INTERPRETING SETTLEMENT PROFILES OF EARTH DAMS

By L. Pagano, l A. Desideri,2 and F. Vinale3

ABSTRACT: This paper presents a general framework for interpreting the settlement profiles measured along
the cross section of an earth dam during the construction stages. Dams showing asymmetric profiles are sche-
matically viewed as one-dimensional nonhomogeneous fill, with variable stiffness or unit weight. The results of
one-dimensional analyses are used as a reference to discuss the effects of geometrical factors, like load transfer
and lack of confinement, in two-dimensional plane-strain problems. In this way, it is possible to outline the
factors affecting the shape of the settlement profile in both homogeneous and zoned earth dams. To show its
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practical usefulness, this conceptual procedure is used to interpret the behavior of two case histories: the zoned
dams of Kastraki and Beliche. These two interpretations also provide some indications about back-analysis
procedures deemed more appropriate to analyze in detail the dam behavior.

INTRODUCTION
Ever since the first experiences in building modern earth
dams, the continuous and reliable monitoring of such geo-
technical structures has been considered of vital importance.
The aim of the monitoring has been twofold [International
Commission on Large Dams 1982]: to characterize the overall
mechanical behavior of the dam and to focus attention on
those portions of the embankment that could experience un-
desired behavior under working conditions.
To achieve the former objective, it is considered appropriate
to measure displacements, strains, total stresses, and pore pres-
sures from the beginning of the construction.
Once the experimental results have been collected, the in-
terpretation criteria can differ substantially, spanning from
heuristic approaches to more sophisticated back-analyses of
the dam.
Nowadays, back-analysis seems to be the most effective tool
to assist an earth dam engineer in understanding the mechan-
ical behavior of the dam. In fact, since the first numerical
simulation of layered construction was pursued (Clough and
Woodward 1967), many advances have been achieved in both
analytical and numerical methods, which have resulted in the
formulation of reliable models. Recent progress has dealt
mainly with the development of constitutive laws for com-
pacted soils [e.g., Josa (1988), Alonso et al. (1990), Balmaceda
(1991), Cui and Delange (1996), Bolzon et al. (1996)], as well
as with coupled formulations and numerical procedures suit-
able to characterize and model the behavior of unsaturated
soils [e.g., Lloret and Alonso (1980), Alonso et al. (1988),
Alonso et al. (1993), Bonelli and Puolain (1995), Ng and
Small (1995)]. These updates unquestionally allow much more
realistic and comprehensive analyses of the boundary-value
problem. On the other hand, they render the back-analysis
cumbersome, due to the larger number of the variables in-
volved and their sometimes unclear influence on dam behavior.
To assist the back-analysis procedure, it might be useful to
comprehend the influence of geometry, rate of construction,
material properties, and other factors on the numerical predic-
tion of displacement, pore pressure, total stress, and their ev-
'PhD, Res. Asst., Dipartimento di Ingegneria Geotecnica, Universita
di Napoli "Federico II," Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy.
2Prof., Dipartimento di Ingegneria Strutturale e Geotecnica, UniversitA
di Roma "La Sapienza," Via Montedoro 28, 00196 Rome, Italy.
'Prof., Dipartimento di Ingegneria Geotecnica, Universita di Napoli
"Federico II," Via Claudio 21, 80125 Naples, Italy.
Note. Discussion open until March I, 1999. To extend the closing date
one month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Manager of
Journals. The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and
possible publication on June 2, 1997. This paper is part of the Journol
of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, Vol. 124, No. 10,
October, 1998. ©ASCE, ISSN 1090-0241/98/0010-0923-0932/$8.00 +
$.50 per page. Paper No. 15890.
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998/923
olution with time. Within this general framework, this study
tries to gain a better insight into the relevant factors affecting
earth dam settlement profiles during the construction stages.
In particular, some analytical and numerical results are pre-
sented, describing basic patterns of behavior in terms of the
vertical displacement field. These results may provide a valid
basis for dam engineers in making decisions during construc-
tion, before the problematic stage of reservoir impounding.
In the following, the role of an appropriate measurement of
settlement will be outlined briefly, together with a critical ex-
amination of the common interpretation criteria adopted in
past practice. Subsequently, settlement distribution is analyzed
in some extremely simple, i.e., one-dimensional, conditions.
The results of these analyses then are used to discuss the more
realistic predictions obtained using the finite-element method
in plane-strain conditions. The procedure followed provides a
framework for discerning the main factors affecting the shape
of vertical displacement profiles. The effectiveness of this
framework is shown by interpreting the observed behavior of
the Kastraki Dam and the Beliche Dam. The analysis of these
case histories gives some indications on how to make more
detailed predictions of dam behavior. In particular, the kind of
theoretical frameworks suitable for the analysis are addressed.
CURRENT INTERPRETATION CRITERIA OF
SETTLEMENT MEASUREMENTS
Currently, vertical displacement measurements are carried
out mainly to assess the in situ deformability properties ex-
hibited by construction materials and to verify whether the
observed mechanical behavior is consistent with that predicted
during the design stages. These purposes frequently are
achieved by using simple procedures, or sometimes by carry-
ing out complex numerical back-analysis. The simplest and
most common procedure used relates the vertical strains ex-
perienced by an ideal layer (in between two settlement gauges)
to the overburden material thickness; vertical stress is assumed
to be related linearly to the overburden material thickness, so
that in situ stress-strain relationships are obtained for the var-
ious construction materials. These relationships frequently are
compared with each other to verify likely stress-transfer mech-
anisms. Sometimes, they are compared with those derived
from laboratory oedometer tests, in order to check the material
properties assumed during design [e.g., Coumoulos and
Koryalos (1978)].
Another interpretation criterion is based on the "theoretical
curve" by Marsal (1958), which states that for a given dam
height (H), the settlement profile S(z) at the dam axis (z) as-
sumes a parabolic shape with a maximum at midheight
S(z) = a(H - z)z (1)
This "observed settlement" (Poulos et al. 1972) can be

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932

 1.0

~
'-" 0.8

5 NETZAHUALCOYOTL

~ 0.6
c

.-~
(UNAM, 1976)

