Professional Documents
Culture Documents
A Thesis
of
Purdue University
by
Andrew C. Marcum
of
May 2010
Purdue University
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I first thank Dr. Todor Cooklev for the support and leadership he provided me
throughout the last two semesters. I am very thankful for the opportunity to work under
the guidance and teachings of Dr. Cooklev, and I am better engineer for it. Next, I thank
my graduate committee; Dr. Steven Walter, Dr. Carlos Raez and Dr. Tim Grove and
thesis format director, Barbara Lloyd for the time and effort expended on my behalf. I
thank Raytheon Company for supporting my efforts and desires to further my education.
job can be very stressful and difficult to balance. As such, I am thankful to work for a
company that fosters an environment where education is valued and the goals of its
employees are supported. I thank my family for supporting my dreams and providing me
every possible opportunity to reach this milestone. Last but not least, I thank my fiancé,
Rebecca. Rebecca sacrificed a lot to be with me and has been nothing but supportive
during the many hours I have put into graduate school above and beyond the duties of
work.
iv
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................... x
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................................................... 1
5. CONCLUSIONS....................................................................................................................... 79
BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................... 83
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure Page
Figure Page
Figure Page
4.28. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=2 .....................71
4.29. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=4 .....................71
4.30. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=8 .....................72
4.31. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=16 ...................72
4.32. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=2 ..............73
4.33. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=4 ..............73
4.34. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=8 ..............74
4.35. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=16 ............74
4.36. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=2 ..................75
4.37. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=4 ..................75
4.38. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=8 ..................76
4.39. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=16 ................76
4.40. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=2 ...........77
4.41. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=4 ...........77
4.42. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=8 ...........78
4.43. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=16 .........78
ix
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ABSTRACT
There is a significant demand for a decrease in the size, weight and power
output (MIMO) wireless systems have received considerable attention due to the high
data rates they provide. Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing (OFDM), a digital
OFDM is combined with the capacity increase provided by MIMO systems, the result is a
OFDM system is advanced. The proposed system is multiplier-less and thus requires a
simpler digital hardware implementation. As a result, the chip area, power consumption
and cost associated with the MIMO OFDM system can be significantly reduced.
Fourier Transform (FFT) and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) algorithms
FFT algorithms such as the Radix-2 and Radix-4. The quantization allows for all
multiplications to be done with a value of one, negative one, zero or a power of two.
Ensuring that all multiplications are performed with any of the aforementioned values
results in a transform where all multiplications are considered trivial. Replacing standard
numerical values are represented with 16 bits. Depending on the application, different
transforms. When applied to MIMO OFDM systems, the computational savings are
significant as the combination of the IFFT and FFT algorithms are implemented for every
spatial stream (i.e. antenna). As such, the simplified approach provides a system that is a
1. INTRODUCTION
The motivation for this research is to determine a solution that allows for a
Multiplexing (OFDM). One such method to reduce the complexity associated with the
implementation of SISO and MIMO systems is to simplify the processing of the Fast
Fourier Transform (FFT) and Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) as required by
OFDM modulation. As with every simplification, there is a trade associated with system
performance that must occur. In this context, inclusion of the simplified FFT and IFFT
algorithms will result in some reduction of overall system performance when compared
to conventional systems, with the critical parameter affected by the simplification being
bit error rate (BER). In order to assess the impact, this analysis describes the
performance delta between the conventional system and the simplified system derived
from a comprehensive set of computer simulations [1]. The simulations model several
this research to identify the schemes that provide optimal performance. Furthermore, the
2
results of the computer simulations, when coupled with the analysis of computational
complexity, provide the critical information necessary to determine whether or not the
2. CONVENTIONAL SYSTEM
The first system considered in this research utilizes an architecture that consists of
a single transmitter and single receiver, known as SISO. The modulation technique
utilized in conjunction with the SISO architecture is OFDM. OFDM can be characterized
as a digital modulation scheme that multiplexes complex data symbols and transmits the
symbols on multiple carriers that are closely spaced in frequency and orthogonal to one
another (considered a single OFDM symbol) [2, 3, 4]. In this configuration of multi-
carrier modulation, orthogonality between the closely spaced carriers is essential in order
[2, 3]. Conventional bit-to-symbol mappings such as Quadrature Phase Shift Keying
(QPSK) and Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM) are employed to obtain the
by the carriers at a low rate, thus simplifying the hardware implementation of both the
transmitter and receiver. The combination of the set of low symbol rate carriers (OFDM
symbol) transmitted and received in parallel results in high a data rate system of modest
complexity.
