Solutions to Practice Problems

Exercise 3.7 n
Consider the set A = { (−1)
n
: n ∈ N}.
(a) Show that A is bounded from above. Find the supremum. Is this supre-
mum a maximum of A?
(b) Show that A is bounded from below. Find the infimum. Is this infimum
a minimum of A?

Solution.
(a) Clearly, 12 is an upper bound of A. Let M > 0 be an upper bound of
A. We will show that 12 ≤ M. Suppose the contrary. That is, suppose that
n
M < 12 . Since M is an upper bound of A, we have (−1)n
≤ M for all n ∈ N.
1 1
In particular, letting n = 2 we obtain 2 ≤ M < 2 which is imposssibe. Thus,
1
2
≤ M so that sup{A} = 21 . Since the supremum is an element of A we
conclude that 12 is also the maximum of A.
(b) Clearly, −1 is a lower bound of A. Let m be a lower bound of A. We will
show that m ≤ −1. Suppose the contrary. That is, suppose that m > −1.
Letting n = 1 we find that −1 = (−1) 1
≥ m > −1, which is impossible.
Therefore, we must have m ≤ −1. This establishes that inf{A} = −1. Since
−1 is in A, it is the minimum of A

Exercise 3.8
Consider the set A = {x ∈ R : 1 < x < 2}.
(a) Show that A is bounded from above. Find the supremum. Is this supre-
mum a maximum of A?
(b) Show that A is bounded from below. Find the infimum. Is this infimum
a minimum of A?

Solution.
(a) Clearly, 2 is an upper bound of A. Let M > 1 be an upper bound of
A. We will show that 2 ≤ M. Suppose the contrary. That is, suppose that
1 < M < 2. Let r be a rational number such that M < r < 2. Then r ∈ A
and M < r which contradicts the fact that M is an upper bound of A. Hence,
we must have 2 ≤ M so that sup{A} = 2. Since the supremum is not an
element of A we conclude that 2 is not a maximum of A.
(b) Clearly, 1 is a lower bound of A. Let m be a lower bound of A. We will
show that m ≤ 1. Suppose the contrary. That is, suppose that 1 < m < 2.

1
Let r be a rational number such that 1 < r < m. Then r ∈ A and r < m
which contradicts the fact that m is a lower bound of A. Thus, we must have
1 ≤ m so that inf{A} = 1. Since 1 is not in A, it is not a minimum of A

Exercise 3.9
Consider the set A = {x > 0 : x2 > 4} = {x > 0 : x > 2}.
(a) What is a lower bound of A?
(b) Let L be a lower bound of A such that L > 2. Let y = L+2
2
. Show that
2 < y < L.
(c) Show that y ∈ A and L ≤ y. Show that this leads to a contradiction.
Hence, we must have L ≤ 2 which means that 2 is the infimum of A.

Solution.
(a) Since 2 ≤ x for all x ∈ A, 2 is a lower bound of A.
(b) Since L > 2 we have L + 2 > 4 and this implies y = L+2 2
> 2. Also,
y = L+2
2
< L+L
2
= L.
(c) Since y > 2 we have y 2 > 4 so that y ∈ A. But L is a lower bound of A
so we must have L ≤ y. But this contradicts y < L from (b). It follows that
2 is the greatest lower bound of A

Exercise 3.10
Show that for any real number x there is a positive integer n such that n > x.

Solution.
Let a = 1 and b = x in the Archimedean property

Exercise 3.11
Let a and b be any two real numbers such that a < b.
(a) Let w be a fixed positive irrational number. Show that there is a rational
number r such that a < wr < b.
(b) Show that wr is irrational. Hence, between any two distinct real numbers
there is an irrational number.

Solution.
(a) Since a < b, we have wa < wb . By Exercise 3.6, there is a rational number
r such that wa < r < wb or a < rw < b.
(e) If rw = s with s rational then w = rs which is a rational, a contradiction.
Hence, rw is irrational

2
Exercise 3.12
Suppose that α = sup A < ∞. Let  > 0 be given. Prove that there is an
x ∈ A such that α −  < x.

Solution.
Suppose the contrary. That is, α −  ≥ x for all x ∈ A. In this case, α −  is
an upper bound of A. Thus, we must have α ≤ α −  which is impossible

Exercise 3.13
Suppose that β = inf A < ∞. Let  > 0 be given. Prove that there is an
x ∈ A such that β +  > x.