~ -t~t
0 KASTRAKI
§ 0.4 (Coumoulos & Koryalos, 1978)
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~
c---~
0.2 t~t
ALEMAN
~ (Marsal & Resendiz, 1975)
.-~
~ M U ~ 1~
BELICHE
NORMALIZED SETTLEMENT (S/S max) (LNEC, 1986b)

FIG. 1. Settlement Profiles Observed at End of Construction In Some Zoned Earth Dams

thought of as the vertical displacement of an ideal mark point,

which starts to move because of the overburden material. The ~1.0
parabola described by (1) has often been used to fit settlement (case AM)
measurements in order to obtain the parameter a, which is ~ 0.8
equal to the ratio between unit weight and vertical stiffness. E=:
-0::
Parameter a then has been used to assess and confirm the
H ~ 0.6 SIS 1
assumed compressibility. The approaches described previously @ 1------- max=
are based on one-dimensional procedures and therefore do not ~ 0.4
account for the shape of the dam's cross section. Because such (z) t::l
procedures neglect geometrical effects (e.g., changes in con- ....l
fining stress along the elevation and stress-transfer mecha- ~ 0.2
nisms among different materials) they might lead to debatable
results. As a matter of fact, settlement measurements taken °z 00 L~.....J
. 0.0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
during the construction stage of real earth dams have often NORMALIZED SETTLEMENT (S/Smax)
demonstrated that the actual profiles can significantly diverge
FIG. 2. Settlement Profile for One-Dimensional Case and Ho-
from the parabolic shape. The case histories illustrated in Fig. mogeneous Fill (Theoretical Curve)
1, for instance, clearly show that the maximum settlement can
be attained either above or below the midheight of the current
fill, which is inconsistent with Marsal's theoretical curve. If the material is assumed to be homogeneous and linearly
The measured settlement profiles also have been used to elastic (e = crlD, where e is the vertical strain, cr is the vertical
carry out two-dimensional back-analysis of existing earth stress, and D is the stiffness) the deformed shape of the fill is
dams. This represents, at least in principle, an improved ap- given by a parabola (Fig. 2) with the maximum settlement
proach to the understanding of mechanical behavior, because (Smax) at midheight (Appendix I). Even when nonlinear behav-
geometrical confining conditions can be accounted for and ior is assumed, the symmetry of the settlement profile with
possible stress-transfer phenomena can be outlined straight- respect to the midheight of the fill is preserved (Appendix I);
forwardly. However, often care has been taken to best fit just i.e., symmetry is a general result provided that the material
the maximum settlement value, rather than the entire settle- properties do not change along the elevation (homogeneous
ment profile trend. To some extent, this might be viewed as fill). Because the shape of the settlement profile is not affected
an underestimation of the meaning of the settlement distribu- by the assumed material behavior, linear elasticity will be hy-
tion shape, the importance of which will be highlighted by the pothesized for simplicity.
following procedures and examples. In the one-dimensional case, it is possible to introduce some
assumptions that can qualitatively extend the model to repre-
sent two- and three-dimensional conditions. As will be clari-
ONE-DIMENSIONAL CONDITIONS fied in the next section, a variation of confining stresses with
The one-dimensional conditions (no lateral strains) are re- elevation can be simulated by assuming the stiffness D to be
liable enough to predict the mechanical behavior of the central a function of the elevation ~, for instance
part of a cross section of a large embankment, at least during (2)
the first construction stages [e.g., Naylor (1991)]. Even though
the one-dimensional case generally does not represent a real- where Do = stiffness at the foundation level [Fig. 3(a»). With
istic assumption, it will be widely dealt with in the following. increasing stiffness D along ~ (TJ > 0), the maximum settlement
These simple conditions allow highlighting important features [Fig. 3(a), Appendix I] is attained below midheight [case DM
of settlement distribution, provided that some artifices are in- (Qown Midheight)]. For stiffness decreasing with ~ (TJ < 0),
troduced, to model two- and three-dimensional effects. the maximum settlement level [Fig. 3(a), Appendix I) moves
924/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I 1998

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932

 upward, above midheight [case UM (!:p Midheight)]. The pro- 'Y = 'Yo - >..~ (3)
file pertaining to homogeneous fill (T] = 0) with the maximum
occurring at midheight will be referred to as case AM (At where 'Yo = unit weight at the foundation level [Fig. 3(b)].
Midheight) in the following. - Assuming constant stiffness D, when the unit weight 'Y de-
To simulate vertical stress variations caused by load transfer, creases with ~ (>.. > 0), the maximum settlement [Fig. 3(b),
another useful simplified assumption could be a linear change Appendix I] occurs below midheight (case DM). Conversely,
of unit weight 'Y with elevation (see next section), for instance an increase of 'Y (>.. < 0) moves the maximum settlement ele-
[Fig. 3(b)] vation [Fig. 3(b), Appendix I] upward, above midheight (case
UM). For constant unit weight the maximum occurs at mid-
height (case AM).
~ 1.0 1""::-----_ In principle, actual asymmetric profiles like that illustrated
g in Fig. 1 could be reproduced by modeling the dam as one-
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5°·8 dimensional fill while assuming that stiffness and/or unit

weight varies with elevation. However, such a model would
E=:
<t:: .
;>0.6 ~ not have any physical relevance, given that nonhomogeneity
::J Smax above mid heigh here is intended as a mere artifice introduced to simulate ge-
~
ometrical effects. The one-dimensional framework has been
fa 0.4 max below mid height developed essentially to facilitate the interpretation of results
t:l{ obtained subsequently from analyses of two-dimensional
~02 plane-strain problems.
o 0.0 l..o::::::;::"±::::=:::c==::L~--L_'
Z 0.0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 PLANE-STRAIN CONDITIONS
NORMALIZED SETTLEMENT (S/S max )
(a) The construction stages of some simplified geometry will
be modeled, assuming plane-strain conditions and one-phase
~1.01"':::-- _ materials (total stress analysis). For this purpose the finite-
g element ABAQUS code [Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorensen, Inc.
5°·8 1995a] has been adopted. Two basic earth dam types will be
considered: the homogeneous dam and the zoned dam with
E=:
;; 0.6 vertical core. Linearly elastic behavior will be assumed for the
soils in both cases. The construction stages will be simulated
~
Cl 0.4
by progressively activating 10 horizontal layers.
f;j

