Marine Structures 65 (2019) 259–270

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Marine Structures
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/marstruc

The influence of welding mechanical boundary condition on the

T
residual stress and distortion of a stiffened-panel
Yuelin Zhanga, Yuanqing Wangb,∗
a
The 91404th Unit of PLA, Qinhuangdao, 066001, China
b
Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China

A R T IC LE I N F O ABS TRA CT

Keywords: Stiffened panel structure is one of the most commonly used structure type in ship and offshore
Welding-induced distortion engineering, aeronautics and astronautics and other fields. The basic joint type of stiffened panel
Residual stress structure is welding. One important factor affecting welding quality is mechanical boundary
Stiffened panel condition. The present work aims to obtain the influence of welding mechanical boundary
Mechanical boundary condition
condition on the residual stress and distortion of a stiffened-panel. Thermal elastic-plastic finite
Thermal elastic-plastic FEM
element method (FEM) is used to calculate the welding distortion and residual stress of a stif-
fened-panel under different mechanical boundary conditions. Welding distortion and residual
stress at typical positions of the stiffened-panel are calculated. The results show that mechanical
boundary conditions mainly affect the welding deformation and have little influence on the re-
sidual stress of stiffened-panels. Symmetric boundary condition can not only refrain localized
deformation effectively but also decrease the overall bending magnitude of stiffened panels
middle cross-section.

1. Introduction

Stiffened plate structure is one of the most commonly used structure type in ship and offshore engineering, aeronautics and
astronautics and other fields. The basic joint type of stiffened panel structure is welding. Deformation and residual stress are in-
evitably induced due to the non-uniform shrinkage and expansion of the material adjacent to the weld fillets during welding process.
Welding deformation not only influences the appearance of structures but also degrades the mechanical behavior due to the de-
gradation of structural integrity and geometrical accuracy [1,2]. Therefore, it is of great importance to predict welding-induced
deformation and residual stress during the production design stage of stiffened panels and then propose improved measures including
various factors such as welding sequence, welding parameters, mechanical constraint conditions that affect welding induced de-
formation and residual stress for the purpose of controlling such deformation and reducing production costs during production
process.
Welding-induced structural deformation is affected by design and manufacture factors. Important design factors include tem-
perature-dependent material properties, weld joint types, plate thickness and details. Manufacture factors comprise welding method,
welding velocity, heat input, welding sequence, mechanical boundary conditions and joint strategy. Dean et al. [3] researched the
welding deformation of a thin-walled plate bead-on joint using thermal elastic-plastic finite element method (FEM), they discussed
the deformation behaviors and buckling mode of weld fillets. Cannon et al. [1] researched the effect of welding sequence on the
deformation and residual stress of flat-bar stiffened plates using FEM method. Wang et al. [4] applied elastic FEM on a car carrying

∗
Corresponding author. Department of Civil Engineering, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100084, China.
E-mail addresses: zhangyuelin24@hotmail.com (Y. Zhang), wang-yq@tsinghua.edu.cn (Y. Wang).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marstruc.2019.02.007
Received 10 November 2018; Received in revised form 27 January 2019; Accepted 11 February 2019
0951-8339/ © 2019 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Y. Zhang and Y. Wang Marine Structures 65 (2019) 259–270

