CHAPTER # 4:

INFORMATION &
DATABASES
DATA MEANS RAW FACTS AND FIGURES
IT IS A COLLECTION OF FACTS, SUCH AS VALUES OR MEASUREMENTS,
NUMBERS, OR TEXT THAT CAN BE PROCESSED BY A COMPUTER.
Examples of Data

 Yes, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes, No, Yes

 42, 63, 96, 74, 56, 86
 111192, 111234
 None of the above data sets have any meaning until they are given
a CONTEXT and PROCESSED into a useable form
Types Of Data

 Predefined Data Items

 Text
 Images
 Audio
 Video
Predefined data items are use to reduce reality to a manageable
number of silent facts that can be recorded and retrieved for
performing specific tasks. Text can convey more information about
unique circumstances of a situation. Images, Audio and Video add
more richness.
File

 The file is the simplest form of data organization used in business

data processing.
 A file is a set of related records that contain the same field and the
same order and format.
Difference between data base and
data base management system!
 The Data in a computerized system is often called a data base.
Data base is a structured collection of data store, controlled and
accessed through a computer base on predefined situation-specific
relationship between the data items.
 Data base management system is integrated set of program used
to define update and control data bases. DBMS is a computerized
record keeping system that provides convenient environment to
user to perform certain operations:
Creation, Insertion, Deletion, Updating & Retrieval of information.
Difference between the logical and
physical view of data!
 Logical view of data expressed the way the user or programmer
think about the data it is post in term of data model a sufficiently
detailed description of the structure of the data that helps the users
or programmer think about the data.
 The technical aspects of the information system (programming
language DMBS and operating system) work together to convert a
logical view into a physical view of data that is exactly what the
machine has to do to find and retrieve the data.
Data Modeling

 Data modeling is the process of documenting a complex software

system design as an easily understood diagram, using text and
symbols to represent the way data needs to flow.
Entities, Entity Types and Attribute

Entity type
It is collection of entity having common attribute, so STUDENT is an
entity type
Entities
The specific things it collect data about are entities, so in Student
table each row is an entity.
Attribute
It is a property of an entity. For example, in table STUDENT id, name
and Age are properties of an entity of entity type student. Hence these
are attributes.
Entity-relationship Diagram and It’s
Importance
 Entity-relationship diagram is a technique for identifying the entity
types in a situation and diagramming the relationship between
those entities
 ERD’s help in identifying the data in a system and making sure it is a
represented properly. It help create a shared understanding of the
basic ideas underlying the specific data in the system.
 This technique forces people involved in the analysis to focus on the
business situation instead of just listing every relevant item they can
think of.
Relational Database

 Relational database is a set of two-dimensional tables in which one

more key fields in each table are associated with corresponding key
or non key fields in other table.
 Relational database have become popular because they are
easier to understand and work with than other forms of database
organization.
Entity relationship diagram from
RDBMS
What is a Data Warehouse?

 Multidimensional warehouses form the basis of data warehouses.

 Data warehouse utilizes software and database for business analysis
and management decision making.
 Minute to minute processing of business transaction is not one of the
functions of a data warehouse.
 However, the data stored in a data warehouse is downloaded
periodically from transaction data.
 A subset of a larger data warehouse for particular business function
is called a data mart
Process of creating & maintaining a
Data Warehouse:
 Extraction
 Consolidation
 Filtering
 Cleansing
 Transformation
 Aggregation
 Update
THE PROCESS OF MAINTAINING A DATA WAREHOUSE
Conventional paper document vs.
hypertext document
 A hypertext document allows user
to access additional information
about any link or word within that
document
 They are usually online documents
with underlined phrases that can
be clicked to access related
documents
 A paper document does not have
such feature. Any further
information must be probed
separately
 A paper document may contain a
reference to another document
but access to the document
would be manual
 HTML vs. XML
 HTML is an abbreviation for
Hypertext Markup Language
 HTML is a markup language itself
 HTML is case insensitive.
 HTML is a presentation language
 XML stands for extensible Markup
Language
 XML provides a framework for
defining markup languages.
 XML is case sensitive
 XML is neither a programming
language nor a presentation
language
How is Index different from a
Search Engine
INDEX
 It is a list to identify and locate
documents or portions of
documents
 An index at the end of the book
identifies and locates references
to all key terms used in that book
 Yahoo! uses an index which
divides all the topics on the Web
into an hierarchy of finer topics
and sub topics
SEARCH ENGINE
 A search engine is a program that
finds documents or Web pages
that are related to words or
phrases supplied by the user
 A user who wants to find out
about football match tickets can
simply type “football tickets” in the
query box and hit enter
 In contrast, a search engine uses
keywords to locate the information
probed by the user
What is metadata?