realize the advantages of OFDM modulation. It is well known that the result of
4
computing the Fourier Transform with respect to a set of complex values results in an
orthogonal data set. As such, standard configurations of OFDM utilize the IFFT
algorithm in the transmitter and corresponding FFT in the receiver [1, 2, 3]. The IFFT is
performed for each carrier transmission and provides a time domain representation of the
algorithm is utilized in the receiver in order to reverse the effects of the IFFT that is
representation. The frequency domain depiction of the data contains the original
complex symbol data with additional effects of the channel and noise. Because the
symbols are represented in the frequency domain, the removal of the channel
implemented by dividing the channel frequency response from each carrier. This method
additive noise) can be obtained simply through one division per OFDM carrier. To
further describe the explanation of SISO OFDM, Figure 2.1 is provided to illustrate the
system.
X(0) Y(0)
Channel
X(1) Y(1)
. . . . .
IFFT P/S S/P FFT Equalizer
. . . . .
. . . . .
X(N-1) Y(N-1)
selective channel conditions that can be harmful to the reliability of high data rate single-
carrier systems. Because of the slow data rate and thus small bandwidth associated with
environments as the channel response can be considered flat with respect to a specific
signals as opposed to one rapidly modulated wideband signal associated with single-
carrier systems.
carrier modulation system with single transmit and receive antennas, as illustrated in
Figure 2.2.
X(0) \ Y(0)
h + \ Y(1)
X(1)
. . Add Remove . . .
IFFT P/S S/P FFT
. . CP CP . . .
. . . . .
X(N-1) \ Y(N-1)
Channel . .
FFT
Estimation . .
. .
It can be quickly observed that the system represented in Figure 2.2 seems significantly
more complex than that in Figure 2.1. The added complexity is due to the fact that
Figure 2.2 includes a reference to the cyclic prefix (CP), channel impulse response model
denoted in Figure 2.2 by 𝑋(𝑖), where 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑁 − 1 and 𝑁 is the total number of
carriers. The values of the complex symbols are derived from bit-to-symbol mapping
techniques such as M-ary Quadrature Amplitude Modulation (QAM). The IFFT block
[2]. Execution of the IFFT algorithm ensures carrier orthogonality during transmission,
this particular description, the IFFT length is equal to the number of carriers associated
notation 𝑭−1
𝑵 is introduced in Equation 2.1 to represent the Inverse Discrete Fourier
𝒙 = 𝑭−1
𝑵 𝑿 (2.1)
Vector 𝒙 is the result of performing the IDFT, which is the length 𝑁 time domain
applied to vector 𝒙. Inclusion of the CP results in a data packet with length 𝑁 + 𝐾. The
interference (ISI) that occurs as a result of multi-path. The process of applying the CP to
𝒙𝒄𝒑 = 𝑥 𝑁 − 𝐾 , 𝑥 𝑁 − 𝐾 − 1 , … 𝑥 𝑁 − 1 , 𝑥 0 , 𝑥 1 , … , 𝑥 𝑁 − 1 (2.2)
mathematically as a finite impulse response (FIR) transfer function with 𝐿 taps or channel
coefficients. The wireless channel FIR transfer function is defined in Equation 2.3.
In this analysis, it is assumed that the channel can be characterized by slow fading
and thus the channel impulse response does not change within one OFDM symbol. In
order for the CP to be effective in eliminating the effects of ISI, the CP length must
exceed the duration of the channel impulse response or more specifically, the number of
𝐾 ≥𝐿−1 (2.4)
Once the CP is incorporated into 𝒙, 𝒙𝒄𝒑 is transmitted through the wireless channel. At
the receiver, signal 𝒚𝒄𝒑 can be mathematically represented by the linear convolution
between transmitted signal 𝒙𝒄𝒑 and the channel impulse response. Channel noise 𝒘 is
also added to the received signal as specified in Equation 2.5 and Equation 2.6.
