminary Report), Proceedings of the 4th joint panel meeting, UJJNR
Panel on Fire Research and Safety, Tokyo, 1979.
iii.Benjamin/Clarke Associates, Inc.: "Smoke and Life Safety", prepared for the Society of Plastic Industry, August 1983.
iv.R. Friedman: "Quantification of Threat from a rapidly growing Fire in Terms of Relative Material Properties", Fire
Materials, 2, p. 27, 1978.
v.E.G. Butcher, A.C. Parnell: "Smoke Control in Fire Safety Design", ISBN 0-419-11190-5, E.&F. NSpoon Ltd., 11 New
Fetter Lane, London EC4P 4EE, Great Britain, 1979.

SCANDPOWER Human Resistance

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HUMAN RESISTANCE

THERMAL EFFECTS, EXPLOSION EFFECTS,

DNV Technica Scandpower A/S

- High air temperature

name date signature

Reviewed by DNV Technica: 20 March 2001

Appendix A: Thermal Effects

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A study of environmental impact on humans was carried by DNV Technica and

- High air temperature

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The thermal dose is defined by the following equation:

Thermal dose = In*t (Eq. 2.1)

Toxic dose = Cn*t (Eq. 2.2)

where C is the concentration in ppm, t is the exposure time in minutes and n is a

The range of susceptibility in a population to a harmful consequence can be expressed

TABLE 2.1: Relationship between the Probit Pr and Percent Fatlities

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Inside living quarters, control rooms or other compartments where personnel

Thermal effects is described in detail in Appendix A.

3.2 Physiological Effects

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TABLE 3.1: Elevated Temperature Response on Human Individuals, Ref. /A.2/

t = 5.33*108/[(T)3.66] (Eq. 3.1)

t = exposure time (minutes)

This equation is also illustrated in Figure 3.1.

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FIGURE 3.1: Air Temperature Hazard Limit Curve, Ref. /A.3/

With temperatures of 70 oC and 150 oC inside a compartment, time to incapacitation may

3.3 Pathological Effects

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First degree burns < 0.12 mm

In the assessment of fatality rates on an offshore or onshore installation it is important to

- Information prior to fire (alarms)

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The TNO model, ref. /A.11/ is as follows:

Naked human skin: Pr = -12.8 + 2.56(tl4/3) (Eq. 3.1)

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16 kW/m2 - Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

25 kW/m2 - Exposure time less than 0.5 minute

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Appendix B presents a detailed presentation of the different effects from an explosion

In a risk analysis the most important effects are

- flying fragments hitting personal

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FIGURE 4.1: Survival Curves for Man

- 1 % level glass breakage ∆ppeak = 1.7 kPa

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TABLE 4.1: Injuries from Missiles

4.4 Hole Body Displacement

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Effect of toxic gases can be divided into two categories:

There is a lot of uncertainties in the calculation of amount of smoke produced in a fire

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TABLE 5.1: Initial Gas Concentrations in Smoke, Ref. /C.2/

Toxic effects are discussed in detail in Appendix C.

1500 ppm Headache after 15 minutes, collapse after 30 minutes,

2000 ppm Headache after 10 minutes, collapse after 20 minutes,

3000 ppm Maximum "safe" exposure for 5 minutes, danger of collapse

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6000 ppm Headache and dizziness in 1 to 2 minutes, danger of death

12800 ppm Immediate effect, unconscious after 2 to 3 breaths, danger

Pr = -37.98 + 3.7ln(C*t) (Eq. 5.1)