ship's structure based on inherent deformation theory to predict the out of plane welding deformation of hull plate structure and
reduced welding-induced deformation by mitigation measurements using line heating. Liang and Murakawa [5] developed a typical
welding joint inherent deformation acquiring method based on inverse analysis. A database of thin-walled plate bead-on joint in-
herent deformation was established to predict welding deformation of thin-walled welding structures with complicated geometry and
large dimension. Chen et al. [6] developed the thermal elastic-plastic FEM using section-integration shell elements and investigated
the influence of welding sequence on stiffened plate structure's deformation and residual stress. Liang Zong et al. [7] investigated the
fatigue behavior of welded joints by numerical and experimental approach. Heinze et al. [8] researched the performance of welding
residual stress under highly constraint shrinkage experimentally. Fu et al. [9] used a sequentially coupled thermo-mechanical finite
element model that considers temperature-dependent material properties, high temperature effects and a moving volumetric heat
source to investigate the effect of welding sequence on the residual stresses and distortions in T-joint welds.
In virtual welding processes, fixtures may exist to fix the welded parts, so it is necessary to apply actual fixture constraints to the
welded parts for welding simulation, which may affect welding deformation and stress, but this effect does exist. In order to obtain
the real stress of weld parts in free state, the stress release of tooling should be continued. In addition, if there are additional support
tools in the welding process, the influence of these tools on heat dissipation should also be concerned. Fu et al. [10] researched the
welding distortion and residual stress of T-joints under various mechanical boundaries. Experiment and FEM study results show that
out-of-plane displacement, transverse shrinkage, transverse residual stress and angular deformation significantly depend on me-
chanical boundary conditions.
The present work aims to develop thermal elastic-plastic FEM simulation and research the influence of mechanical boundary
conditions on the residual stress and deformation of a stiffened-panel using this method. Three dimensional solid element is used to
enhance the modeling and calculating accuracy. Important design and manufacture parameters including material properties,
welding velocity, welding heat input and direction are taken account in the research. Different mechanical boundary conditions are
designed to compare their influence on welding-induced residual stress and distortion.

2. Thermal elastic-plastic model

The sequential coupled thermal elastic-plastic FEM solution can be divided into two steps: Firstly, carrying out heat transfer
analysis to acquire the transient temperature field during welding process, secondly, applying temperature results as external loads
on the mechanical model. Non-uniform heat shrinkage and expansion of material will induce structure response including stress,
plastic strain and deformation. The procedure of the thermal elastic-plastic sequentially coupled analysis is illustrated in Fig. 1.

2.1. Thermal analysis method

Before mechanical analysis, transient welding heat transfer analysis with given welding conditions was performed in the 3D
stiffened-panel model. The temperature cycle during the entire welding process at each node and the transient temperature dis-
tribution in the whole range of model are acquired by solving the following non-linear heat transfer governing equation:

∂T ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞ ∂ ⎛ ∂T ⎞
ρc = λ + λ ⎜ + ⎟ λ +Q
∂t ∂x ⎝ ∂x ⎠ ∂y ⎝ ∂y ⎠ ∂z ⎝ ∂z ⎠ (1)

where ρ, c, λ are respectively material density, specific heat and thermal conductivity. Q is the internal heat generation rate. T is
transient temperature.
The boundary conditions (BC) for the temperature field can be given in three ways. The first kind of BC is that the transient
temperature at any time of any point on the surface of an object is known:
Ts = Ts (x , y, z , t ) (2)

where Ts is the temperature on the boundary.

Fig. 1. The procedure for the thermal elastic-plastic sequentially coupled analysis.

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The second kind of boundary condition is that the normal heat flux at any point on the surface of a given object is known:
∂T
−λ = qs (x , y, z , t )
∂n (3)

where qs is the heat flux.

The third kind of boundary condition is that the transient convection heat release condition of any point on the boundary of an
object at any time is known. According to the convection law of heat, the density of heat flux from the object surface to the
surrounding medium in unit time is proportional to the temperature difference between them:
∂T
−λ = α (Ts − Tα )
∂n (4)

where Ta is the ambient temperature, α is the convection heat transfer coefficient.

2.2. Mechanical analysis method

Total strain increment can be expressed as a sum of components described in the equation below in mechanical analysis [3]:

dε tl = dε e + dε p + dε th + dε c + dε pt (5)

where dεtl is the total strain increment, dεe, dεp, dεth, dεc, dε pt respectively represent elastic, plastic, thermal, creep and phase
transformation induced strains.
The relationship between elastic strain and stress obeys to isotropic Hook's rule, plastic behavior is determined by Von Mises rule
and isotropic hardening law. Thermal strain can be calculated using thermal expansion coefficient. Creep can be ignored since it
makes little contribution to total strain, for thermal cycles in welding process are short. Phase transformation-induced strain is also
ignored in the present work for the same reason. Geometrical non-linear large deformation is considered in mechanical analysis.
In the present work, different constraint conditions, i.e., 4-points constrained, 2-points constrained and 2-regions clamped by
support tools, 6-points constrained, 4-regions clamped are employed to study the influence of mechanical boundary condition on the
welding-induced deformations in T-joint fillet. The 4 kinds of boundary conditions are widely used in the welding of a stiffened panel
for a factory [11]. The details of these mechanical boundary conditions are listed in Fig. 2 (where Ux, Uy, Uz are respectively the
displacement in direction x, y, z):
Case (a): 4-points constrained, the related displacements of 4-points on the panel are constrained.

