Pedology

Upland and Lowland Soil Resources of

the Ancient Maya at Tikal, Guatemala
Debate over agricultural methods and productivity during the Preclassic and
Richard L. Burnett Classic Maya period (1000 BCE to 900 CE) focuses on the agronomic utility
Richard E. Terry* of both upland and lowland soil resources of the karst topography character-
Ryan V. Sweetwood istic of northern Guatemala and much of the Yucatan peninsula. In settings
Dep. of Plant and Wildlife Sciences where direct evidence of agriculture is sparse, stable carbon (C) isotope evi-
Brigham Young Univ. dence from soil organic matter (SOM) provides information on past vegetation
Provo, UT 84602 changes related to ancient maize agriculture. Areas of ancient sustained maize
USA cultivation can be identified in an ecosystem dominated by C3 forest vegeta-
tion because of the unique C4 photosynthetic pathway of maize. The decompo-
David Webster sition of plant materials with divergent photosynthetic mechanisms (C3 versus
Dep. of Anthropology
C4) results in SOM with correspondingly distinct stable C isotope ratios (δ13C).
Pennsylvania State Univ.
University Park, PA 16802
Such differences are preserved and detectable within the refractory humin frac-
USA tion of the SOM. This study analyzes the physical and chemical soil properties
including stable C isotopes of soils collected from upland and lowland locations
Tim Murtha near Tikal, Guatemala. Toeslope soils contained strong isotopic evidence of C4
Dep. of Landscape Architecture vegetation likely the result of ancient maize agriculture, while the evidence
Pennsylvania State Univ. from shallow soils of the summit and backslopes was less conclusive. In both
University Park, PA 16802 upland and lowland contexts, however, the stronger evidence of ancient veg-
USA etation shifts associated with maize agriculture was found in the deeper fine-
textured soils in the footslopes and toeslopes. Examination of soils on toeslopes
Jay Silverstein revealed evidence of deposition from erosional processes upslope that may
Intelligence and GIS Section have been related to the spread of agriculture to less productive soils over time.
Joint POW/MIA Accounting Command
Hickam AFB, HI 96853-5530 Abbreviations: COLE, coefficient of linear extensibility; DEM, digital elevation model;
USA SOM, soil organic matter.

T
ikal National Park, Guatemala, was established in 1955 to protect the ru-
ins of one of the largest ancient Maya sites. Population of the ancient city
at its height (Late Classic, 600–850 CE) is estimated to have been 60,000
or more inhabitants (Culbert et al., 1990; Dickson, 1980; Turner, 1990). Given
the large population of Tikal, agricultural productivity and sustainability would
have been important concerns.
The current understanding of ancient Maya agriculture suggests that slash and
burn (swidden) agriculture was not the sole method of crop production (Turner,
1978). While this practice may have been used throughout Maya history, it is likely
that as populations grew, swidden agriculture was modified and augmented with ad-
ditional agriculture practices designed to maintain and increase yields (Dunning et al.,
1998; Dunning and Beach, 2000). The agricultural strategies employed by the Maya
to support their vast populations likely varied over time and space, depending on many
environmental and cultural factors (Dunning et al., 1998; Dunning and Beach, 2000).
The landscape of northern Guatemala’s Department of Petén where Tikal is lo-
cated is dominated by karst uplands and both seasonal and perennial wetlands in

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J.

doi:10.2136/sssaj2010.0224
Received 2 June 2012.
*Corresponding author (richard_terry@byu.edu).
© Soil Science Society of America, 5585 Guilford Rd., Madison WI 53711 USA
All rights reserved. No part of this periodical may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage
and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permission for printing and for
reprinting the material contained herein has been obtained by the publisher.

