NON-IDEAL FLOW

Residence Time Distribution

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SCOPE:
• Design of non-ideal reactors
• Identify the possible deviations
• Measurement of RTD

• Quality of mixing
• Models for mixing
• Calculating the exit conversion in practical
reactors

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Practical reactor performance deviates from that
of ideal reactor’s :
• Packed bed reactor – Channeling
• CSTR & Batch – Dead Zones, Bypass
• PFR – deviation from plug flow – dispersion
• Deviation in residence times of molecules
• the longitudinal mixing caused by vortices and
turbulence
•Failure of impellers /mixing devices
How to design the Practical reactor ??
What design equation to use ??
Approach: (1) Design ideal reactor
(2) Account/correct for deviations 3
 Deviations

In an ideal CSTR, the reactant concentration is uniform

throughout the vessel, while in a real stirred tank, the
reactant concentration is relatively high at the point
where the feed enters and low in the stagnant regions
that develop in corners and behind baffles.

In an ideal plug flow reactor, all reactant and product

molecules at any given axial position move at the same rate
in the direction of the bulk fluid flow. However, in a real
plug flow reactor, fluid velocity profiles, turbulent mixing,
and molecular diffusion cause molecules to move with
changing speeds and in different directions.

The deviations from ideal reactor conditions pose several

problems in the design and analysis of reactors. 4
Possible Deviations from ideality:

Short Circuiting or By-Pass – Reactant flows into the tank through the
inlet and then directly goes out through the outlet without reacting if the
inlet and outlet are close by or if there exists an easy route between the
two.

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1. Dead Zone 2. Short Circuiting

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Three concepts are generally used to describe the
deviations from ideality:
• the distribution of residence times (RTD)
• the quality of mixing
• the model used to describe the system

These concepts are regarded as characteristics of

Mixing.

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Analysis of non-ideal reactors is carried out in
three levels:
First Level:
• Model the reactors as ideal and account or
correct for the deviations
Second Level:
• Use of macro-mixing information (RTD)
Third Level:
• Use of micro-mixing information – models for
fluid flow behavior
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RTD Function:
• Use of (RTD) in the analysis of non-ideal reactor
performance – Mac Mullin & Weber – 1935
• Dankwerts (1950) – organizational structure
• Levenspiel & Bischoff, Himmelblau & Bischoff,
Wen & Fan, Shinner
• In any reactor there is a distribution of
residence times
• RTD effects the performance of the reactor
• RTD is a characteristic of the mixing 11
Measurement of RTD

RTD is measured experimentally by injecting an inert

matrerial called tracer at t=0 and measuring its
concentration at the exit as a function of time.
Injection & Detection points should be very close to
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the reactor
 ASSUMPTIONS

1. Constant flowrate vo (u) (l/min) and fluid density

ρ(g/l).
2. Only one flowing phase.
3. Closed system input and output by bulk flow only (i.e.,
no diffusion across the system boundaries).
4. Flat velocity profiles at the inlet and outlet.
5. Linearity with respect to the tracer analysis, that is,
the magnitude of the response at the outlet is
directly proportional to the amount of tracer
injected.
6. The tracer is completely conserved within the system
and is identical to the process fluid in its flow and
mixing behavior. 13
Desirable characteristics of the tracer:
• non reactive species
• easily detectable
• should have physical properties similar to that
of the reacting mixture
• completely soluble in the mixture
• should not adsorb on the walls
• Its molecular diffusivity should be low and
should be conserved
• colored and radio active materials are the
most widely used tracers 14
Types of tracer inputs:
• Pulse input
• Step input
• Ramp input Ramp input

• Sinusoidal input

Pulse & Step inputs are most common

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Pulse input of tracer

In Pulse input N0 moles of tracer is injected in one

shot and the effluent concentration is measured

The amount of material that has spent an amount of

time between t and t+t in the reactor:
N = C(t) v t 16
The fraction of material that has spent an amount of
time between t and t+t in the reactor:

dN = C(t) v dt

N 0   vC (t )dt
N
0
For pulse input E (t )t 
N0
C (t )
E (t )  
 C (t )dt
0
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C curve

 E (t )dt  1
0
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t1

 E (t )dt  Fraction
0
having a residence time  t1


 E(t )dt  Fraction

t1
having a residence time  t1
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The age of an element is defined as the time elapsed
since it entered the system.