~02
Homogeneous Dam
Referring to the ideal homogeneous earth dam section of
Z 0.0 L.::::::;~=::r===~---L~<l3
Fig. 4, some cases have been studied, differing in terms of
Yo 0.0 02 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
NORMALIZED SETTLEMENT (S/Smax) geometry and material properties. Assuming constant values
(b) for both the height (H = 45 m) and the crest width (12 m),
FIG. 3. Settlement Profiles for One-Dimensional Case and the shape of the dam has been changed by modifying lateral
Nonhomogeneous Fill: (a) Stiffness D Varying along Elevation slopes (i.e., angle 8). Throughout the different cases analyzed,
and Constant Unit Weight; (b) Unit Weight "Y Varying along Ele- Young's modulus has been assumed to be constant, because it
vation and Constant Stiffness does not affect the shape of settlement distribution, but only

H=45m

x
10

--
~O.ro

j
~0.55

0.50
2

0.45 L-~..L.-~--'-~-J....~-'-~---J

0.0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2.0 8.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.45 0.50
TAN 0 POISSON RATIO, v
(a) (b)
FIG. 4. Effects of Lateral Slopes 8 and Conventional Stiffness D on Maximum Settlement Elevation (Zsmox),at End of Construction: (a)
Elevation of Maximum Settlement versus Lateral Slopes for Different Values of Poisson's Ratio V; (b) Stiffness Ratio versus Poisson's
Ratio

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING I 1998 I 925

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932

 the maximum value attained; therefore, only Poisson's ratio
has been varied in the range of 0-0.49.
The elevation where maximum settlement occurs (ZSmax) has
been used to identify the shape of settlement profiles. This
parameter, normalized with respect to fill height H, is plotted
against tan B in Fig. 4(a); each curve relates to a given value
of Poisson's ratio v. The maximum settlement location goes
up when either v or B are increased. However, it only rises
significantly as v moves from 0.3 toward 0.5, whereas for v
< 0.3 it occurs at midheight, independently from the assumed
geometry (i.e., angle B).
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These numerical results could be explained conveniently
within the one-dimensional framework, provided that a con-
ventional one-dimensional stiffness D, varying along the dam
axis, is introduced.
Expressing the generalized Hooke's law in plane-strain con-
ditions (Ey = 0), it is possible to define the conventional stiff-
ness D as
D= E = 1 - 1-v - v 2v E (1 + _v_~)
U'z
2
1 - v E
z z
E 3. Reduction of vertical stress compared with the overbur-
(4)
where Ex :5 0, ez ~ 0, and U'z ~ U'x ~ O.
Stiffness D theoretically could attain two limit values; the
maximum D max for ex = 0 (oedometric conditions) and the min-
imum D min for U'x = 0 (unconfined conditions). The ratio be-
tween D max and D min yields a measure of the theoretical range
within which D can change along the axis
D max _ (l - V)2
(5)
D mJn - 1 - 2v
Eq. (5) is plotted in Fig. 4(b); for v < 0.3 the ratio is close to
unity; i.e., changes in D are negligible. It means that, whatever
the geometry, the resulting settlement profile is symmetric, as
the one obtained for one-dimensional homogeneous fill (case
1) = 0). For v increasing from 0.30 to 0.5, the ratio in (5)
becomes greater. However, the actual range within which D
varies along the elevation depends on geometrical variables.
In particular, because tan B represents the rate of variation of
the distance between the dam axis and the lateral boundaries,
it is also a measure of the rate of reduction of U')U'z with the
elevation. An increase in tan B implies therefore a more pro-
nounced decrease in conventional stiffness D with the eleva-
tion, as (4) indicates.
The definitive trend of D with the fill height depends on the
combined effects of tan B and Poisson's ratio v. In fact, an
increase of v means a more pronounced tendency of the ma-
terial to expand laterally, which in turn enhances the effects
caused by lateral confinement reduction, expressed by tan B.
Summarizing, a confinement reduction along the elevation
results in a decrease of D with elevation. In the one-dimen-
sional framework, this pattern corresponds to a negative value
of 1) [see (2)] and, consequently, to a maximum settlement
occurring above midheight [Fig. 3(a)].
As the preceding data indicates, the maximum settlement of
a homogeneous earth dam can occur either at midheight (AM)
or higher (UM).
During construction, the shape of settlement profiles can
change continuously. These modifications can indicate impor-
tant mechanisms related to changes of material properties. For
instance, after the first construction stages the profile can trans-
form abruptly from an AM shape into a UM shape; it can be
inferred from this that, in the material located at low eleva-
tions, the total stress Poisson's ratio gets near 0.5; i.e., the soil
approaches full saturation.
926/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932
Central Core Zoned Dam
If the cross section consists of a fine-grained core, supported
by stiffer shells, the interaction between different materials
could cause a load transfer (arching), whose intensity depends
on the dam geometry as well as on differences in stiffness.
Along the dam axis, arching involves an increase of the hor-
izontal minimum principal stress U'x and a reduction of the
vertical maximum principal stress U'" compared with the over-
burden pressure at the same elevation. The increment in the
U'/U'z ratio causes an increase of the conventional vertical stiff-
ness D [see (4)]. The stiffness increase is more pronounced at
higher elevations, due to the fact that the "arch" enhances
because of both the greater thickness of underlying material
and the smaller distance from the core boundaries.
Hence, the shape of the settlement profile depends on the
following factors:
1. Reduction of conventional vertical stiffness D with the
elevation, caused by lateral confinement decrease
2. Increase of conventional vertical stiffness D with the el-
evation, caused by arching
den pressure, caused by arching
As outlined for the homogeneous dam [Fig. 4(a)], factor 1
produces a maximum settlement at midheight or above. Fac-
tors 2 and 3 determine a maximum settlement below midheight
(DM), as could be predicted referring to the one-dimensional
framework. In fact
• An increase of D with the height involves a positive con-
stant value of 1) [see Fig. 3(a), case 1) > 0].
• A decrease of vertical stress could be thought of as a
decrease of the unit weight 'Y, which corresponds to a A
> 0 [see Fig. 3(b), case A > 0].
The lack of lateral confinement and stress discharge moves
the maximum settlement location in opposite directions. The
maximum is therefore likely to occur at midheight. This rep-
resents the real mechanism explaining why several case his-
tories show a symmetric profile. In other words, this occur-
rence can only coincidentally lead to the same settlement
profile predicted by the theoretical curve of (1). It can be stated
that the value of coefficient a defined in (1) does not depend
only on material properties, but also on geometrical factors,
so that when a parabolic shape is actually observed, it is in-
correct to derive soil stiffness from (1).
To illustrate the effects of the foregoing factors, some results
have been plotted in Fig. 5, specifically showing the influence
of Young's modulus and of the thickness assigned to the core
and shells on maximum settlement location. The value of Pois-
son's ratio has been assumed equal to 0.3, which implies that,
independently from the dam geometry, the effects related to
lack of lateral confinement are not relevant (see Fig. 4). Hence,
if Young's modulus is the same for the core and the shells
(homogeneous case), the maximum settlement occurs approx-
imately at midheight. Fig. 5 indicates that the maximum set-
tlement location moves downward when the ratio (Bcore/
Bshell) between the thickness of the core and of the shell
decreases or when the ratio (EshelVEcore) between Young's
moduli increases. In other words, the maximum moves down-
ward with enhancing arch effects.
CASE HISTORIES
To explain how the previous results could be applied use-
fully to infer the mechanical behavior of actual earth dams,
two case histories have been analyzed: Kastraki and Beliche.
 z