Soil Science Society of America Journal

the lowlands. The low-lying wetlands are locally known as bajos
and there has been substantial debate on the agricultural utility of
the bajos; a debate usually framed in an uplands versus lowlands
construct (Baker, 2007). While this construct is useful, the varia-
tion within the lowlands category should be accounted for when
reconstructing and interpreting ancient agriculture and its impacts
(Beach et al., 2006; Dunning et al., 2006). While it is likely that the
karst uplands were used for agriculture (Fedick and Ford, 1990;
Pope and Dahlin, 1989), questions remain as to whether, and to
what extent, the lowlands (karst depressions, seasonal bajos, bajo
margins, and toeslopes) were cultivated (Kunen et al., 2000).
Evidence from some bajos has revealed paleosols buried by
the deposition of eroded soils from the surrounding uplands.
Erosion rates were accelerated by human activities related to de-
forestation and agriculture. The initial erosion acceleration began
during the Preclassic period (2200 BCE to 300 CE) before pop-
ulation pressure reached a maximum. Some of these deposited
soils, usually described as Maya clay (600−800 g kg−1 clay; color
values ≥ 6), overlie buried A horizons (Beach et al., 2008; Beach
et al., 2006, Table 3). The newly aggraded soils on the margins
of the bajos were probably agricultural resources for the Maya
(Dunning and Beach, 2010; Dunning et al., 2002; Gunn et al.,
2002; Hansen et al., 2002; Kunen et al., 2000). Moreover, recent
studies have shown the perennial wetlands of nearby northern
Belize hold similar evidence for aggradation and Classic Maya
wetland agriculture borne out by carbon isotopic evidence with
overlapping, multiple ancient land use proxies such as charcoal,
pollen, phytoliths, and others (Beach et al., 2009, 2011).
An extensive settlement survey of Tikal was conducted in
the 1960s along 12-km long transects oriented in each of the
cardinal directions. The survey did not reveal agricultural ter-
races, but an extensive ditch and parapet earthwork system was
discovered on the north and east sides of the park (Puleston and
Callender, 1967; Puleston, 1983). It was thought that the earth-
works enclosed and were used to defend at least a portion of Ti-
kal’s agricultural hinterland. Sustainability at Tikal has puzzled
researchers because evidence of terraces and other agricultural
intensification features such as drainage ditches or raised fields
has not been identified (Pope and Dahlin, 1989; Puleston, 1973,
1978; Webster et al., 2007a, 2007b).
The analysis of δ13C values of soil and sediment organic
matter as indicators of past vegetation changes have been sum-
marized by Wright et al. (2009). Most pertinent to this study is
the isotope research that has been conducted in Central America
and the Caribbean Basin, including the analyses of lake sedi-
ments, cave sediments, and soils. Lane et al. (2004, 2008) docu-
mented δ13C values associated with pollen and charcoal analy-
ses as evidence of prehistoric forest clearance and crop (maize)
cultivation in Dominican Republic and in Costa Rica. Polk et
al. (2007) analyzed δ13C values of cave sediments from the Vaca
Plateau, Belize, and identified sediments with enriched δ13C
values that corresponded with periods of Preclassic and Classic
Maya agriculture. Webb et al. (2004) examined the δ13C values
of humic fractions of SOM from terraced soils at Caracol, Belize,
6 Soil Science Society of America Journal
as a method to indicate evidence of ancient maize agriculture.
Similar approaches have been used at various Maya sites across
the region (Beach et al., 2008; Fernandez et al., 2005; Johnson
et al., 2007a, 2007b; Sweetwood et al., 2009; Webb et al., 2007;
Wright et al., 2009).
The functional use of SOM δ13C values as an indicator of
past vegetation change is based on the derivation of SOM from
detritus of distinctive plant communities with unique photo-
synthetic pathways. Many tropical grasses including maize uti-
lize the C4 Hatch–Slack photosynthetic pathway while other
plants like trees, shrubs, vines, and many grasses use the C3 Cal-
vin–Benson cycle for photosynthesis. Both categories of plants
discriminate against the heavier 13C isotope when incorporat-
ing CO2 into their plant tissue through photosynthesis, but C3
plants are significantly more discriminatory. The result is that C4
plants are relatively enriched in 13C as compared to C3 plants
(Smith and Epstein, 1971). On average, C3 plants have a stable
C isotope (δ13C) value of −27‰, and C4 plants have an average
of −12‰ (Ehleringer, 1991; Liu et al., 1997). The characteristic
δ13C values of the respective C3 and C4 plant communities are
maintained as SOM forms from the decomposition of both sur-
face and subsurface vegetative matter.
The SOM consists of nondiscrete pools of organic sub-
stances, including recent detritus that is labile to further de-
composition and an older, nonlabile pool of humic materials
that is recalcitrant to decomposition (Hsieh, 1992). The labile
pool has a half-life that typically does not exceed a few decades
(Balesdent et al., 1988), while the refractory nonlabile pool may
have a mean age ranging from hundreds to thousands of years de-
pending on climatic conditions (Balesdent et al., 1988; Bowman
et al., 2007; Hsieh, 1992, 1996; Janssen, 1984; Jenkinson and
Rayner, 1977). The increased longevity of the nonlabile pool is
associated with its stable physical and chemical properties as well
as interactions with the fine clay fractions of soils (Powers and
Schlesinger, 2002; Sollins et al., 1996; Veldkamp, 1994). As the
refractory portion of the SOM is recalcitrant to decomposition,
its associated stable C isotope ratios are preserved for centuries.
Changes in δ13C values within a given soil reveal the past veg-
etative history of an area. Such changes can be prominent when
plant communities have shifted over time from dominantly C3
to C4 assemblages or vice versa. Deforestation of a tropical C3
forest followed by the growth of C4 maize and associated weeds,
is an example of a vegetation shift that would be reflected in the
stable C isotopes within soils.
The majority of the SOM derived from long-term maize pro-
duction originates from root decomposition and rhizodeposition
of sloughed cells and biologic compounds released from live roots.
Nearly twice the amount of SOM developed under maize cultiva-
tion results from these belowground processes as opposed to the
decay of aboveground plant detritus (Balesdent and Balabane,
1996; Molina et al., 2001). Thus, changes in the δ13C values of
humin from soils in ancient maize fields results from both detri-
tus deposited to the soil surface and deposition within the rooting
zone. Another important factor involving the interpretation of soil
δ13C values concerns the naturally occurring isotopic fractionation
of carbon isotopes by microbial diagenesis of the SOM (Blair et al.,
1985). The metabolic pathways of microbial decomposition cause
moderate isotopic fractionation that result in δ13C increases of 1
to 2.5‰ in deeper soil horizons (Agren et al., 1996; Balesdent and
Mariotti, 1987; Boutton, 1996; Cerri et al., 1985). Heightened
microbial activity in certain tropical soils can cause microbial in-
duced increases as high as 3 to 4‰ (Martinelli et al., 1996). Thus,
increases in δ13C values greater than ~3.5‰ within a soil are attrib-
uted to C3/C4 vegetation changes whereas smaller increases could
potentially be accounted for by microbial fractionation (Boutton,
1996; Cerri et al., 1985; Webb et al., 2004).
The objectives of this study were twofold: (i) characterize
soil resources available to the ancient Maya and (ii) use δ13C val-
ues of SOM to identify areas and landscape features associated
with past vegetative changes reflective of ancient forest clearance
and subsequent maize agriculture at Tikal.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
General Soil Properties
A survey of the upland soils at the site center of Tikal (Ol-
son, 1977) indicated that most soils fall in the USDA soil tax-
onomy order Mollisols and the suborder Rendolls. They have
dark, organic-rich mollic epipedons and neutral pH levels. The
soils are inherently fertile (Olson and Puleston, 1972) but have
significant limitations. Some of the soils of the bajo areas are clas-
sified as Vertisols. While these soils are comparable in fertility to
the upland soils, their high clay content would make them dif-
ficult to cultivate. The bajo soils shrink, swell, crack, and heave
depending on moisture conditions. They are sticky when wet and
very hard when dry.
Surface leaf litter was removed (approximately 5 cm) and
soil samples were collected with an 8-cm diameter bucket au-
ger at 15-cm depth increments. The soil samples were placed
in sterilized polyethylene plastic bags (Whirl-pak, Nasco) and
transported to the Brigham Young University Soils Laboratory
(Provo, UT) for analysis. The slope of the soil locations was mea-
sured on site using a clinometer and a digital elevation model
(DEM) generated from data collected by Airborne Synthetic
Aperture Radar (AIRSAR) and Shuttle Radar Topography Mis-
sion (SRTM). The same DEM data were used to determine the
landscape position of each soil. The Universal Transverse Merca-
tor (UTM) coordinates of each soil sampled were recorded in
the field. The horizon separations were confined to the 15-cm
depth increments and were initially based on soil color and tex-
ture. After chemical and physical analyses, horizon designations
were finalized and subscript modifiers were added.
Laboratory Analysis
Samples were air-dried and aggregates were crushed to pass
a 2-mm (10 mesh) sieve. Five-gram subsamples were further
ground to pass a 250-μm (60 mesh) sieve in preparation for total
C, total nitrogen (N) determinations, and stable C isotope anal-
yses. Soil texture was determined using the hydrometer method
(Gee and Bauder, 1986). The coefficient of linear extensibility
(COLE) was determined for the B horizons (Schafer and Singer,
1976). The pH of each A and buried A horizon was determined
on a 1:2 soil/water mixture by glass electrode. The extractable
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) levels were also measured for
those same horizons using the Olsen bicarbonate method (Olsen
and Sommers, 1982). Total C and N were measured by dry com-
bustion with an elemental analyzer (Costech EA, Valencia, CA).