Fig. 2. The details of the various boundary conditions.

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Fig. 3. The detail dimension of the stiffened panel (Unit: mm).

Case (b): 2-points constrained and 2-points clamped by support tools, the support tools are defined as rigid bodies which act as a
thermal sink at room temperature with the magnitude of 20 °C. The plate is permanently glued to the support tools.
Case (c): 6-points constrained, the related displacements of 6-points on the panel are constrained.
Case (d): 4-regions clamped, 4-regions clamped by support tools, the support tools are defined as rigid bodies which act as a
thermal sink at room temperature with the magnitude of 20 °C. The plate is permanently glued to the support tools.

3. FE model

3.1. Geometrical model

A stiffened-panel to simulate a ship grillage is chosen as the research object in the present work. The structure comprises a plate
element and 4 stiffeners. One side of the stiffener is free, another is jointed to the plate element. The overall size of the plate element
is 1200 mm × 1200 mm with the thickness of 10 mm. Stiffener spacing is 300 mm. The thickness and the width of the web are
respectively 10 mm and 100 mm. The detail dimension of the stiffened panel is illustrated in Fig. 3. All of the stiffeners are welded on
the steel plate before assembly to provide the initial overall stiffness. CO2 gas metal arc welding is employed during manufacture, and
the welding parameters are shown in Table 1.
Each stiffener and the bottom plate in the structure contains two longitudinal weld fillets (Fig. 4). The weld fillets are numbered as
1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8 from left to right. Two weld fillets of each stiffener are welded with the same direction simultaneously during
welding and the stiffeners are welded sequentially.

3.2. FE model

The stiffened-panel is modeled by MSC. Marc software. The element type is C3D8R. The mesh count of the whole model is 9506.
Non-uniform meshes are used due to the different temperature gradient between Heat Affected Zone (HAZ) and other zones of the
structure. Refined meshes are used in the weld fillet region to acquire heat fluxes more accurately and acquire ideal temperature
distribution. The element size increases progressively away from the welding zone. The mesh divisions of the whole model is shown
in Fig. 5. The red arrows and the blue arrows are respectively the direction of weld width and the direction of welding. The green
arrow represents the direction of the depth of the 7th weld fillet.
The properties of the material are temperature-dependent, as shown in Table 2 [12,13], including Young's modulus, Yield stress,
coefficient of thermal conductivity and specific heat, which will influence the mechanical and thermal simulation results. Gravity
load is not taken account into analysis.

3.3. Heat source

An accurate depiction of the heat source and the appropriate selection of the correlated parameters are indispensible to the
numerical simulation of welded thin-walled stiffened-panel [14]. Welding heat source model mainly contains line heat source,
surface heat source, volumetric heat source, combined heat source etc. Thierry Tchoumi et al. [15] proposed that the parameters of
the Gaussian heat source are well appropriate for different welding speeds and allow reproducing an accurate width and thickness of
the weld. Double ellipsoid heat source is used in the present work. The distribution of heat source power density of welding arc spot is
described by a double ellipsoid moving heat source model in double ellipsoid heat model. The volumetric heat source acting on the

Table 1
Welding parameters.
Current(A) Voltage(V) Velocity(mm/s)

20 200 2

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Fig. 4. Position of the weld fillets.

Fig. 5. FE model of the structure.