Prevailing arch effects x

Bshell Bcore

050
(Eeore=E~o
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hOmOgeneuJctam
0.45

::r:: ~: __ - - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0

--
~
'-
040
o~o ,,,-------
EO 0.35
~'" J
0'

0.30 ,
J -o-Eshell/Eeore=10
J
J =100
,,
J
0.25
o

0.20 L-~_----L_~_--'--_~_L-~_--'-_~_

00 m M W U ~

Bcore/Bshell
FIG. 5. Effects of Young's Moduli (EcorelEshell) and Thickness Ratio (Beore/Bahell) on Elevation of Maximum Settlement (Zsma.),
at End of Construction, for Poisson's Ratio v 0.30 =
Compacted clay core
100
80
1 Sand gravel
upstream shell. .'.
Sand gravel
I
60
40
20
Compacted clay
U/S cofferd
.....
" ' , .,
. .
ownstream shell
'. '., ... 1
.~s cofferdam H=95m
o \~\~_;'-~\\---:;:;:_ffi_\ _ Tl_I\:::::' ,~\r-::.

Bed rock (a)

90

20

10
o~~~~-l.....c-~L..c-.L-'--'-.L..J
o ill 20 ~ 40 50 ro m 00 90 ~
SETILEMENT (em)
(b)
FIG. 6. Kastrakl Dam: (a) Main Cross Section; (b) Settlement Profiles during Construction; (c) Vertical Total Stresses In Core at Ele-
vation of 25.5 m [Letters B - F Associate Settlement Curves of (b) to Stresses of (c)]

These two dams were selected because they belong to the same of Agrinion, in central Greece. The dam behavior was de-
dam type (i.e., fine-grained core and pervious outer shells), scribed by Kotzias and Stamatopoulos (1975) and Coumoulos
while exhibiting behavior opposite in terms of settlement and Koryalos (1978). The dam's main cross section is drawn
shape development. Total stress and pore pressure observations in Fig. 6(a); its maximum height is equal to 95 m. The clay
also are available for both. This permits a more complete de- core was compacted around the optimum of the Standard Proc-
scription of the dam's mechanical behavior, hence allowing tor Test and is characterized by medium slenderness (BIB =
verification of the hypotheses preliminarily formulated using 0.5). The upstream and downstream shells consist of com-
the simple schemes described earlier. pacted river sand and gravel, with excellent permeability prop-
erties. Fig. 6(b) reports the settlements along the centerline.
Description Fig. 6(c) plots the measured vertical stresses against the over-
The Kastraki Dam was constructed between August 1967 burden pressure for a point located at the core axis.
and May 1969 on the Acheloos river, 40 km west of the city The Beliche Dam was constructed in the southeast of Por-
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998/927