Field Methods
The soil samples were collected by ho-
rizon from pedons in the summit, shoul-
der, backslope, footslope and toeslope of
the uplands, and seasonal bajos of lowland
depressions during the reevaluation of the
Tikal earthworks (Webster et al., 2007b).
Lowland soils were collected from Bajo An-
tonio north of the site center and from Bajo
El Grande in the northwest vicinity of the
earthworks (Fig. 1). Both of these bajos are
relatively small seasonal wetlands, and Bajo
Antonio is best characterized as an upland
depression. The upland soils were sampled
at a variety of locations, including topose-
quences associated with the Tikal North
and West Transects (Coe and Haviland,
1982; Puleston, 1983). Other upland soils
were from ancient settlement mound groups
and from the area surrounding the ancient
reservoir, Aguada El Duende (Fig. 1).
Fig. 1. Map of Tikal National Park, Guatemala, with the soil pedon locations identified with
crosses. Elevation shades are in meters above mean sea level.

www.soils.org/publications/sssaj 6
 Change in
The calcium carbonate equivalent of each horizon

δ13C#

0.36

0.17

3.30

7.77

7.45

1.46

0.41

2.97
was determined by titration (United States Salin-

‰
ity Laboratory Staff, 1954).
Carbonates were removed from 60-mesh

CCE¶

730.5
854.5
421.5
835.1

434.7

132.8

606.1
925.2
828.2
980.4

202.9
16.6
10.1
17.6

25.9
17.6
18.1
56.3
42.7

46.6
76.2

90.7
60.5
7.3
7.3

7.0
samples by reaction with excess HCl and rinsing,
before C isotope analysis. Researchers have raised

————–g/kg————
Organic C
concern that some preanalysis acidification proce-

162.4
46.4
19.3
86.2
23.5
38.8

16.7
57.3
21.3

38.1

62.7
53.0

71.8
20.1
9.6
6.7
2.5

1.3
0.1

8.3
0.2
4.2
2.7
0.1

1.3
6.8
dures for removal of carbonates cause significant,
nonsystematic bias in the isotope analysis (Brodie
et al., 2011). To address these concerns, samples

134.1
121.8
136.8
123.7

163.3

135.4
164.0
100.7
124.5
Total

40.8
10.8

54.7
19.8
59.4
23.5

39.0
13.9

20.1
13.6

72.6
44.4
were centrifuged at high speed (>30,000 × g for

8.8

8.1
5.2

9.3

7.4
C
more than 1 h) after acidification and after rinsing
with water. On the basis of the findings of Webb

Total N

10.9
4.7
1.9
8.1
2.5
3.6
0.7
0.5
0.2
0.0
0.6
1.9
0.4
0.1

3.0
0.9
0.2
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.0
8.7
1.4
1.1
5.9
3.1
et al. (2004) that the humin fraction would be
the most sensitive detector of ancient C4 vegeta-
tion in this type of environment, the humic acid

mg/kg
168.7

198.8

247.1

184.8
61.3

80.9

66.2

97.7

45.8
and fulvic acid fractions were removed by alka-

K
line pyrophosphate extraction (Webb et al., 2004,
2007; Wright et al., 2009). The stable C isotope
mg/kg
5.31

6.50

2.67

4.12

6.56

3.34

8.07

7.50

7.22
ratios of the humin fraction of the SOM of each
P

soil horizon were determined in duplicate using an

isotope ratio mass spectrometer (Thermo Finni-
7.91

7.83

7.13

7.45

6.70

8.32

7.98

7.98

7.26
pH

gan, Waltham, MA) coupled with an elemental

analyzer (EAIRMS) (Costech, Valencia, CA).
The standard deviation of six replicate analyses of
Slope

δ13C was 0.27‰. The stable C isotope values of

%
1

1
the humin fractions were reported as δ13C in per
mil notation (‰).
COLE§

0.12

0.15
0.11

0.18
0.08
0.05

0.11
The absolute value of the largest shift in δ13C
values between surface and subsurface horizons was
reported for each soil as the change in δ13C. This
Class‡

SCL
SCL
value represents the amount of 13C enrichment
CL

CL
CL
C

C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C

C
C
Texture

in each soil and was the primary indicator used to

measure the effects of past vegetation changes on
Clay
g/kg
460
350
580
410
940
990
990
670
600
980
980
980
970
920
970
980
900
980
980
980
300
270
290
280
730
840
the SOM of each soil.

RESULTS
Soil Color

7.5YR 3/1
7.5YR 4/1

7.5YR 4/1

7.5YR 4/1

7.5YR 3/1
7.5YR 4/1

7.5YR 4/1

7.5YR 3/1

7.5YR 6/1
10YR 3/1

10YR 3/1
10YR 3/1

10YR 5/1
10YR 3/1
10YR 3/1
10YR 4/1

10YR 3/1
10YR 3/1

10YR 6/1
10YR 5/1

10YR 6/1
10YR 3/1

10YR 5/2
10YR 7/1
10YR 2/1
10YR 3/1
Bajo Soils
Dry

Selected physical and chemical properties of

the soils from Bajo Antonio and Bajo El Grande
Table 1. Selected properties of lowland bajo soils.

Horizon

are listed in Table 1. A complete listing of soil

A/Cr

A/Cr

Bw1
Bw2

Bw1
Bw2
Bw3

Bw1
Bw2
Bw3

Bw4

Cr1
A1
A2

Ab

A1
A2
Cr

Cr
O
A

physical properties and the USDA taxonomic sub-

groups of the sampled pedons are reported else-
where (Burnett, 2009). All of the Bajo Antonio
60–134
134–150

95–170

36–100
100–151
151–164
164–200
200–214
Depth

0–18
18–36
0–18
18–47
0–42
42–60

0–15
15–30
30–95

0–18
18–36

0–18
18–27
0–18
18–52
0–18
18–33
cm

A horizon textures were clay or clay loam with the

0

exception of soil 6 (sandy clay loam). The surface

horizons were dark in color (value < 3, chroma <
Hillslope†

SU

SH

1) and were neutral to slightly alkaline in pH (av-

TS

TS
FS

FS

FS

FS

erage 7.56). The average extractable P, total N, and

organic C levels were 5.63 mg kg−1, 3.9 g kg−1,
and 54.5 g kg−1, respectively. The δ13C values for
Bajo Antonio 1

Bajo Antonio 2

Bajo Antonio 3

Bajo Antonio 4

Bajo Antonio 5

Bajo Antonio 6

Bajo Antonio 7

Bajo Antonio 8
Pedon

the humin of surface horizons was in the range

of −27 to −30‰, reflecting contemporary C3
forest trees and vines (Fig. 2a and 2b). Only two