𝐿−1
𝑦𝑐𝑝 𝑚 = 𝑙=0 𝑙 𝑥𝑐𝑝 𝑚 − 𝑙 + 𝑤 𝑚 , 𝑚 = 0,1, … 𝑁 + 𝐾 + 𝐿 − 2 (2.6)
Equation 2.5 generically describes the linear convolution, whereas Equation 2.6
referenced in both Equation 2.5 and Equation 2.6, is Additive White Gaussian Noise
𝑁0
(AWGN) with zero mean and variance 𝜎 2 = , where 𝑁0 is the single-sided power
2
8
spectral density [1]. In OFDM modulated systems, the assumption is made that ISI
occurs for the first 𝐾 received symbols (received CP symbols) and thus these symbols
contained in received signal 𝒚𝒄𝒑 are discarded by the receiver. The process of removing
𝒚 = 𝒚𝒄𝒑 𝐾 : (𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1) (2.7)
The removal of the CP eliminates ISI, but there is another observation that can be made.
Removal of the CP converts the linear convolution between the transmission and the
further explore the observation of the cyclic convolution, consider representing the
channel in the format as indicated by Equation 2.8 and received signal 𝒚 with cyclic
operation.
h0 0 ... 0 hL 1 hL 2 ... h1
h h0 0 ... 0 hL 1 ... h2
H
1
...
𝒉 =
0 ... 0 hL 1 hL 2 ... h1 h0
(2.10)
𝒚 = 𝒉𝒙 + 𝒘 (2.11)
9
Through consideration of the relationship defined by Equation 2.1, signal 𝒚 can further
𝒚 = 𝒉𝑭−𝟏
𝑵 𝑿+𝒘 (2.12)
The next step in the receive chain of the SISO system is to apply the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) with respect to received signal 𝒚. Similar to the system’s definition of
the IFFT algorithm in the transmitter, the FFT length is equal to 𝑁. In order to provide a
order to represent the Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT) matrix of size 𝑁𝑥𝑁.
𝒀 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒚 (2.13)
Furthermore, Equation 2.13 can be substituted into Equation 2.12 in order to define the
𝒀 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭−𝟏
𝑵 𝑿 + 𝑭𝑵 𝒘 (2.14)
recovered in some manner from 𝒀. The process of recovering the original symbols from
2.15.
−1
𝑿 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭−𝟏
𝑵 𝒀 (2.15)
Typically, matrix inversion is extremely process intensive and in many cases, can only be
𝐻[1] 0 0
𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭𝑵 = 0 ⋱ 0 (2.16)
0 0 𝐻[𝑁 − 1]
In Equation 2.16, 𝑯 represents the 𝑁 - point DFT of the channel impulse response 𝒉. As
such, it can be observed that the diagonalization effectively decomposes the channel into
transformed into a channel with flat fading per carrier. From the perspective of the
forcing (ZF) detector that requires one division per carrier as defined in Equation 2.17.
𝑌𝑀
𝑋𝑀 = 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 0,1, … , 𝑁 − 1 (2.17)
𝐻𝑀
Once an estimate of 𝑿 is determined (noted as 𝑿), the probability of bit error 𝑃𝑒 or BER,
example, for a 𝑁 carrier OFDM system with cyclic prefix, QAM bit-to-symbol mapping
𝐸𝑏
scheme, AWGN channel and theoretical probability of QAM bit error 𝑃𝑄𝐴𝑀 where
𝑁0
The second system considered in this research utilizes an architecture that consists
system, OFDM modulation is supported by each transmit and receive chain in a manner
similar to the system introduced for the SISO architecture. OFDM modulation is utilized
11
in conjunction with MIMO to obtain all of the benefits OFDM provides for a
communication system. To start, consider the MIMO OFDM system shown in Figure
2.3.
X1(0) Y1(0)
X1(1) Y1(1)
. . . . .
IFFT P/S S/P FFT
. . . . .
. . . . .
Channel
X1(N-1) Y1(N-1)
V-Blast
Symbol
Detection
Xm(0) Yn(0)
Xm(1) Yn(1)
. . . . .
IFFT P/S S/P FFT
. . . . .
. . . . .