Solution.
Suppose the contrary. That is, β +  ≤ x for all x ∈ A. In this case, β +  is
a lower bound of A. Thus, we must have β +  ≤ β which is impossible

Exercise 3.14
For each of the following sets S find sup{S} and inf{S} if they exist. You
do not need to justify your answer.
(a) S = {x ∈ R : x2 < 5}.
(b) S = {x ∈ R : x2 > 7}.
(c) S = {− n1 : n ∈ N}.

Solution. √ √ √
(a) Note that S = {x ∈ R : − 5 < x < 5}. So 5 is an √ upper bound
of S. Let M be an upper bound of S. √ Suppose that M < 5. Let r be a
rational number such that M < r < 5. Then r ∈ S and M √ < r. But this
contradicts√the fact that M is an upper bound of S. Thus, 5 ≤ M so that
sup{S} = 5. √
Likewise one can show that inf{S} = − 5.
(b) sup{S} = ∞ and inf{S} = −∞.
(c) sup{S} = 0 and inf{S} = −1

Exercise 3.15 √
(a) Show that for any positive numbers a and b we have a+b ≥ ab.
√ 2
(b) Let ai > 0 for i = 1, 2, · · · , n. Suppose that a1 a2 · · · an = 1. Use (a) to
n

show that
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) · · · (1 + an ) ≥ 2n .

3
Solution. √ √ √ √
(a) We have ( a − b)2 ≥ 0 → a + b ≥ 2 ab → a+b ≥ ab.
√ 2
(b) For i = 1, · · · , n we have 1+a
2
i
≥ a i . Multiplying these n inequalitites
we find
√
    
1 + a1 1 + a2 1 + an
··· ≥ a1 a2 · · · an = 1
2 2 2

Hence,
(1 + a1 )(1 + a2 ) · · · (1 + an ) ≥ 2n

Exercise 3.16 √ √
Consider the numbers s1 , s2 , · · · where s1 = 2 and sn+1 = 2 + sn for
n ∈ N. Show that each of these numbers is irrational.

Solution. √
We proof this claim by induction on n. For n = 1 we have s1 = 2 which is an
irrational number. Suppose that sk is irrational for k = 1, 2, · · · , n. We want
to show that sn+1 is irrational. Suppose the contrary, then sn = s2n+1 − 2 is
rational which contradicts the assumption that sn is irrational. Hence, sn+1
must be irrational

Exercise 3.17
An algebraic number is a number p that satisfies a polynomial equation with
3
√
integer coefficients. Show that x = 1 + 5 is an algebraic number.

Solution. p √ √
3
We have x = 1 + 5 =⇒ x3 = 1+ 5 =⇒ (x3 −1)2 = 5 =⇒ x6 −2x3 −4 =
0

Exercise 3.18
Let A ⊂ R. Let f, g : A → R be such that |f (x)| ≤ M1 and |g(x)| ≤ M2 for
all x ∈ A. Show the following
(a) sup{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ A} ≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} + sup{g(x) : x ∈ A}.
(b) inf{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ A} ≥ inf{f (x) : x ∈ A} + inf{g(x) : x ∈ A}.
(c) sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} = − inf{f (x) : x ∈ A}
(d) sup{f (x) − g(x) : x ∈ A} ≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} − inf{g(x) : x ∈ A}.

4
Solution.
(a) For all x ∈ A, we have

f (x) + g(x) ≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} + sup{g(x) : x ∈ A}.

Thus, sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} + sup{g(x) : x ∈ A} is an upper bound of {f (x) +

g(x) : x ∈ A}. But sup{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ A} is the smallest upper bound of
{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ A} so that

sup{f (x) + g(x) : x ∈ A} ≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} + sup{g(x) : x ∈ A}.

(b) Similar argument to (a).

(c) We have −f (x) ≤ − inf{f (x) : x ∈ A} for all x ∈ A so that − inf{f (x) :
x ∈ A} is an upper bound of {−f (x) : x ∈ A}. But sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} is
the smallest upper bound of {−f (x) : x ∈ A}. Hence,

sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} ≤ − inf{f (x) : x ∈ A}.

Suppose that sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} < − inf{f (x) : x ∈ A}. Let  =

− inf{f (x) : x ∈ A} − sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} > 0. By Exercise 3.13, there
is a a ∈ A such that inf{f (x) : x ∈ A} +  > f (a). But this implies that
− inf{f (x) : x ∈ A} −  < −f (a) ≤ sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A}. This leads to
the contradiction sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A} < sup{−f (x) : x ∈ A}. Hence, the
equality must hold.
(d) We have

sup{f (x) − g(x) : x ∈ A} = sup{f (x) + (−g(x)) : x ∈ A}

≤ sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} + sup{−g(x) : x ∈ A}
= sup{f (x) : x ∈ A} − inf{g(x) : x ∈ A}

Exercise 3.19
Let A ⊂ R. Let f, g : A → R be such that |f (x)| ≤ M1 and |g(x)| ≤ M2 for
all x ∈ A.
(a) Show that

{f (x)−g(y) : x, y ∈ A} = {|f (x)−g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}∪{−|f (x)−g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}.