6 Soil Science Society of America Journal

 Soil Color Texture Total Change in
Pedon Hillslope† Depth Horizon Dry Clay Class‡ COLE§ Slope pH P K Total N C Organic C CCE¶ δ13C#
Bajo El Grande 5 FS 0–15 A1 10YR 3/1 680 C 3 8.00 7.93 32.8 4.0 87.0 42.4 371.5 1.53
15–26 A2 10YR 4/1 740 C 2.0 75.9 17.2 489.2
26–37 AC 10YR 4/1 690 C 0.6 82.1 4.6 646.2
37–57 Ck 10YR 8/1 690 C 0.3 82.7 2.8 665.7
57–72 Ab 10YR 6/1 710 C 8.39 3.53 50.9 0.0 60.4 2.3 484.5
72–140 C 10YR 8/1 600 C 0.0 78.6 1.5 642.7
Bajo El Grande 6 FS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 660 C 3 7.72 8.64 38.2 6.2 120.4 84.3 300.6 1.68
15–30 Bt 10YR 4/1 740 C 0.05 2.7 76.8 30.7 384.0
30–42 BCk 10YR 5/1 730 C 0.08 0.6 68.1 4.7 528.1

www.soils.org/publications/sssaj
42–75 C1 10YR 7/1 840 C 0.04 0.1 59.5 2.6 474.0
75–100 AbC 7.5YR 5/1 880 C 8.56 5.19 13.8 0.0 51.7 0.2 429.2
100–200 C2 10YR 8/1 610 C 0.02 0.0 88.5 8.8 664.0
Bajo El Grande 7 TS 0–20 A 10YR 3/1 920 C 1 7.17 6.84 26.0 3.7 52.9 49.0 32.3 4.89
20–40 E 10YR 5/1 860 C 0.03 0.6 20.2 6.1 117.9
40–80 Btk 7.5YR 5/1 990 C 0.02 0.2 22.1 2.4 164.4
100–140 C1 10YR 8/1 220 SiL 0.00 0.0 8.5 0.6 65.8
140–200 C2 10YR 7/2 220 SiL 0.00 0.0 6.4 1.6 39.8
Bajo El Grande 8 FS 0–20 A 10YR 3/1 790 C 3 7.40 7.77 57.5 5.2 86.4 79.5 57.1 4.47
20–40 Btk1 10YR 6/2 870 C 0.05 0.6 48.1 5.6 354.1
40–80 Btk2 10YR 7/2 860 C 0.06 0.1 44.4 0.1 369.4
80–140 C 10YR 8/1 220 SiL 0.00 0.0 23.8 11.0 106.4
140–200 Cy 10YR 8/1 200 SiL 0.01 0.0 9.3 0.2 75.6
Bajo El Grande 9 TS 0–16 A 10YR 3/1 980 C 0 7.43 3.40 64.9 1.3 20.0 15.8 35.4 5.65
16–37 AC 10YR 7/1 860 C 0.05 0.2 27.7 6.0 180.9
37–63 C1 10YR 8/1 870 C 0.06 0.0 30.8 2.2 238.0
80–110 C/Ab 7.5YR 6/1 870 C 0.11 0.0 35.9 1.9 283.6
110–145 Akb 7.5YR 4/1 870 C 7.78 5.18 44.6 0.0 30.7 1.8 241.2
145–205 C2 10YR 7/1 980 C 0.04 0.0 9.5 3.9 46.4
Bajo El Grande 10 TS 0–24 A 10YR 3/1 890 C 1 7.15 8.81 64.2 3.2 45.7 40.4 44.3 5.65
24–50 Bw1 7.5YR 3/1 940 C 0.07 1.0 30.2 15.2 124.7
50–108 Bw2 7.5YR 4/1 840 C 0.14 0.2 36.6 5.9 255.6
108–137 BC 7.5YR 4/1 850 C 0.06 0.3 34.0 8.8 210.1
Bajo El Grande 11 FS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 740 C 3 7.51 12.79 87.9 5.0 68.4 61.8 55.2 5.90
15–30 Bt 10YR 4/1 890 C 1.9 31.7 15.2 137.9
30–95 Bk 7.5YR 4/1 810 C 0.10 0.2 47.5 0.5 391.3
95–200 BC 7.5YR 5/1 840 C 0.11 0.1 37.2 1.4 298.5
Bajo El Grande 12 FS 0–15 A1 10YR 3/1 750 C 6 7.60 12.12 72.4 7.0 117.8 78.8 325.1 6.18
15–30 A2 10YR 3/1 690 C 2.3 72.1 15.1 474.6
30–60 BC 10YR 5/1 750 C 0.05 0.3 68.2 6.7 512.4
60–125 Ck 10YR 7/1 820 C 0.05 0.0 68.3 0.5 565.3
125–158 Akb 7.5YR 3/1 990 C 8.26 7.08 42.8 0.0 43.7 1.0 355.6
158–200 C 5Y 6/1 890 C 0.11 0.0 33.7 0.3 278.4
† Slope Position: SU, summit; SH, shoulder; BS, backslope; FS, footslope; TS, toeslope.
‡ Texture class: SiL, silt loam; SCL, sandy clay loam; CL, clay loam; C, clay.
§ COLE, Coefficient of linear extensibility.
¶ CCE, calcium carbonate equivalent.

6
# The change in δ13C from surface horizon to a horizon at depth.
soils (Bajo Antonio 4 and 5) had significant 13C enrichment of high for crop growth (Havlin et al., 2005, Tables 9–13). Total N
greater than 4‰ in subsurface horizons (Table 1). The shallow and organic C in the surface horizons ranged from 1.3 to 7.0 g kg−1
soils (<52 cm) on the summit, shoulder, and footslope landscape and from 15.8 to 84.3 g kg−1, respectively. The δ13C values of the
positions of Bajo Antonio (soils 1, 2, 6, and 7) had low δ13C humin in the surface horizons were in the range of −28 to −30‰
enrichment values (0.17 to 1.46‰), while the soils on deeper (Fig. 3a and 3b), and the average change in δ13C with depth was
(>150 cm) footslope and toeslope positions (Bajo Antonio 3, 4, 4.49‰ (Table 1). Six of the eight Bajo El Grande soils exceeded
and 5) exhibited greater isotopic enrichment (3.30 to 7.77‰). 4‰ enrichment, indicative of ancient C4 vegetation. Only soils 5
Significant clay accumulation and associated argillic horizon de- and 6 lacked evidence of a C4 vegetative history with enrichment
velopment were not encountered in the soils sampled from Bajo values of 1.53 and 1.68‰.
Antonio, yet the horizons of the deeper soils all had very high
clay content (>900 g kg−1).
The eight soils from Bajo El Grande (5–12) were sampled in
the footslope and toeslope landscape positions. These soils were
deep (>137 cm) and clayey (>660 g kg−1, Table 1). Four of these
soils possessed buried A horizons with thick, lighter colored (val-
ue < 7, chroma < 1) deposition layers above the Ab horizon. The
shrink–swell potentials of these soils were low (COLE: high value
= 0.14, mean 0.06 (Table 1)). The surface horizons were just above
neutral pH, and the extractable P levels were generally medium to

Fig. 2. The change in δ13C of the humin fraction with depth of soils in Fig. 3. The change in δ13C of the humin fraction with depth of pedons
Bajo Antonio near Tikal. in Bajo El Grande near Tikal.