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932


Outer shell
Rockfill
60/i
40
20
o
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Bed rock
- - -- ----
----4-----
20
'OJ \1 v
/'7 1IE,'9<::~;:::O':-
10 -
o.~'
o -"- I
o 10 20 ~ ~
SETILEMENT (em)
(b)
FIG. 7. Beliche Dam: (a) Main Cross Sectlonj (b) Settlement Profiles during Constructlonj (c) Vertical Total Stresses In Core at Ele-
vation of 12.5 m [Letters A-E Associate Settlement Curves of (b) to Stresses of (c)]
tugal between July 1983 and March 1985. The dam behavior
is well documented in several Laboratorio National de Engen-
haria Civil internal reports (Laboratorio National de Engen-
haria Civil 1984, 1986a,b, 1989) and summarized by Pagano
(1996). The dam's cross section is drawn in Fig. 7(a); its max-
imum height is 54 m. The fine-grained core was compacted
around the optimum of the Standard Proctor Test and is char-
acterized by a slenderness of about B/H = 0.7.
The shells were constructed of two different coarse-grained
materials. Weathered schist, characterized by poor mechanical
properties, was placed close to the core, whereas a stiffer rock-
fill material constitutes the outer zones. This solution was in-
tended to avoid core stress discharge, thus preventing hydrau-
lic fracturing. Fig. 7(b) reports the settlements along the
centerline. Fig. 7(c) plots the measured vertical stresses against
the overburden pressure for a point located at the core axis.
Criteria of Analysis
The main findings of the preceding theoretical discussion
will be used to recognize the behavior of both dams by inter-
preting the evolution of the settlement profiles observed at the
core axis. These findings can be summarized as follows:
• If the settlement profile is upward shaped, the conven-
tional stiffness D at the core axis decreases along the el-
evation [see Fig. 3(a), case 'l'J < 0]. In plane-strain con-
ditions this implies [see (4)] that the value of the stress
ratio decreases along the elevation as well. Consequently,
the effects of stress discharge should have less influence
than the effects related to progressive lack of confinement,
because the former induce an increase and the latter a
decrease of stress ratio with the elevation. Therefore, ver-
tical stress is likely to be near the overburden pressure.
At the same time, Poisson's ratio should be quite high,
probably near 0.5, because this is the condition that en-
hances the effects caused by lateral confinement reduction
and therefore determines the reduction of stress ratio with
928/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998
Compacted clay core
Inner shell Inner shell
weathered schists / weathered schists
/ Outer shell
Rockfill
. -'-~ -
.---<-_-~---
- ---
-""
--------------
D )
0/
~"
'I D ! A
/p } ~~/'
0' /::{~:c:/~ /
o 200 400 000 ~ 100)
~ 00 m ~ W B
OVERBURDEN PRESSURE (kPa)
(c)
the elevation. Consistently, core material should be close
to an incompressible state; i.e., saturation should have
been approached and drainage should not occur. These
final considerations should involve positive pore pressure
values, comparable with the overburden pressure.
• If the profile is downward shaped, the conventional stiff-
ness D at the core axis increases along the elevation [see
Fig. 3(a), case 'l'J > 0]. In plane-strain conditions this im-
plies that stress ratio increases along the elevation as well
[see (4)]. This increment in stress ratio is possible provided
that arching in the core is significant or, equivalently, that
vertical stress diverged from the overburden pressure.
• From the aforementioned two points, it follows that a
modification in the shape of the settlement profile during
construction relates to a consistent change of the influence
that lack of confinement and stress discharge exert on dam
behavior. Different scenarios could be drawn causing
these changes in the shape. During construction, for in-
stance, progressive reduction of void ratio (at more or less
constant water content) could lead the core material to a
saturated state. The shift from unsaturated to saturated
state could cause the maximum settlement location to rise.
As the construction proceeds, the saturated material could
be subject to core discharge. This could be caused by, for
instance, an approach to critical state of the material lo-
cated at lower elevations, or simply because, starting from
a given fill level, core geometry enhances arching. Be-
cause of load transfer, the maximum settlement location
could tend to decrease.
Once these tools have been used to interpret settlement pro-
file evolution in terms of overall mechanical behavior, the
other quantities available (total stress and pore pressure) will
be used to verify the hypotheses formulated.
Interpretation of Settlement Profiles
For the Kastraki Dam the shape of settlement profiles [Fig.
6(b)] arose fairly symmetrically (maximum at midheight, AM)
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932
 during the first construction stages; then, while construction
proceeded, the maximum vertical displacement moved down-
ward.
Based on the Criteria of Analysis that have just been sum-
marized, the initial symmetric shape [Fig. 6(b), profiles A, B,
and C] could be explained by introducing the following two
distinct hypotheses:
1. Because of the slight height of the embankment, the fill-
foundation frictional contact, together with the fill's large
width, actually restrict lateral expansion at the core axis
location; Le., a one-dimensional condition nearly arises.
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In such a case, symmetry might be explained consistently
with the results of (1).
2. Because of the small fill height, a full development of
the arch effect is not possible and hence stress discharge
arises only to a small extent inducing a slight DM con-
dition. In the meanwhile, a small confinement-lack oc-
curs, which in turn yields a slight UM condition. These
two opposite effects compensate each other determining
an AM condition.
These two hypotheses are likely to be sequential rather than
alternative, 1 being of greater weight at the beginning of con-
struction.
The subsequent asymmetric shape [Fig. 6(b), profiles D, E,
and F] could be explained (see Criteria of Analysis section)
by supposing that the arch develops fully, enhanced by the
low value of the slenderness coefficient. These arch effects are
likely to prevail on those associated with the confinement-lack,
so that the maximum moved downward. This discussion
should involve low values of vertical total stress compared
with the overburden pressure (see Criteria of Analysis section),
starting from the fill level at which the settlement profiles be-
came downward shaped [Fig. 6(b), profile D]. Moreover, the
growth of pore pressures should be low compared with the
overburden pressure; otherwise a UM condition would have
been enhanced.
For the Beliche Dam it is possible to observe that the pro-
files were initially symmetric [Fig. 7(b), e.g., profile A] and
became upward shaped later on [Fig. 7(b), profiles B, C, D,
and E], until the end of construction [Fig. 7(b)]. It could be
argued that (see Criteria of Analysis section) as the fill level
increased, the effects related to the progressive lack of con-
finement prevailed on possible stress discharge. First of all,
this hypothesis is enforced by simple consideration of the
dam's geometry and material properties. The slenderness co-
efficient associated to the Beliche Dam core is much higher
than that for the Kastraky Dam, which suggests that, to some
extent, stress discharge was inhibited at the core axis. More-
over, as highlighted earlier, care was taken in arranging the
materials within the cross section in such a way as to avoid
core discharge. This discussion should involve negligible
stress discharge and high pore pressures compared with the
overburden pressure (see Criteria of Analysis section).
Verification Using Pore Pressure and Total Stress
Measurements
In the Kastraky Dam, consistently with the hypothesis for-
mulated by interpreting the shape of settlement profiles, the
total stress evolution along the centerline [Fig. 6(c)] indicates
that stress discharge initially did not occur or occurred to a
small extent, until the profiles were symmetric. Successively,
total stress decreased to reach 50% of the overburden pressure
at the end of construction, and this reduction started exactly
when the profiles became downward shaped [Fig. 6(b), profile
D]. Measured pore pressures are invariably less than 25% of
overburden pressure. This could be attributed either to a low
JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998/929
J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932
initial degree of saturation or to significant consolidation phe-
nomena during construction. In both cases, the total stress
Poisson's ratio should not have been so great, i.e., far from
the values that could cause a UM condition (v> 0.3). Prior to
concluding the Kastraky case history, it is worth noting as
from the mere interpretation of settlement distribution it was
possible to recognize the significant amount of stress dis-
charge. In some cases, the present study might enable the as-
sessment of the presence of load transfer without the direct
measurement of total stress, permitting us to focus attention
on likely problems of hydraulic fracturing. This could become
useful because measuring total stress often is not fully reliable,
because of the heavy disturbing influence of the measuring
device on the measured quantity itself.
For the Beliche Dam as well, the hypotheses formulated
seem to be confirmed by pore pressure and vertical stress mea-
surements. At an elevation of 12.25 m, pore pressure equaled
50% of the overburden pressure. This could mean that satu-
ration was approached during the earlier construction stages
and that undrained conditions nearly occurred. Therefore, it is
likely that quite a high Poisson's ratio was experienced, max-
imizing the effects related to lack of confinement. As further
support to the formulated hypotheses, Fig. 7(c) shows that, at
the centerline, vertical stress did not diverge significantly from
overburden pressure throughout construction. It is worth not-
ing that for the Beliche Dam it was possible to understand that
pore pressures were high by simply interpreting settlement
profiles, without measuring the pore pressures themselves.
Pore pressure devices often suffer breakage or time lag prob-
lems and this qualitative information could become very use-
ful.
SOME CONSIDERATIONS ABOUT ANALYSIS OF
EARTH DAMS
An improved comprehension of the dam's response can be
attained only through a back-analysis of the observed behav-
ior, involving the solution of the boundary-value problem via
numerical methods. From the foregoing discussion it clearly
results that during the construction stages, phenomena like
load transfer and saturation can take place, significantly mod-
ifying the dam mechanical response. This suggests that a re-
liable analysis has to take into account the variability of the
geometry with time (staged construction) and the nonlinearity
of stress-strain law of construction materials and their coupled
behavior in unsaturated and saturated conditions. Theories ap-
propriate to this aim usually are quite complex and the findings
illustrated earlier also could support the use of numerical tools
implementing such theories. During a trial-and-error back-
analysis procedure, this framework can help to understand
which parameters have to be modified and how their values
might be changed. For example, if the actual profile of a zoned
dam is downward shaped and the last prediction gave a sym-
metrical profile, the foregoing framework could guide the an-
alyst to increase the ratio between shell stiffness and core stiff-
ness. But, if pore pressures were overestimated as well, an
improved fitting eventually could be reached by simply in-
creasing the permeability. In this way, the volumetric strains
caused by consolidation during construction would be in-
creased and arch effects could develop to give a downward-
shaped profile. At the same time, pore pressure values obvi-
ously would be predicted to be lower, because of both
consolidation and stress discharge.
The framework also can be used to interpret the results of
complex analyses, especially when the effects of unusual pa-
rameters have to be understood. As an example, the results
plotted in Fig. 8 illustrate how, in a coupled unsaturated anal-
ysis, a specific retention construction curve (relationship be-
tween negative pore pressure U w and degree of saturation Sr)
 might affect the shape of the settlement profile and its devel-
opment during construction. The geometry analyzed is shown
in Fig. 8(a). Linearly elastic behavior and free drainage have
been assumed for the shells (E = 50 MPa, v = 0.30). The
coupled unsaturated approach (Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorenson
1995a,b) has been used to model the core behavior, assuming
linearly elastic stress-strain law (E' = 15 MPa, v' = 0.20) and
Bishop expression of effective stress (Bishop 1959). Un-
drained construction has been induced by assuming very low
permeability. 1\vo analyses have been carried out, differing
only in the trend of the water-retention characteristic curve.
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The curves assumed are reported in Fig. 8(b). For the given
initial state of U w and S" these curves represent two extreme
saturation paths that could be followed by a soil element of
the core during construction. It is worth noting that along a
vertical branch of the saturation path (i.e., Sr = constant) the
three-phase medium behaves as incompressible because nei-
ther water content nor degree of saturation can change; along
a horizontal branch the behavior is governed mainly by soil
skeleton compressibility, because changes in the degree of sat-
uration are fully allowed. The results obtained simulating the
layered construction are drawn in terms of the evolution of
both settlement profiles [Fig. 8(c)] and the maximum settle-