Table 2
Material properties.
Tem-perat-ure Young's modu-lus Yield stress Coeffici-ent of thermal expansi-on Coeffic-ient of thermal conduc-tivity Sp-ecif-ic heat

2
°C × 2.1e11Pa × 2.5e8Pa × 1.2e-5m/°C × 40 W/m °C × 500 J/kg°C

0 1 1 1 1 1
300 0.8 0.85 0.9 0.9 0.85
500 0.5 0.7 0.8 0.8 0.75
800 0.1 0.1 0.9 0.7 0.6
1000 0.001 0.001 1.3 2 3
3000 0.001 0.001 1.3 2 3

work piece is divided into two parts along the axis [16]. The model is divided into two parts with different lengths, so as to simulate
the temperature gradient distribution of the front and rear ends of the moving heat source better during the welding process (the front
is steeper and the rear is slower) [17]. The internal heat flux density distribution along the front and rear parts of Y-axis is obtained by
the following equation [18]:

⎧ 6 3 ⎛f f Q⎞
⎜ ⎟

⎪ q (x , y, z ) = ⎝ ⎠
exp
⎪ f baf cπ π
⎪
⎪⎛− 3x 2 − 3y 2 − 3z2 ⎞, y ≥ 0
⎜ ⎟
b2 a2f c2
⎨⎝ ⎠
⎪ q (x , y, z ) = 6 3 (fr Q)
⎪ r bar cπ π
⎪
( 3x 2 3y 2
⎪ exp − b2 − 2 − c 2 , y < 0
⎩ ar
3z 2
) (6)

where efficient heat input Q = ηUI (where U is welding voltage, I is welding current, η is welding heat efficiency). ff and fr are power
distribution coefficient of total power input at the two parts before and after the molten pool respectively:
af br
f f + fr = 2, f f = , fr =
a f + ar a f + ar (7)

where b, af, ar, c are shape parameters of the double ellipsoid heat source(Fig. 6, Table 3).

3.4. Experimental verification

To verify the calculation validity of FEM, the simulation results are compared with experimental results carried out by Mato et al.
[19]. The geometrical model, BCs, measuring points defined and some basic welding parameters are shown in Fig. 7. More details can

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Fig. 6. Double-ellipsoid heat source model.

Table 3
Shape parameters of the double ellipsoid heat source.
Width b/mm Depth c/mm Forward length af/mm Rear length ar /mm

6 5 3 15

Fig. 7. Welding conditions of T-joint.

be found in literature [19]. The final vertical distortion of the model after welding and cooling processes are shown in Fig. 8.
The calculated and experimental out-of-plane deflections at three transverse sections are shown in Fig. 9. The results confirm that
there is a good agreement between the measured experimental data and predicted results obtained by the proposed method.

4. Results and discussion

4.1. The development of residual stress and deformation

As described in section 2.1, the first step of welding process simulation is to acquire temperature field. The variation of long-
itudinal stress and vertical deformation at Node.44 (on the bottom of the plate element along the middle length, see in Fig. 5) with
time is shown in Fig. 10. The zone adjacent to the weld joint expands and the bottom extends as the weld temperature increases,
resulting in simply uniaxial tensile stress in this region and the vertical distortion increases at the same time. Tensile stress and
vertical deformation increase with the growth of temperature. The stress and deformation still increase for some time (about 24s)
when temperature begins to decrease, which indicates that the development of stress and deformation always lags behind the change
of temperature. Ultimately, the value of the longitudinal stress turns to a constant value at t = 144s, as shown in Fig. 10.

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Fig. 8. Final vertical distortion.

Fig. 9. Comparison with experimental results.

Fig. 10. The development of residual stress and deformation of Node.44.

4.2. Deformation and residual stress results under different BCs

4.2.1. Welding-induced deformation

Welding-induced deformation of the stiffened-panel under different BCs are analyzed in this part. Fig. 11 shows the ultimate
deformation of the structure under case (b). To clearly show the results under different cases, Fig. 12 defined 3 node paths to compare

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Fig. 11. The ultimate deformation of the structure under case (b)(Unit: m).