6 Soil Science Society of America Journal

Upland Soils
The 52 upland soils were collected from rural house mound
groups near the earthwork, the North Transect, the West Transect,
and from the Aguada El Duende (Fig. 1). Selected physical and
chemical properties of the upland soils are listed in Table 2. The
upland soils include pedons from the rural mound groups iden-
tified by archaeologists as Operation 12, Group 30, West Group
19, and Group 41. The mound group soils (sampled on summit,
shoulder, backslope, and footslope) were dark (value < 3, chroma
< 2), shallow (<39 cm deep), clayey (400 to 800 g kg−1 clay) and
have a high organic C content (70–510 g kg−1 C). These soils
were limited agriculturally by shallow depth to limestone bedrock.
The average δ13C value of the surface horizons was −28.72‰, and
the average change in δ13C with depth was 0.41‰.
The upland summit and backslope soils from the North and
West Transects were mostly shallow (<54 cm deep) soils with his-
tories of ancient and contemporary C3 vegetation (Table 2). There
were, however, six of twenty-five soils that were greater than 50 cm
deep on the transects. The deeper (greater than 50 cm) soils on the
footslope and toeslope of the North and the West Transects were
dark in color (value < 3, chroma < 1), clayey (620–950 g kg−1
clay) with gentle slopes (3%), neutral to slightly alkaline pH (6.3
to 8.0), and had low to medium extractable P levels (1.6–6.6 mg
kg−1) (Table 2). The deeper upland soils contain greater amounts
of 13C derived from C4 vegetation, but only one, North Transect
soil 4, exhibited a change in δ13C that exceeded 4‰ (Fig. 4 and 5).
Aguada El Duende was an ancient water storage reservoir
situated near the intersection of three arms of the Tikal Earth-
works (Fig. 1 and 6) (Webster et al., 2007b). Five soils were col-
lected from the area around the aguada, and soil 3 was taken
from the center of the aguada. Pedons Aguada El Duende 1, 2,
4, and 5 represent soils on the backslope and footslope landscape
positions surrounding the aguada (Fig. 6). These shallow soils
were less than 50 cm deep over bedrock. Soil 3 sampled at the
center of the aguada was 110 cm deep with vertic properties.
Aguada El Duende soil 4 (footslope), adjacent to the aguada,
was more than 200 cm deep and was the only soil that possessed
an isotopic signature of an ancient vegetation shift to C4 plants
(6.78‰) (Fig. 7).
DISCUSSION
Bajo Soils
The Bajo Antonio and Bajo El Grande soils include some of
the deepest (>130 cm) collected. Nine of the seventeen soils ex-
hibited a increase in δ13C values with depth, indicative of ancient
C4 plant growth that likely included maize agriculture (Fig. 6 and
8). At Bajo Antonio, two of the eight soils (Bajo Antonio 4 and
5) had significant shifts in δ13C of more than 7.46‰ (Fig. 2b and
8). These soils were located at lower landscape positions near the
center of the bajo. Bajo Antonio soil 3 from the upland margin of
the bajo exhibited weak evidence of ancient C4 vegetation with a
shift in δ13C value of 3.30‰. The other five Bajo Antonio soils (1,
2, 6, 7, and 8) from the bajo margins or uplands around the bajo
were less than 80 cm deep and did not possess significant isotopic
www.soils.org/publications/sssaj
signatures of ancient C4 vegetation (Fig. 2a). Examination of the
δ13C values of Bajo Antonio soils 4 and 5 indicates that both were
cultivated anciently (Fig. 2b). Bajo Antonio soil 5 was impacted by
soil deposition that buried an Ab horizon 164–200 cm deep, while
soil 4 lacked evidence of a buried Ab horizon. The greatest δ13C
values in soil 5 were located below 100 cm, suggesting burial of C4-
enriched soils that had been cultivated and subsequently buried,
resulting in a preserved C4 vegetation signal.
Within the context of maize agriculture, it is reasonable that
the greatest impact of C4 vegetation on native forest soils would
be experienced in the ancient root zone because a large portion
of maize biomass that is converted to SOM originates from rhi-
zodeposition (Balesdent and Balabane, 1996; Bolinder et al.,
1999; Molina et al., 2001). The soils that were deposited over
these buried A horizons were also significantly enriched in 13C.
These soils were likely cultivated after deposition (Dunning et al.,
2002). It is also possible that cultivated upland soils were eroded
and their C4 vegetation-enriched SOM was deposited in the
bajo. The complex pattern of δ13C in the SOM of Bajo Antonio
soil 5 (Fig. 2b) may have been caused by periods of varying cul-
tivation intensity or by the erosion and deposition over time of
13C-enriched and slightly less 13C-enriched soils. In any event,
the distinct isotopic signature of C3 vegetation in the surface to
80 cm depth highlights a definite vegetation change whether at-
tributed to the cessation of cultivation, the stabilization of the
forested landscape, or both.
As compared to Bajo Antonio soil 5, soil 4 was shallower
and lacked a buried Ab horizon, indicating that deposition may
have played less of a role at this location (Table 1). From bottom
to top, a discernible C3–C4–C3 vegetation shift was observed
with the greatest δ13C values (−21.82 to −20.87‰) occurring
at 75 to 110 cm depth (Fig. 2b). This trend is in harmony with
the generalized cultural and vegetation history of the area. A pe-
riod of native C3 forest vegetation was followed by forest clear-
ance for C4 vegetation associated with Maya agriculture. This in
turn was followed by abandonment and a return to contempo-
rary C3 forest vegetation.
In Bajo El Grande, six of the eight soils showed shifts in
δ13C values of greater than 4‰ in ancient root zones (Fig. 6).
The average shift in δ13C values of those six soils was 5.46‰.
The plotted δ13C values of Soils 5 through 8 are shown in Fig.
3a. Soils 5 and 6 from Bajo El Grande were the southernmost
collected in this bajo and did not have substantial isotopic shifts
(1.53 and 1.68‰, respectively). Bajo El Grande Soils 7 and 8
possessed similar isotopic trends to Soils 5 and 6, but at a great-
er magnitude such that the changes in δ13C values exceed 4‰
(4.89 and 4.47‰, respectively).
Bajo El Grande Soils 5 through 8 were sampled along a
north-south transect and their horizons exhibited an erosion
and deposition sequence. Bajo El Grande Soils 5 and 6 each pos-
sessed buried Ab horizons, and Soil 7, near the bottom of the
depression, had a light gray (10YR 7/2) gypsic horizon under
a white (10YR 8/1) C horizon (Table 1). The distinctive white
horizon appeared to be the native parent material of these soils.
6
 6
Table 2. Selected properties of representative upland soils along survey transects and near ancient settlements.