ment location [Fig. 8(d)]. Evident differences appear in the

behavior obtained from the different predictions. Assuming
that the soil follows saturation path A the maximum settlement
location moves from above midheight toward midheight dur-
ing construction [Figs. 8(c and d), solid lines]. This behavior
70m can be explained as follows. While the dam height is small
and the soil state moves along the vertical branch of saturation
200 path A, the core material behaves as an incompressible me-
dium, thus experiencing a Poisson's ratio close to 0.5 and high
values of conventional vertical stiffness. As a consequence, the
arch effects that develop are negligible, and it is practical to
refer to the homogeneous dam scheme (see Fig. 4). This
--Saturation path A scheme suggests that, for a given geometry, the maximum set-
tlement location moves upwards as Poisson's ratio moves to-
......... Saturation path B wards 0.5. As the fill height increases further, the material
underneath reaches the horizontal branch of the saturation
curve, thus becoming more compressible. Considerable arch
effects therefore develop, which result in a lowering of the
maximum settlement elevation, as was previously shown.
Assuming saturation path B, opposite behavior in terms of
0.90 0.92 0.94 0.96 0.98 1.00 settlement profile evolution is observed [Figs. 8(c and d), bro-
DEGREE OF SATURATION, Sr ken lines]. In this case, the initial high compressibility of the
(b) medium enhances arch effects, and therefore the maximum
occurs below midheight. Successively, as the region reaching
the vertical branch of curve B expands, the elevation of max-
imum settlement tends to move higher, until it overtakes mid-
height.

CONCLUDING REMARKS

In this research, earth dam behavior has been analyzed in

both one-dimensional and plane-strain conditions, assuming
simple constitutive laws for construction materials. These as-
sumptions have allowed building simple interpretive schemes,
which have proven to be efficient when used to infer the role
of the main factors affecting structural behavior.
The analyses of two well-documented case histories have
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 demonstrated that, if reliable settlement measurements are
NORMALIZED SETILEMENT (S/S max ) available, these schemes are useful to have a better insight into
(c) the actual dam behavior, especially when combined with fur-
0.8
ther information concerning geometry and material properties.
::r:" 0.7 In particular, the knowledge of the settlement profiles allows
....... 0.6 the deduction of some important aspects related to dam safety.
'iS 0.5 For instance, it is possible to detect a sudden rise of pore
pressure occurring in fine-grained soil when the settlement
N'" 0.4 Analysis A
-0-
profiles are observed to be upward shaped. In the presence of
'-' 0.3 zoned dams with wide cores and/or with shells in fine-grained
Analysis B
0.2 '--"--'-~---'-~-'---~'---'-----L~-'-~-'-->--.J soils, this could indicate a reduction in safety with regard to
0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1.0 slope instability and suggest lowering the rate of construction
HelH in order to enhance pore pressure dissipation. On the other
(d) hand, the observation of downward-shaped profiles, indicating
FIG. 8. Effects of Different Saturation Paths on Development significant arching or the core, could worry the engineer about
of Settlement Profiles during Construction: (a) Geometry As- the occurrence of hydraulic fracturing during working condi-
sumed for Analyses; (b) Saturation Paths Assumed for Analy-
ses; (c) Settlement Profiles during Construction Stages at Core
tions, and suggest in this case to slowly raise the water level
Axis; (d) Elevation of Maximum Settlement during Construction in the reservoir in order to conduct a drained impounding,
Stages at Core Axis which is known to provide safer conditions compared with
930/ JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932