 It is a data that describes other data

 Metadata summarizes basic information about data
 This makes finding and working with data easy
 Filtering through metadata makes it easier to locate information
 Examples of metadata:
 Author, date created, file type, date modified etc.
 It can be created manually or by automated information
processing
 Apart from defining the data, metadata links computer systems
from different vendors
Schema vs. Subschema & its
importance
SCHEMA SUBSCHEMA
 A Schema is the design or layout  A sub-schema is the way the data
of a DBMS appears when viewed by a user
 It often contains list of units or  A subschema appears logically, as
entities that feature in a DBMS and a part of a decipherable system
describes relationships between
 A subschema is changed
them
frequently
 Schemas don’t change often
Importance

 Schemas simplify administration of security and backup

 It helps in database management by grouping database objects
and entities together
 They allow management of logical entities in one physical database
 Objects can be modified or manipulated independently of users
who created them
Backup & Recovery. Why are these
capabilities needed in a DBMS?
 Backup is storing additional copies of data in case of adversity
 Example: If mechanical failure of a disk destroys the data, backup
data stored elsewhere prevents data loss.
 Recovery capabilities restore a database to the state it was in when
the issue stopped further database processing.
 Example: The recovery process starts with the last complete backup
plus a journal listing of all transactions.
Backup and Recovery
Importance of these capabilities:

 Downtime in crucial transaction processing systems can virtually shut

down a company.
 The capability of a DBMS to recover rapidly and continue database
operations after a computer or database goes down is essential
 DBMS contain built-in backup and recovery for such reasons
Characteristics of information quality,
accessibility and presentation of information
CHARACTERISTICS DEFINITION
Information quality
Extent to which data represents what it is supposed to
Accuracy represent
Precision Fineness of detail in the portrayal
Extent to which the available information is adequate for
Completeness the task
Amount of time that has passed since the information was
Age produced
Extent to which the age of information is appropriate for
Timeliness the task and user
Source The person or organization that produced the information
Information accessibility
Extent to which the necessary information exists and can
Availability be accessed by people who need it
Whether or not use of the information is legal or culturally
Admissibility appropriate in this situation
Information presentation
Comparison between number of items in the original data
Level of summarization and number of items displayed
Format Form in which information is displayed to the user
Bias & whether total objectivity is
always desired..
 Bias is a systematic inaccuracy
 It arises due to methods used for collecting, processing or presenting
data
 Bias is expected and in some cases desired
 For Example:
 Executives trying to decide which manager’s proposal to adopt
 Variables like integrity, persuasion and passion often skew opinions
 Impartiality is not always the goal
MENTAL AND MATHEMATICAL MODELS
 Mental Models

 They are unwritten assumptions and beliefs that people use when
they think about something
 These models determine what information we use and how to
interpret them
 The relationship between mental models and information usage
effects information systems
 Mathematical Models

 They are a series of equations and graphs that describe precise

relationships between variables
 The explicit nature of these models forces people to say exactly
what they mean
 They can organize and clarify mental models
 Mathematical models accompanied by mental models help distill
information for a particular usage
Advantages of asking what – if
questions
 They help user make tentative decisions
 These tentative decisions are necessary for the larger decision
making process
 The trial and error helps in understanding which variables will work
and which are to be discarded
 These values are tested out in a data model
 Mathematical models make it easy to ask what – if questions which
explore the effect of alternatives