Fig. 12. The definition of node paths.

the deformations and residual stresses, where L1, L2 and T1 represent the position of longitudinal lines and transverse line respec-
tively, including the positions of typical free side, middle transverse cross-section and a stiffener.
Fig. 13 shows the vertical deformation of L1 under case (a) and case (b). It can be found that the vertical deformation of L1 under
two cases are both sagging deformation with the characteristic of good symmetry. The peak value of deformation under case (a) and
case (b) both occurs in the middle position of the node path with the magnitude of 0.81 mm and 1.12 mm respectively. The welding-
induced deformation under case (a) is reduced by about 30% compared with case (b).
Fig. 14 described the vertical deformation of L2. The localized deformation of welded plates comprises two parts [20]: one is the
angular deformation of fillet weld, which is produced by the non-uniform shrinkage of material along plate thickness direction.
Another is caused by welding residual compress stress induced plate buckling, the magnitude is determined by welding total heat
input and influenced by welding sequence. The vertical distortion of L2 under two cases are shown as sagging bending. The peak
value both occur in the position of x = 1200 mm with the direction along the positive direction of Y-axis. The average magnitude of
welding-induced deformation under case (a) is about 10% smaller than that of case (b).
The overall bending performance of the stiffened plate structure can be seen from the stiffeners. Fig. 15 illustrates the vertical
distortion of T1. Though the model only contains longitudinal stiffeners, bending occurs in both longitudinal and transverse direc-
tions. The overall bending of the structure is induced by the shrinkage of the weld fillets. The shrinkage of one side will results in
overall structure's hogging. One of the manifest character of stiffened plate structure's welding-induced distortion is the superposition
of overall girder bending and localized plate bending. Compared with case (b), the overall bending magnitude of case (a) is smaller.
In addition, the distortion of case (a) shows a better symmetry. The deformation directions of stiffener both ends under 2 cases are Y-

Fig. 13. The vertical deformation of L1 under two cases.

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Y. Zhang and Y. Wang Marine Structures 65 (2019) 259–270

Fig. 14. The vertical deformation of L2.

Fig. 15. The vertical distortion of T1.

axis negative direction. The peak value of the negative-direction deformation occurs in the position of z = 0 (the ending point of the
welding arc) with the magnitude of −0.5 mm. While the direction of longitudinal middle deformation is along Y-axis positive
direction. The welding deformation magnitude of case (a) is 10% less than that of case (b).
The vertical deformation of T1 under case (a) and case (c) are shown in Fig. 16. It can be found that though the hogging
deformation magnitude of the stiffener is reduced to a certain extent under 6-points constraint, the vertical deformation of welding
arc ending is increased, so the welding mechanical BC of case (c) is not suggested in the present work, this also verifies that an
unsymmetrical BC will induce a larger localized deformation.
Fig. 17 illustrates the vertical deformation of L2 under case (b) and case (d). The distance Δd in Fig. 17 is the difference between
the minimum and maximum values of the vertical deformation on the node path, which can reflect the global sagging bending
magnitude of stiffened-panel's middle transverse cross-section. The reduction of Δd is of great importance since sagging bending is a
significant initial input in stiffened-panel's buckling strength and other mechanical performance calculation. According to Fig. 17, the
global bending magnitude of stiffened-panel's middle cross-section under the welding mechanical BC in case (d) is reduced by about
50% compared with case (b).

Fig. 16. The vertical deformation of T1 under case (a) and case (c).

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Y. Zhang and Y. Wang Marine Structures 65 (2019) 259–270

Fig. 17. The vertical deformation of L2.

4.2.2. Transverse and longitudinal residual stress

The residual stress of the stiffened-panel under different welding BCs are analyzed in this part. Fig. 18 shows the ultimate residual
stress distribution of Case(b). Fig. 19 shows the transverse stress S11 (the normal stress acting in the X-direction) of L2. It can be found
that the transverse stress of the stiffened-panel's top surface and bottom surface at the position of weld fillet are both tensile stress.
The magnitude of tensile stress is about 0.3 times and 0.6 times material yield stress for the top surface and bottom surface re-
spectively. The peak value of the whole model's transverse residual stress occurs in the juxtaposition of the weld fillet, the top surface
shows compression stress with the peak value of 0.4 times material yield stress, the bottom surface shows tensile stress with the peak
value of material yield stress. The stress direction distinction of stiffened-panel's top surface and bottom surface is caused by welding-
induced stiffened panel's hogging bending. The top surface and bottom surface is compressed and stretched respectively, which can
not be reflected when using shell element to calculate welding residual stress for the reason that an important assumption in two-
dimensional FE calculation is that the stress state of the direction vertical to the weld fillet keeps in-plane strain state, which is a little
distinct with practical case. The top and bottom surface transverse stress S11 curve of L2 under two cases are almost coincident,
indicating that there is almost no influence of welding mechanical BC on the cross-section transverse residual stress of the stiffened
panel.
Fig. 20 shows the distribution along X-axis of the vertical stress S22 (the normal stress acting in the Y-direction) of L2. It can be
seen that the welding residual stress of the stiffened panel's top surface is tensile stress. The peak value occurs in weld fillet position
with the magnitude of 0.15 times material yield stress and then decreases rapidly. The welding residual stress of stiffened-panel's
bottom surface is compression stress. The peak value occurs in the region adjacent to the weld fillet with the magnitude of about 0.25
times material yield stress. In addition, the value of longitudinal residual stress decreases to 0 in the middle of two adjacent stiffeners.
Compared with transverse residual stress, the magnitude of vertical residual stress is smaller. Therefore, as a summery, the main
influence of welding process on the stiffened panel's residual stress is transverse residual stress. The peak value occurs in the bottom
surface of the region adjacent to the weld fillet with the magnitude of material yield stress.