 those related to an undrained impounding [e.g., Dounias et al. which still represents a parabola with maximum at z = H12.
(1996)]. For stiffness assumed as a linear function of t
However, these decisions should be based on the results of
a more detailed back-analysis of dam behavior. Even in this D =Do + 11t (14)
field the developed framework enables the engineer to indi- {Do = stiffness at the foundation level [Fig. 3(a)]} the solution
viduate which are the factors that most affected the response of integral in (9) yields the function
of that specific dam and, therefore, to understand which are
the ingredients that need to be contained within the model in
order to reproduce the observed behavior. The framework it-
S(z) ='Y r [Do +
Jo
H - t
11t
_ z - t
Do + 11t
] dt ='Y H - z
11
In (1 + 2L
Do
z)

self is supportive during calibration and modification of model (15)

parameters during the trial-and-error back-analysis procedure.
For 11 > 0 (i.e., for stiffness increasing with t) (15) yields
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The foregoing discussion has given some guidelines about

two essential features of a proper modeling of a dam problem. the maximum settlement below midheight (case DM) and, for
First of all, it has indicated the need to take into account ex- 11 < 0 (i.e., for stiffness decreasing with t), above midheight
plicitly geometrical effects; i.e., the geometrical model has to (case UM).
be based on at least the two-dimensional hypothesis. More- Assuming a linear change of unit weight 'Y with elevation
over, it has highlighted the importance of following a three- 'Y = 'Yo - At (16)
phase approach to model the behavior of fine-grained soils, in
order to relate properly changes of soil compressibility to the <'Yo is the unit weight at the foundation level [Fig. 3(b)]} the
interaction among the different phases. solution of the integral in (9) yields

APPENDIX I. ANALYTICAL DEVELOPMENTS OF

ONE-DIMENSIONAL CASE
S(z) =2D1 [Z'Yo(H - z)z - A(H2 - z2)zl (17)

Referring to Fig. 2, the observed settlement at a given ele- Eq. (17) gives a maximum settlement below midheight for
vation z can be computed as t) and above
A > 0 (Le., for unit weight 'Y decreasing with

S(z) f
= ~Em dt = f [EH(t) - Ez<t)] dt (6)
midheight for A < 0 (Le., for 'Y increasing with

APPENDIX II. REFERENCES

t).

where ~E = vertical
strain induced by the dead load 'Y(H - Alonso, E. E., Battle, E, Gens, A., and L1oret, A. (1988). "Consolidation
z); EH(t) = vertical strain at elevation t when the fill height is analysis of partialIy saturated soils. Application to earth dam construc-
tion." Numerical methods in geomechanics, Swoboda, ed., Vol. 2, A.
H; and Eit) = vertical strain at elevation t when the fill height A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 1303-1308.
is z. In (6) the vertical stress-strain relationship can be ex- Alonso, E., Battle, E, Gens, A., L1oret, A., and Delahaye, C. (1993).
pressed as "Analisis de la construccion y lIenado de presas de materiales sueltos. "
Simposio Sobre Geotecnia de Presas de Materiales Sueltos, Sociedad
(7)
Espanola de Mecanica del Suelo y Cimentaciones, Madrid, Spain,
The overburden vertical stresses, corresponding to EH(t) and 191-204 (in Spanish).
Alonso, E. E., Gens, A., and Josa, A. (1990). "A constitutive model for
Ez<t), are computed as partially saturated soils." Geotechnique, London, England, 40(3),
(8a,b) 405-430.
Balmaceda, A. R. (1991). "Suelos compactados: un estudio teorico y
Introducing the expressions in (8) into (7), (6) becomes experimental," Tesis Doctoral, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya,

f
Barcelona, Spain (in Spanish).
Bishop, A. W. (1959). "The principle of effective stress." Teknisk Uke-
S(z) = [f['y(H - t)l - f['y(z - t)]] dt (9) blad, 39, 859-863.
Bolzon, G., Schrefler, B. A., and Zienkiewicz, O. C. (1996). "Elasto-
This equation represents a general expression of settlements plastic soil constitutive laws generalized to partially saturated states."
Geotechnique, London, England, 46(2), 279-289.
versus elevation for a fill of thickness H. Bonelli, S., and Poulain, D. (1995). "Unsaturated elastoplastic model
If the material is homogeneous and linearly elastic, the re- applied to homogeneous earthdam behavior." Proc., 1st Int. Conf. On
lationship in (7) becomes Unsaturated Soils, Vol. 1, A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam, The Netherlands,
265-271.
<Tm Clough, R. W., and Woodward, R J. (1967). "Analysis of embankment
E=-- (10)
D stresses and defonnations." J. Soil Mech and Found. Div., ASCE,
93(4), 529-549.
where D = vertical stiffness for one-dimensional straining. Coumoulos, D. G., and Koryalos, T. P. (1978). "Perfonnance of the clay
Then, the expression (9) can be written as follows: core of a large embankment dam during construction." Proc., Con!
On Clay Fills, Institution of Civil Engineers, London, England, 73-

Jor [(H -
78.
S(z) = 1. t) - (z - t)l dt =1. (H - z)z (11)
Cui, Y., and Delage, P. (1996). "Yielding and plastic behavior of an
D D
unsaturated compacted silt." Geotechnique, London, England, 46(2),
Eq. (11) represents a parabola with the maximum settlement 291-311.
(Smax) at midheight. Dounias, G. T., Potts, D. M., and Vaughan, P. R (1996). "Analysis of
Assuming a nonlinear relationship, for instance progressive failure and cracking in old British dams." Geotechnique,
London, England, 46(4), 621-640.
E = CX<T 2
+ ~<T (12) Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorenson, Inc. (HKS). (1995a). ABAQUS/Stan-
dard-user's manual-version 5.5. Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorenson, Inc.,
the expression of settlement profile becomes Pawtucket, R.I.