Soil Color Texture Total Total Organic Change in

Pedon Hillslope† Depth Horizon Dry Clay Class‡ COLE§ Slope pH P K N C C CCE¶ δ13C#
cm g/kg % mg/kg mg/kg —————————— g/kg —————————— ‰
North Transect 1 SU 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 430 C 1 7.9 3.1 107.3 15.8 250.7 179.0 597.7 0.52
15–28 A/Cr 2.5Y 5/1 360 CL 8.0 213.9 118.8 792.4
North Transect 2 BS 0–15 A1 10YR 2/1 470 C 4 7.7 2.8 95.3 19.2 182.5 145.1 37.4 0.69
15–25 A2 10YR 3/1 480 C 12.4 178.6 114.3 64.3
North Transect 3 FS 0–15 A1 10YR 3/1 720 C 2 7.8 4.1 231.7 16.1 157.2 131.1 26.1 1.92
15–30 A2 10YR 3/1 730 C 8.4 113.9 77.1 36.8
North Transect 4 TS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 790 C 1 8.0 5.3 230.7 10.5 108.6 84.9 197.5 5.25
15–60 Bk1 10YR 3/1 730 C 0.11 3.4 117.2 58.1 492.7
60–75 Bk2 10YR 3/1 800 C 0.11 2.0 90.0 43.9 384.2
75–130 Btk 10YR 3/1 920 C 0.22 0.7 71.5 28.3 360.3
130–175 Ab 10YR 3/1 980 C 8.2 1.2 99.2 2.3 28.7 13.8 124.3
175–200 BC 2.5Y 4/1 810 C 0.18 2.4 65.2 27.4 315.3
North Transect 8 BS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 530 C 2 7.8 7.1 185.3 10.0 162.7 97.3 544.8 0.46
15–24 A/Cr 2.5Y 5/1 490 C 6.0 149.0 65.2 698.1
North Transect 10 FS 0–20 A 10YR 5/1 420 C 4 8.0 5.7 135.2 8.3 175.8 88.0 731.3 0.66
20–30 A 10YR 6/1 420 C 6.8 169.5 77.0 770.5
30–42 Cr 10YR 6/1 450 C 4.5 157.0 59.5 812.3
North Transect 11 FS 0–20 A 10YR 3/1 620 C 3 7.9 6.3 177.1 8.6 107.8 80.4 228.2 2.37
20–40 Bk 10YR 3/1 600 C 0.05 3.4 74.8 18.3 470.8
40–70 Bt 10YR 3/1 920 C 0.18 2.6 15.3 7.5 65.3
70–78 BC 10YR 4/2 760 C 1.9 56.4 16.9 329.2
West Transect 1 FS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 860 C 2 7.7 4.4 39.6 3.6 34.1 32.3 14.6 2.15
15–60 Bw 7.5YR 3/1 910 C 0.04 1.3 11.6 10.0 13.5
60–80 Cr 10YR 8/1 410 C 0.6 96.8 0.7 800.6
West Transect 2 BS 0–15 A1 10YR 3/1 90 SiL 3 7.9 5.1 95.4 8.9 92.1 71.7 170.0 0.14
15–29 A2 7.5YR 4/1 130 L 4.7 94.1 35.0 492.8
West Transect 3 BS 0–14 A 10YR 3/1 700 C 3 7.8 2.0 176.3 6.8 70.1 64.2 49.3 0.99
14–30 Bw 10YR 3/1 760 C 0.08 4.6 38.8 32.9 49.2
West Transect 8 BS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 820 C 4 7.8 1.9 248.5 6.4 60.2 57.9 19.3 2.99
15–30 Bw1 10YR 3/1 780 C 0.16 4.8 44.5 42.3 18.1
30–54 Bw2 7.5YR 2/1 840 C 0.09 3.2 40.5 26.9 113.7
West Transect 9 FS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 880 C 2 6.3 1.6 310.4 15.0 234.1 165.2 574.1 3.46
15–30 Bw1 7.5YR 3/1 930 C 0.11
30–75 Bw2 7.5YR 3/1 980 C 0.12 8.3 166.3 93.9 603.2
75–105 Bw3 10YR 6/1 980 C 0.11 34.6 534.4 510.7 197.5
West Transect 12 BS 0–15 A 10YR 4/1 560 C 3 7.9 2.6 70.8 0.7 136.7 58.7 650.0 0.21
15–21 A/Cr 7.5YR 4/1 430 C 12.7 196.5 141.9 454.6
West Transect 13 FS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 920 C 3 6.5 2.0 79.9 9.7 182.4 120.0 519.7 3.35

Soil Science Society of America Journal

 Soil Color Texture Total Total Organic Change in
Pedon Hillslope† Depth Horizon Dry Clay Class‡ COLE§ Slope pH P K N C C CCE¶ δ13C#
15–30 Bw1 10YR 4/1 950 C 0.11 14.7 188.0 141.1 390.7
30–118 Bw2 2.5Y 3/1 980 C 0.08 10.0 150.8 97.1 447.5
Aguada El Duende 1 FS 0–20 A 10YR 4/1 330 CL 3 7.8 4.7 214.6 1.7 133.3 57.7 75.6
Aguada El Duende 2 FS 0–36 A 10YR 3/1 600 C 2 7.7 6.9 155.1 12.2 193.2 129.7 529.4 1.54
36–48 Cr 7.5YR 6/1 530 C 7.4 164.3 83.9 669.9
Aguada El Duende 3 TS 0–46 O 10YR 2/1 920 C 2 4.5 153.1 59.3 781.3 0.85
46–64 A 10YR 3/1 960 C 7.5 11.4 98.3 10.4 159.1 117.7 344.9
46–110 Bw 10YR 2/1 970 C 0.19 4.0 126.7 51.0 630.6