(b) Show that

sup{|f (x) − g(y)| : x, y ∈ A} = sup{f (x) − g(y) : x, y ∈ A}.

5
Solution.
(a) Let x, y ∈ A. If f (x) ≥ f (y) then f (x) − f (y) = |f (x) − f (y)| ∈ {|f (x) −
g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}. If f (x) ≤ f (y) then f (x) − f (y) ≤ 0 so that f (x) − f (y) =
−|f (x) − f (y)| ∈ {−|f (x) − g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}. Hence,

{f (x)−g(y) : x, y ∈ A} ⊆ {|f (x)−g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}∪{−|f (x)−g(y)| : x, y ∈ A}.

The other inclusion is trivial.

(b) Note that {|f (x) − g(y)| : x, y ∈ A} consists of nonnegative numbers
whereas {−|f (x) − g(y)| : x, y ∈ A} consists of negative numbers. Hence,
the result is clear

Exercise 3.20
(a) For each n ∈ N we define In = [n, ∞). Show that ∞
T
n=1 In = ∅. Hint:
Archimedean property.
(b) For each n ∈ N we define Jn = [− n1 , ∞). Show that ∞
T
n=1 In 6= ∅.

Solution.
(a) Let a > 0. By the Archimedean property, there
T∞ is a positive integer n such
T is, y 6∈ [n, ∞) and so y 6∈ n=1 In . Since y was arbitrary,
that n > y. That
we mustThave ∞ n=1 In = ∅.
∞
(b) 0 ∈ n=1 Jn

Exercise 3.21 (Nested interval theorem)

For each nT∈ N let In = [an , bn ]. Suppose that In+1 ⊂ In for each n ∈ N.
Show that ∞ n=1 In 6= ∅.

Solution.
(a) We have a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ bn ≤ · · · ≤ b2 ≤ b1 . Hence, for each n ∈ N, bn
is an upper bound of the set {a1 , a2 , · · · }. By completeness of R there is a
finite number α such that α = sup{a1 , a2 , · · · }. Fix n ∈ N. By the definition
of α we have an ≤ α. Now, since bn is an upper bound of {a1 , a2 , · · · }, again
by the definition of α we have α ≤ bn . Hence, α ∈ In for all n ∈ N so that
T ∞
n=1 In 6= ∅

Exercise 3.22
√
Show that 2 + √1 is irrational.
2

6
Solution. √
Suppose the contrary. Then 2 + √12 = pq where p and q are non-zero
√ √ √
integers. Multiply through by 2 to obtain 3 = 2 pq . Hence, 2 = 3qp
which
√
is a rational. But this contradicts the fact that 2 is irrational

Exercise 3.23 (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)

Let x1 , x2 , y1 , y2 ∈ R.
(a) Show that x2 + y 2 ≥ 2xy for all x, y ∈ R.
(b) Show that

x1 y 1 x21 y12
2p ≤ +
x21 + x22 y12 + y22
p
x21 + x22 y12 + y22

and
x2 y 2 x22 y22
2p ≤ +
x21 + x22 y12 + y22
p
x21 + x22 y12 + y22
(c) Show that q q
x1 y1 + x2 y2 ≤ x21 + x22 y12 + y22

Solution.
(a) This follows from the fact that (x − y)2 ≥ 0.
(b) For the first inequality let x = √ x21 2 and y = √ y21 . Likewise, for the
x1 +x2 y1 +y22
second inequality, let x = √ x22 2 and y = √ y22 2 .
x1 +x2 y1 +y2
(b) This follows by adding the two inequalities in (b)

Exercise 3.24
For each n ∈ N let In = − n1 , n1 . Show that ∞

T
n=1 In = {0}.

Solution. T
Clearly, 0 ∈ ∞
T∞
n=1 In . Suppose that x ∈ n=1 In with x 6= 0. If x > 0 then by
the Archimedean property we can
find a positive integer
T∞n such that nx > 1.
1 1
But this implies that x 6∈ − n , n and therefore x 6∈ n=1 In . If x < 0 then
−x > 0 and we can find a positive integer
T∞ n such that T n(−x) > 1 so that
x < − n . Again this implies that x 6∈ n=1 In . Hence, ∞
1
n=1 In consists of
{0}