4.3. Discussion

During welding process, the volume of welding materials constantly increase and decrease in the weld fillet heating expansion
and cooling shrinkage stage. The change of welding material volume will induce the longitudinal shrinkage along welding direction
and transverse shrinkage vertical to welding direction. In case (a) and case (b), the distributions of stiffened-panel's middle cross-

Fig. 18. The ultimate residual stress of Case (b).

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Fig. 19. The transvers stress S11 of L2.

Fig. 20. The vertical stress S22 of position L2.

section transverse and vertical residual stress show a similar characteristic due to the longitudinal shrinkage is not constrained by
mechanical BCs (see in Fig. 2).
In case (a), the distribution of vertical deformation of each transverse cross-section is more uniform due to the freedom state of
stiffened-panel's four sides. Each cross-section shows a sagging deformation, which leads to a global sagging deformation of the
stiffened-panel along transverse direction, and the vertical deformation shows a better symmetry. While in case (b), the vertical
deformation increases from the ending section to the starting section of the welding arc, for the vertical displacement of welding arc
ending is constrained by support tools. The vertical deformation of welding arc starting section is larger than that of case(a), in-
dicating that the symmetry of welding mechanical BC can effectively refrain the occurrence of localized deformation.

5. Conclusions

The numerical simulation of a stiffened-panel's welding process under different welding mechanical BCs using thermal elastic-
plastic FEM is carried out in the present work. The welding-induced temperature, displacement and stress field of the stiffened-panel
are obtained.
This paper mainly has the following three aspects of theoretical contributions: Firstly, thermal elastic-plastic FEM is developed in
the numerical simulation of welding process. Secondly, the reference of selecting welding mechanical boundary condition is pro-
vided. Thirdly, the magnitude of residual stress and deformation calculated can be included as pre-stress and initial imperfection in
the ultimate strength calculations as parameters of influence.
The following conclusions can be obtained by the present investigation: (1) Transverse residual stress is the main kind of stress
after the welding process of the stiffened panel. The peak value of compression stress occurs in the top surface of the region adjacent
to weld fillet with the magnitude of 0.4 times material yield stress, while the peak value of tensile stress occurs in the bottom surface
of the region adjacent to the weld fillet with the magnitude of material yield stress. (2) Using solid element to analyze 3D heat
transfer is more coincident with practical situation than shell element. (3) Mechanical boundary conditions mainly affect the welding
deformation and have little influence on residual stress of stiffened-panels. (4) The symmetry of welding mechanical BC can not only
refrain the production of localized deformation effectively, but also reduce the global bending magnitude of stiffened-panel's middle

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transverse cross-section.
Totally speaking, none of the welding mechanical BCs proposed in the present work can not only reduce the global and localized
deformation of the stiffened-panel but also reduce the welding residual stress. Therefore, analyzing the loading characteristics of
welding structures in service (for example, the analysis of buckling and fatigue characteristic of welding structure) and then selecting
appropriate welding mechanical BC based on the loading characteristic is a study emphasis in further research. In addition, the
feasibility analysis should be carried out in the design of welding mechanical BC due to the limitation of practical manufacture
condition.

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