www.soils.org/publications/sssaj
Aguada El Duende 4 FS 0–17 A 7.5YR 3/1 950 C 8 7.0 6.6 127.4 8.4 144.9 85.7 493.5 6.78
17–31 Bw1 7.5YR 3/1 980 C 0.19 3.1 139.8 46.6 777.0
31–75 Bw2 7.5YR 4/1 0.10 3.4 88.0 38.3 414.3
75–180 Bw3 7.5YR 4/1 950 C 0.16 0.3 48.6 37.0 97.0
180–200 Bw4 7.5YR 5/1 980 C 0.11 0.1 19.4 9.9 79.5
Aguada El Duende 5 BS 0–20 A 7.5YR 3/1 440 C 16 7.8 5.5 98.9 8.3 116.3 81.0 293.8 0.32
20–40 A 7.5YR 4/1 8.0 4.1 71.3
Group 41 Soil 1 FS 0–20 A 10YR 2/1 490 C 1 7.8 9.1 130.4 15.0 228.6 151.2 645.0
Group 41 Soil 2 FS 0–20 A 10YR 2/1 540 C 2 7.8 10.5 302.5 23.0 292.2 263.4 239.7 0.98
20–40 Cr 7.5YR 5/1 520 C 7.5 195.3 96.5 823.3
Group 41 Soil 3 BS 0–20 A 10YR 2/1 510 C 3 7.6 9.8 200.8 26.8 362.9 329.9 275.0 0.08
20–25 Cr 7.5YR 5/1
Group 41 Soil 4 BS 0–19 A 10YR 2/1 410 C 4 7.8 9.3 123.1 19.0 280.8 218.1 522.3 0.56
19–39 Cr 10YR 7/1 470 C 4.2 194.4 84.5 915.8
Group 41 Soil 5 FS 0–20 A 10YR 2/1 590 C 1 8.0 6.6 88.7 11.0 173.3 100.4 607.1 0.45
20–43 Cr 7.5YR 5/1 470 C 5.5 177.2 81.2 800.2
Group 41 Soil 9 BS 0–19 A1 10YR 2/1 540 C 4 7.9 9.1 177.8 14.8 231.9 159.9 599.9 0.14
19–25 A2 10YR 3/1
Group 30 BS 0–15 A 10YR 3/1 750 C 7 7.7 7.7 77.0 10.6 123.5 113.0 87.9 1.55
15–30 Bt 10YR 6/2 840 C 3.2 84.6 68.7 132.4
30–45 Cr1 10YR 7/2 750 C 0.9 121.0 33.5 729.2
45–58 Cr2 10YR 8/1 680 C 0.7 136.7 58.7 650.0
West Group 19 Soil 1 SU 0–15 A 10YR 2/1 460 C 2 7.8 9.6 207.3 12.7 196.5 141.9 454.6 0.44
15–30 Cr 10YR 7/1 520 C 9.7 182.4 120.0 519.7
West Group 19 Soil 2 SU 0–15 A 10YR 2/1 510 C 2 7.9 10.9 282.3 14.7 188.0 141.1 390.7 0.68
15–30 Cr 10YR 7/1 460 C 10.0 150.8 97.1 447.5
Operation 12 Soil 1 SH 0–18 A 10YR 2/1 210 SCL 3 7.8 6.2 247.0 12.2 193.2 129.7 529.4 0.81
18–27 A/Cr 10YR 7/1 260 SCL 7.4 164.3 83.9 669.9
27–33 Cr 10YR 2/1 460 C 4.5 153.1 59.3 781.3
Operation 12 Soil 2 BS 0–20 A 10YR 3/1 550 C 3 7.7 4.2 235.1 10.4 159.1 117.7 344.9 1.95
20–31 Cr 7.5YR 4/1 510 C 4.0 126.7 51.0 630.6
† Slope Position: SU, summit; SH, shoulder; BS, backslope; FS, footslope; TS, toeslope.
‡ Texture class: SiL, silt loam; SCL, sandy clay loam; CL, clay loam; C, clay.
§ COLE, Coefficient of linear extensibility.
¶ CCE, calcium carbonate equivalent.

6
# The change in δ13C from surface horizon to a horizon at depth.
Fig. 4. The change in δ13C of the humin fraction with depth of soils
along the North Transect of Tikal.
El Grande Soil 8, sampled at the footslope lacked a distinct bur-
ied horizon at depth but does have the white C horizon (10YR
8/1) characteristic of the other soils in the group. The darker bur-
ied horizons occurred at greater depths and thicknesses in each
soil moving down in elevation. The overlying depositional lay-
ers followed the same pattern. One possible explanation is that
agriculture was focused near the center of the depression and
spread outward and upward to slightly steeper slopes over time.
Cultivated surface soils from upslope locations may have eroded
creating buried horizons, deposition layers, and increasingly C4-
enriched δ13C values in soils at lower landscape positions. Maize
cultivation and rhizodeposition were more likely the sources of
13C enrichment in the El Grande soils, however.
Contemporary vegetation differed between the two ba-
jos. Bajo Antonio had more escoba palm (Crysophilia argentes
Bartlett), with little to no tintal (Haematoxylum campechianum
L.), while Bajo El Grande had escoba and tintal vegetation with
the tintal dominating the lower, flatter regions of the bajo. These
vegetation and soil differences would potentially have had an
impact on isotope values, if substantial δ13C differences existed
between these two plant species. Therefore, we collected five
plant specimens for C isotopic analysis. Both escoba palm and
tintal were identified as C3 plants with δ13C values of −33.9
and −31.4‰, respectively. Three unidentified grass species were
collected in the wetlands of Tikal and δ13C values ranged from
−31.9 to −28.5‰, indicating that they were also C3 plants. It
is interesting that both the plant tissue and the surface horizon
δ13C values from bajos were very negative, often below −29‰
(Table 1). This is likely the result of greater soil moisture and
6 Soil Science Society of America Journal
Fig. 5. The change in δ13C of the humin fraction with depth of pedons
along the West Transect of Tikal.
high relative humidity in the bajos. Under these conditions the
stomata of C3 plant leaves remained open allowing for greater
discrimination against the heavier 13CO2 (Wright et al., 2009).
Other bajo and grass species sampled from the Department
of Petén were also identified as C3 plants ( Johnson et al., 2007b)
as were all but two species sampled from the nearby perennial
wetlands of northern Belize (Beach et al., 2011). Furthermore,
some of the aquatic pollen types that dominated the pollen as-
semblage of a buried soil in a bajo near La Milpa were classified
as C3 plants (Dunning et al., 2002). Thus, the isotopic evidence
from La Milpa may actually suggest maize agriculture instead of,
or in addition to, herbaceous wetland vegetation common to pe-
rennial or seasonal wetlands. The data from Nakbe ( Jacob, 1995)
show that the majority of species sampled from the perennially
wet civales were also C3, indicating that the isotopic shift in the
buried bajo soils may have resulted from maize agriculture.
The change in δ13C values with depth of Bajo El Grande
soils 9, 10, and 11 were all greater than 5‰. The highest δ13C
values of El Grande soil 9 were within the buried horizons, with
the greatest in the lower portion of the buried Akb horizon
(−22.84‰ at 125–145 cm) (Table 1 and Fig. 3b). A slightly
less enriched δ13C value was located in a mixed C–Ab horizon
deposited above the ancient surface. This mixed horizon likely
consisted of soil eroded from upslope locations, providing fur-
ther evidence of the proposed scenario where agriculture spread
outward and upward away from the best soils to
marginal soils more susceptible to erosion.
Bajo El Grande Soils 10 and 11 lacked Ab
horizons, yet still had strong C isotope evidence
of ancient agriculture (Table 1 and Fig. 6). These
two soils were located farther away from settle-
ment and the earthworks and appear to have
been agriculturally important, indicated by the
large change with depth in the δ13C values (5.65
and 5.90‰). Soil 11 shows a more sustained pe-
riod of ancient C4 vegetation with δ13C values
ranging from −24.90 to −23.21‰ below the
30-cm depth (Fig. 3b).
Bajo El Grande Soil 12 was located near the
earthworks and close to ancient settlements (Fig.
6). The soil had a distinct buried Ab horizon with
associated δ13C values indicating strong evidence
of ancient agriculture. The change in δ13C values
of 6.18‰ associated with the large δ13C value of
−22.61‰ at 125 to 158 cm was the greatest of
Fig. 6. Map of soils collected from Bajo El Grande, Aguada El Duende, mound groups 30
any soil from Bajo El Grande (Fig. 3b). and 41, and Operation 12 with the change inδ13C with depth indicated as 13C enrichment
(‰). Elevation contours are in meters above mean sea level.
Upland Soils
The upland soils were divided into three groupings: mound horizonation of the two soils was similar, a difference in stable C
group soils, transect soils, and soils from near Aguada El Duende isotope values was observed. North Transect Soil 4 had 13C en-
(Fig. 6, 8, and 9). The mound groups including Operation 12, richment of 5.25‰, but Soil 11 located outside of the earthworks
West Group 19, Group 30 and Group 41 soils were typically was enriched by only 2.37‰. These data suggest that maize culti-
shallow (<34 cm deep) summit, shoulder, and backslope soils vation took place at the toeslope location of soil NT4 inside the
and did not show stable C isotope evidence of maize agriculture earthwork and that there was no significant history of C4 vegeta-
(Table 2 and Fig. 10). The greatest δ13C shift of any of these soils tion at North Transect soil NT11 located outside the earthwork.
was less than 2‰. The shallow summit and shoulder slopes of
these upland elevations served as well drained household sites
for the ancient Maya. The average δ13C value for the surface soil
samples collected from these soils was −28.45‰, a value consis-
tent with native C3 forest vegetation. Soil adjacent to structures
might not be expected to have signatures of ancient C4 veg-
etation unless they were cultivated before or after the structures
were used.
The North and West Transects at Tikal intersect the earth-
works and encompass a variety of soil types including shallow
soils (<34 cm) over limestone bedrock at the summit and back-
slope locations and deeper soils (>80 cm) at the footsloaps and
toeslopes. Isotopic evidence of maize agriculture in these upland
zones was limited. Only North Transect Soil 4 displayed a shift
greater than 4‰ with a δ13C change of 5.25‰ (Fig. 9). The ma-
jority of the transect soils were shallow, but five soils with depths
of more than 70 cm showed weak isotopic evidence of ancient
maize agriculture with changes in δ13C values between 2 and 4‰.
In the case of the North Transect soils, only two of the twelve
were deeper than 50 cm. One of those deeper soils, North Tran-
sect Soil 4, was located 185 m inside the earthworks (Fig. 8). The
other, North Transect Soil 11, was 475 m outside the earthworks,
but both soils possessed similar characteristics (Table 2) and were
Fig. 7. The change in δ13C of the humin fraction with depth of four soils
located on toeslope and footslope positions, respectively. Though
within Aguada El Duende and of pedon 4 adjacent to Aguada El Duende.

