(Continuation)

History of Vetebrates:
The vertebrates formed in the Ordovicain time. Origin of vertebrates took place in Ordovician period in the form of
ostracoderms (jawless vertebrates related to cyclostomes). In fact ostracoderms were small, jawless bony fish-like
forms. After the origin of ostracoderms acanthodians (the earliest known vertebrates with lower jaws) appeared in
Silurian. Placoderms (the ancient gnathostomes- jawed vertebrates) arose in Silurian.

Placoderms were in fact jawed fishes. Origin of amphibians occurred in Devonian. Reptiles appeared in
Carboniferous. Origin of dinosaurs and mammals took place in Triassic. Toothed birds (first birds) appeared in
Jurassic. Thus origin of fishes took place first, with amphibians next, followed by reptiles, then mammals and birds.

History of Brachiopods:

Brachiopods are bivalved lophophorates, recognized today by a distinctive combination of mineralized and
nonmineralized morphological features . Of all the many features used to define the phylum, only the presence of a
bivalved, bilaterally symmetrical organophosphatic or organocarbonate shell can be preserved with fidelity in the
fossil record, which records fully 95% of brachiopod diversity. All other features can be verified only in the extant
representatives of the group, which comprise fewer than 5% of the total number of named brachiopod species.
Because brachiopods are known primarily as fossils, paleontologists, studying variation in shell morphological
features, have largely put themselves in charge of the identification and recognition of species, as well as the
establishment of higher taxa and the arrangement of those taxa in a scheme of classification. As for most other
organisms over the past several centuries, the scheme used for brachiopods has been the Linnean hierarchy, and the
structure of the hierarchy is widely assumed to convey some sense of their evolutionary history.

Their origin was in Cambrian.

Brief HISTORY Of Cephalopods:

They have univalve conical shell. They are exclusively marine and predatory (possibly planktonivores in some
ammonoids). They are the most sophisticated brains among invertebrates and among highest level of activity among
invertebrates as well. They have ‘Camerate’ (chambered) shell; which may be straight (orthocone), slightly curved
(cyrtocone), coiled, or complicated (heteromorph). They have beaks composed of chitin and protiens. They
ancestrally had four bipectinate gills. And their age ranges from Late Cambrian to Holocene.
Evolution:

From the above geologic time scales it is inferred that evolution has occurred in anatomy according to the change in
environment. The more toxic the environment the species gets extinct and another specia of the same phylum is
originated.