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

0 C (t )dt  2 C0  Cn  2(C1  C2  ....... Cn1 

h

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Disadvantages of pulse input
• injection must be done in a very short time
• when the c-curve has a long tail, the analysis
can give rise to inaccuracies
• amount of tracer used should be known
• however, require very small amount of tracer
compared to step input

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Step input of tracer

In step input the conc. of tracer is kept at this

level till the outlet conc. equals the inlet conc.

t
Cout  C0  E (t )dt
0
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For step input:

d  C (t ) 
E (t )   
dt  C0  step

Disadvantages of Step input:

• difficult to maintain a constant tracer conc.
• RTD fn requires differentiation – can lead
to errors
• large amount of tracer is required
• need not know the amount of tracer used
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Characteristics of the RTD:
• E(t) is called the exit age distribution function
or RTD function
• describes the amount of time molecules have
spent in the reactor

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Cumulative age distribution function F(t):
t
F (t )   E (t )dt
0

1  F (t )   E (t )dt
t

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Relationship between the E and F curves
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Cumulative age distribution function F(t):

Washout function W(t) = 1 - F(t):

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E and F Curves with bypassing

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E and F Curves with Dead space

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E and F Curves with Channeling

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Moments of RTD:


1
S3    3
(t t ) E (t ) dt
 3/ 2 0
m

What is the significance of these moments ??

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If the distribution curve is only known at a number of
discrete time values, ti, then the mean residence time is
given by:

This is what you use in the laboratory

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Variance:
• represents the square of the distribution
spread and has the units of (time)2
• the greater the value of this moment, the
greater the spread of the RTD
• useful for matching experimental curves to
one family of theoretical curves

Skewness:
• the magnitude of this moment measures the
extent that the distribution is skewed in
one direction or other in reference to the
mean 37
Space time vs. Mean residence time:

V
 tm   tE (t )dt
v0 0

The Space time and Mean residence time would be

equal if the following two conditions are satisfied:
• No density change Try and prove
tm = 
• No backmixing

In practical reactors the above two may not be valid

and hence there will be a difference between them.
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Normalized RTD function E() :

E ( )   E (t )   t /
 

1   E (t )dt 1   E ( )d
0 0

What is the significance of E() ??

How does E(t) vs. t looks like for two ideal

CSTRs of different sizes ??

How does E() vs.  looks like for two ideal CSTRs
of different sizes ??
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Using the normalized RTD function, it is possible to
compare the flow performance inside different
reactors.

If E() is used, all perfectly mixed CSTRs have

numerically the same RTD.

If E(t) is used, its numerical values can change for

different CSTRs based on their sizes.

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RTD in ideal reactors:

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RTD for ideal PFR:
E(t )   (t   )
 (t )  0 when t  0
 (t )   when t  0
 

  (t )dt 1

 g (t ) (t  )dt  g ( )

 
tm   tE (t )dt   t (t   )dt  
0 
 
   (t  tm ) E (t )dt   (t  tm )  (t   )dt  0
2 2 2

0  42
RTD for ideal CSTR:
Material balance on tracer st to pulse input:
in – out = accumulation
0 – vC = VdC/dt  C(t) = C0 e-t/

 t /  t /
C (t ) C0 e e
E (t )     E ( )  e 

 C (t )dt  C e
t / 
0 dt
0 0
 
tm   tE (t )dt   te t / 
/  dt  
  
(t   ) t /
0 2
   (t  tm ) E (t )dt  
2 2
e dt   2

0 
 43
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RTD for PFR-CSTR series:

For a pulse tracer input into CSTR the output

would be : C(t) = C0e-t/s
Then the outlet would be delayed by a time p at the
outlet of the PFR. RTD for the system would be:
1/
E(t )  0 t   p s

 ( t  P ) / s
e
E (t )  t  p
s 
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p
If the pulse of tracer is introduced into the PFR,
then the same pulse will appear at the entrance of
the CSTR p seconds later. So the RTD for PFR-CSTR
also would be similar to CSTR-PFR.

Go through the proof

Though RTD is same for both, performance is

different

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Remarks:
• RTD is unique for a particular reactor
• The reactor system need not be unique for a
given RTD
• RTD alone may not be sufficient to analyze the
performance of non-ideal reactors
• Along with RTD, a model for the flow behaviour
is required

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Reactor modeling with RTD:
I. Zero parameter models:
(a)Segregation model Micro-mixing
(b)Maximum mixedness model models

II. One parameter models:

(a)Tanks-in-series model Macro-mixing
(b)Dispersion model models

III. Two parameter models:

(a) By pass and Dead space
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Segregation model (Dankwerts & Zwietering, 1958)

Characteristics:
• Flow is visualized in the form of globules
• Each globule consists of molecules belonging
to the same residence time
• Different globules have different Res. Times
• No interaction/mixing between different 51
globules
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Mean conversion of globules spending between t and t+dt in the reactor =

(Conversion achieved after spending a time t in the reactor) X

(Fraction of globules that spend between t and t+dt in the reactor)
_
d x  x (t ) E (t ) dt
_ 
x  x(t ) E (t )dt
0