www.soils.org/publications/sssaj 6

Fig. 8. Map of Bajo Antonio and the North Transect with the change in δ C with depth indicated culture. Aguada El Duende Soil 4, adjacent
13
as 13C enrichment (‰). Elevation contours are in meters above mean sea level.
West Transect soil WT9 located approximately100 m outside
the earthwork had a δ13C enrichment of 3.46‰, the greatest of
any of the West Transect soils (Fig. 9). The other deeper soils from
the West Transect had shifts in δ13C values of 2.15‰ (soil WT1)
and 3.35‰ (soil WT13). While not as deep, soil WT8 had an
enrichment of 2.99‰. These enrichment values provide only weak
evidence of ancient C4 vegetation, but examination of the trends
Fig. 9. Map of the West Transect and West Group 19 with the change in δ13C with soil depth indi-
cated as 13C enrichment (‰). Elevation contours are in meters above mean sea level.
6 Soil Science Society of America Journal
of the δ13C values indicates the possibility
of ancient agriculture (Fig. 5b). Excluding
soil WT8, each of these soils exhibited in-
creasing δ13C values with depth, followed
by a return to more negative, C3-like values
at the greatest depths of the soils. While a
change of 4‰ was not met, the trend (Fig.
5a and 5b) inherently hints at a C3–C4– C3
shift caused by past vegetation changes that
could be attributed to agriculture.
The area around Aguada El Duende
could have been agriculturally important
given its location with respect to the earth-
works and because of the water the aguada
would have stored (Fig. 6) (Silverstein et al.,
2009; Webster et al., 2007b). The δ13C data
of soil horizons in and around the aguada
are shown in Fig. 7. The shallow footslope
and backslope soils furthest from the agua-
da showed little to no evidence of ancient
C4 vegetation associated with maize agri-
to the aguada, exhibited a large enrichment
of 6.78‰. Soil 4 stands in contrast to soil
3 from the center of the aguada which had an enrichment of only
0.85‰. Aguada El Duende Soil 4, at least, provided evidence that
the area was agriculturally important. Aguada El Duende Soil 3
formed from sediments near the center of the aguada, therefore it
could be considered a control because maize would not have been
grown at this flooded location. Soil 3 exhibited small increases in
δ13C values consistent with natural isotopic fractionation from
microbial processes.
CONCLUSIONS
Stable C isotope ratios in soils from
peripheral areas surrounding Tikal provided
information on both the current and past
vegetation assemblages of the area. Signifi-
cant shifts in δ13C values of greater than 4‰
within certain soils indicated ancient vegeta-
tion changes associated with C4 maize agri-
culture. The evidence of such changes was
preserved in the humin fraction of SOM
from soils located within both upland and
lowland topography.
The evidence of ancient maize agri-
culture in the upland soils was not strong.
Those few upland soils that exhibited stron-
ger stable C isotope enrichment, indicative
of past maize agriculture, were confined
mostly to deeper footslope and toeslope
soils with properties similar to bajo soils.
Lower locations within uplands such as
drainages, localized depressions, and areas
near aguadas were those where the evidence of past vegetation
changes associated with agriculture was strongest.
Although great variation exists among bajos in the Petén,
the stable C isotope evidence suggests that the two bajos exam-
ined in this study were favored for ancient agriculture. The data
from Bajo El Grande and Bajo Antonio imply that these season-
ally wet depressions were initially cultivated before the steeper
upland slopes immediately enclosing the bajos. Then, as needed,
agriculture spread to the more erodible steeper slopes that sur-
rounded these depressions. Substantial soil erosion and deposi-
tion followed, burying some of the prime agricultural land of the
depressions. The deposits may have been subsequently cultivated
as at other sites (Beach et al., 2006, 2009, 2011). This series of
events likely began during the Preclassic period.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This portion of the Re-evaluation of the Earthworks at Tikal,
Guatemala, project was funded by the National Science Foundation
(grant BCS-0443280) and by Brigham Young University. The Instituto
de Antropología e Historia, the Consejo Nacional de Areas Protegidas,
and the Parque Nacional Tikal of Guatemala granted permission
for this research to take place. The Re-evaluation of the Earthworks
at Tikal, Guatemala, project thanks all those who assisted with the
collection, preparation, and analysis of the soil samples. Special thanks
go to Horacio Martinez, Walter Alvarado, and Kirk Straight for their
contributions to this study. We acknowledge the work of the anonymous
reviewers who helped to improve this paper.
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