S(z) = f [[cx'l(H - t)2 + ~'Y(H - t)l - [ CX 'Y 2(z - t i

Hibbit, Karlsson, and Sorenson, Inc. (HKS). (1995b). ABAQUs/
Standard-theory manual. Hibbit, Karlsson & Sorenson, Inc., Paw-
tucket, RI.
International Commission on Large Dams (lCOLD). (1982). "Automated
+ ~'Y(z - t)]] dt = (cx'YH + ~)'Y(H - z)z (13) observation for the safety control of dams." Bulletin 41, CIGB Inter-
national Commission on Large Dams, Paris, France, 1-120.

JOURNAL OF GEOTECHNICAL AND GEOENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING / 1998/931

J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932

 Josa, A. (1988). "Un modelo elastoplastico para suelos no saturados,"
Tesis Doctoral, Universitat Politecnica de Catalunya, Barcelona, Spain.
Kotzias, P. C., and Stamatopoulos, A. C. (1975). "Statistical quality con-
trol at Kastraki earth dam." J. Soil Mech. Found. Div., ASCE, 10(9),
837-853.
Laboratorio National de Engenharia Civil (LNEC). (1984). "Barragem
de Beliche: Aterros experimentais e estudio dos filtros." Internal Rep.
No. LNEC 240/84, Laboratorio National de Engenharia Civil, Lisbon,
Portugal (in Portugese).
Laboratorio National de Engenharia Civil (LNEC). (1986a). "Barragem
de Beliche: Colaboracao no Controle de Construcao dos Aterros.' , In-
ternal Rep. No. LNEC 226/86, Laboratorio National de Engenharia
Civil, Lisbon, Portugal (in Portugese).
Downloaded from ascelibrary.org by Nanyang Technological University- Library on 10/12/17. Copyright ASCE. For personal use only; all rights reserved.
D = vertical stress-vertical strain ratio, representing mate-
rial stiffness in one-dimensional case and "conven-
tional" stiffness in two-dimensional plane-strain con-
ditions;
Do = value of stiffness D at elevation t = 0 in one-dimen-
sional case;
D mu = maximum value of conventional stiffness D in two-di-
mensional plane-strain conditions and linear elastic be-
havior;
D mln minimum value of conventional stiffness D in two-di-
mensional plane-strain conditions and linear elastic be-
havior;

Laboratorio National de Engenharia Civil (LNEC). (1986b). "Barragem

E = Young's modulus;
de Beliche: Observacao da Barragem durante a Fase de Construcao."
Internal Rep. No. LNEC 161/86, Laboratorio National de Engenharia H = height of fill at end of construction;
Civil, Lisbon, Portugal (in Portugese). He = current height of fill at end of construction;
Laboratorio National de Engenharia Civil (LNEC). (1989). "Barragem S vertical displacement;
de Beliche: Observacao da Barragem durante a Fase de Primeiro En- Smu = maximum vertical displacement;
chimento." Internal Rep. No. LNEC 6190, Laboratorio National de En- (Smax)e = maximum settlement when current height of fill is He;
genharia Civil, Lisbon, Portugal (in Portugese). (Smax)/ = maximum settlement at end of construction;
L1oret, A. A., and Alonso, E. E. (1980). "Consolidation of unsaturated S, degree of saturation;
soils including swelling and collapse behaviour." Geotechnique, Lon- U a = pore-air pressure;
don, England, 30(4), 449-477. Uw pore-water pressure;
Marsal, R. J. (1958). "Analisis de asentarnientos en la presa Presidente ZSmu elevation of maximum settlement;
Aleman." Oaxaca, No.5, Instituto de Ingenieria, UNAM, Mexico City,
(ZSmax)e = elevation of maximum settlement when current height
Mexico (in Spanish).
Marsal, R. J., and Resendiz, D. (1975). "Presas de Tierra y Enroca- of fill is He;
mento." Editorial Limusa, S. A., Mexico City, Mexico (in Spanish). (ZSmu) elevation of maximum settlement at end of construc-
Naylor, D. J. (1991). "Finite element methods for fills and embankment tion;
dams." Advances in rockfill structures, M. das Neves, ed., North At- a = material parameter in nonlinear vertical stress-vertical
lantic Treaty Organization Advanced Study Institute series, Kluwer strain relationship, assuming one-dimensional condi-
Academic Publisher, Dordrecht, The Netherlands, 291-339. tions;
Ng, K. L. A., and Small, J. C. (1995). "Simulation of dams constructed 13 material parameter in nonlinear vertical stress-vertical
with unsaturated fills during construction and water impounding." strain relationship, assuming one-dimensional condi-
Proc., 1st Int. Con! On Unsaturated Soils, Vol. I, A. A. Balkema, tions;
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, 281- 286.
'Y = soil unit weight;
Pagano, L. (1996). "Analisi del comportamento statico di dighe in terra
zonate," tesi di dottorato, Universita di Napoli "Federico II," Naples, 'Yo = soil unit weight value at elevation t = 0 in one-dimen-
Italy (in Italian). sional case;
Poulos, H. G., Booker, J. R., and Ring, G. J. (1972). "Simplified calcu- 8 = slope of lateral dam boundaries;
lation of embankment deformations." Soils and Found., Tokyo, Japan, eH(t) vertical soil deformation computed at t level at end of
12(4),1-17. construction, fill height equal to H;
UNAM. (1976). "Behavior of dams built in Mexico." Contribution to eit) = vertical deformation computed at t level, fill height
the XII In!. Congr. on Large Dams, Instituto de Ingenieria, UNAM, equal to Z;
Ciudad Universitaria, Mexico City, Mexico. TJ = gradient of stiffness D with elevation, in one-dimen-
sional case;
APPENDIX III. NOTATION A = gradient of unit weight 'Y with elevation, in one-dimen-
sional case;
The following symbols are used in this paper: v = Poisson's ratio;
O'H(t) = vertical stress computed at t level at end of the con-
a = coefficient of theoretical curve (a = 'Y/D); struction, fill height equal to H; and
Bcare = half-core thickness at base foundation; O'it) = vertical stress computed at t level, fill height equal
Bshell = shell thickness at base foundation; to z.

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J. Geotech. Geoenviron. Eng., 1998, 124(10): 923-932