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Mean conversion in a PFR using Segregation model:
Example: A  R, I order, Constant density

x(t ) 1  e  kt for I Order

_  

  E (t )dt
 kt  kt
x (1  e ) E (t ) dt  1  e
0 0

_ 
x  1   e  kt (t   ) dt  1  e  k
0

Mean conversion predicted by Segregation model

matches with ideal PFR

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Mean conversion in a CSTR using Segregation model:
Example: A  R, I order, Constant density
_  
x  1   e  kt E (t )dt   e dt / 
e  kt  t / 

0 0
_
k
x
1  k

Mean conversion predicted by Segregation model

matches with ideal CSTR

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Mean conversion in a practical reactor using
Segregation model:
Example: A  R, I order, Constant density
_  

  E (t )dt
 kt
x x (t ) E (t ) dt  1  e
0 0
• conduct tracer experiment on the practical reactor
• measure C(t) and evaluate E(t)
• plot and evaluate mean conversion

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MAXIMUM MIXEDNESS MODEL

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Tanks in series (TIS) Model:

Material balance on the I reactor for tracer:

V1 dC1/dt = -v C1  C1 = C0 exp(-t/1)

Material balance on the II reactor for tracer:

V2 dC2/dt = v C1 – v C2  dC2/dt + C2/2 = (C0/ 2 )exp(-t/2)
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 C0t t / 2 C0 t 2  t /  i
C2  e Similarly C3  2 e
2 2 i
2
C3 (t ) t t /  i
E3 (t )    3e
2 i
 C3 (t )dt
0

For n equal sized CSTRs:

t n 1 t /  i
E (t )  e 61
(n  1) in
Total  = ni  = t/ n = t/i
t n1 t /  i n ( n ) n 1
 n
E ( )  E (T )  n i e  e
(n  1) in (n  1)

As the number becomes large,

the behavior of the system
approaches that of PFR

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63
We can calculate the dimensionless variance 2

 2
 2  2   (  1) 2 E ( )d
 0
  
   E ( )d  2 E ( )d   E ( )d
2

0 0 0
 
n(n ) n 1
n n
  2  n
e d  2  1    n 1  n
e d  1
0
(n  1) (n  1) 0
n n  (n  1)  1 1
  n2   1  2 n(n  1)  1 
(n  1)  n  n n
The number of tanks n = 1/2 = 2/2

1
If the reaction is I order: x  1
(1  k i ) n 64
The Dispersion Model:

• The Dispersion Model is used to describe non-ideal PFR

• Axial dispersion is taken into consideration
• Analogous to Fick’s law of diffusion superimposed on the
flow

Da = Diffusivity coefficient; U = superficial velocity;

L = Characteristic length 65
Backmixing or dispersion, is used to represent the combined action of all
phenomena, namely molecular diffusion, turbulent mixing, and non-
uniform velocities, which give rise to a distribution of residence times in
the reactor.

If the reactor is an ideal plug flow, the tracer pulse traverses through
the reactor without distortion and emerges to give the characteristic
ideal plug flow response. If diffusion occurs, the tracer spreads away
from the center of the original pulse in both the upstream and
downstream directions.

Ideal Plug flow

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Closed vessel Dispersion Model:
2 2 2  Per
  (1  e )
t m2 Per Per2

4qe Pe / 2
1 x 
(1  q ) 2 e qPe/ 2  (1  q ) 2 e  qPe/ 2

q  1 4Da / Pe

Da = Damkohler number = k C0n-1 

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The x-axis, labeled ‘‘macromixing’’ measures the breadth of the residence
time distribution. It is zero for piston flow, fairly broad for the exponential
distribution of a stirred tank, and broader yet for situations involving
bypassing or stagnancy.

The y-axis is micromixing, which varies from none to complete. Micromixing

effects are unimportant for piston flow and have maximum importance for
stirred tank reactors.

Well-designed reactors will usually fall in the normal region bounded by the
three apexes, which correspond to piston flow, a perfectly mixed CSTR, and
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a completely segregated CSTR.
Without even measuring the RTD, limits on the performance of most real
reactors can be determined by calculating the performance at the three
apexes of the normal region.

The calculations require knowledge only of the rate constants and the
mean residence time.

When the residence time distribution is known, the uncertainty about

reactor performance is greatly reduced.

A real system must lie somewhere along a vertical line in Normal Region.

The upper point on this line corresponds to maximum mixedness and

usually provides one bound limit on reactor performance.

Whether it is an upper or lower bound depends on the reaction

mechanism.

The lower point on the line corresponds to complete segregation and

provides the opposite bound on reactor performance.
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Real CSTR Modeled Using Bypassing and Dead Space

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TRACER
Balance

Integrating and substituting

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