Xm(N-1) Yn(N-1)
When assessing the description of the MIMO OFDM system contained in Figure 2.3, it
appears to be very similar in construction to the high level SISO architecture defined in
Figure 2.1. The key difference between the two systems, other than the inclusion of
multiple transmit and receive antennas, is the receiver’s method used to estimate the
transmitted signal. In the SISO architecture, an equalizer is used in accordance with the
process as described in the SISO OFDM description. In the MIMO case, an architecture
Time (V-Blast) [5] is utilized to estimate the transmitted signal. Before diving into the
details of V-Blast, the reason for considering MIMO systems must be introduced. The
12
obvious advantage to MIMO systems is the fact that system throughput increases as the
bandwidth consistent with SISO OFDM systems. For example, in a simple two
transmitter, two receiver system, different data is transmitted by the first antenna and the
second antenna in the same time slot and at the same frequency. Thus, in this simple
example, the data rate is doubled with respect to a traditional SISO system. In general, it
has been proven that the channel capacity of MIMO systems is greater than that of SISO
systems [6]. The capacity of the SISO system in AWGN is defined by Equation 2.19 and
𝑆𝑁𝑅
𝐶𝑀𝐼𝑀𝑂 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔2 𝑑𝑒𝑡 𝑰 + 𝒉𝒉𝑇∗ (2.20)
𝑁
Where:
In order to visualize the difference in capacity expressed by Equation 2.19 and Equation
2.20, Figure 2.4 has been constructed to show both the SISO and MIMO capacities for a
6
SISO Capacity
MIMO Capacity
5
4
Capacity (bits/s/Hz)
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20
SNR (dB)
The V-Blast MIMO architecture offers many benefits to which advantage can be
taken. The primary benefit employed by the MIMO architecture utilized in this analysis
rich scattering/fading environment that allows for each transmitter to utilize the same
carrier frequency and transmission power, or in the case of OFDM, the same carrier
channel environment is dynamic enough to allow the receiver to discern between signals
received from each transmitter. V-Blast is a specific approach for MIMO systems that
aims to take advantage of spatial multiplexing gain and maximize throughput [5]. This is
14
achieved via an algorithm that resides in the receiver and utilizes the signals received
from both antennas in order to determine an estimate for the transmitted signal.
modulation system with 𝑚 transmit and 𝑛 receive antennas, as illustrated in Figure 2.5.
X1(0) Y1(0)
X1(1)
h11 + Y1(1)
. . w . . .
Add Remove
IFFT P/S S/P FFT
. . CP CP . . .
. . hn1 + . . .
X1(N-1) Y1(N-1)
h1m +
VBLAST
Symbol
w Detection
Xm(0) Yn(0)
Xm(1)
hnm + Yn(1)
. . Add Remove . . .
IFFT P/S S/P FFT
. . CP CP . . .
. . . . .
Xm(N-1) Yn(N-1)
It can be observed that the system represented in Figure 2.5 appears to be more
complicated than the MIMO OFDM system illustrated in Figure 2.3. The added
complication is due to the fact that the system modeled in Figure 2.5 includes a reference
to the OFDM CP (see Chapter 2.2 for more information) as well as the MIMO channel
model. The complex information symbols 𝑿𝒊 associated with the 𝑖 𝑡 transmitter are
𝑋𝑖 0
𝑋𝑖 1
𝑿𝒊 = (2.21)
⋮
𝑋𝑖 (𝑁 − 1)
Each set of complex symbols 𝑿𝒊 is derived from symbol array 𝑿, which is defined as
follows.
𝑿𝟏
𝑿𝟐
𝑿= (2.22)
⋮
𝑿𝒎
If the total number of transmitters is equal to three, then 𝑚 equals three and 𝑿 has a
vector length 3𝑁, where 𝑁 is the total number of carriers associated with any transmitter.
In order to define each 𝑿𝒊 , 𝑿 is parsed into 𝑚 data vectors of equal length, such that
different sets of complex symbols can be transmitted in parallel. The values associated
with the complex symbols are derived from bit-to-symbol mapping techniques such as
QPSK or QAM. Similar to the SISO case, the IFFT blocks represented in Figure 2.5
provide the capability to transform the complex information symbols associated with a
specific transmitter, into a time domain representation via standard algorithm. Inclusion
of the IFFT algorithm ensures orthogonality between the carriers of a specific transmitter.
In this particular description, the IFFT length 𝑁 is equal to the number of carriers
transmit antennas, the following is declared where notation ⨂ is the Kronecker Product
𝐱 = (𝑭−1
𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒎 )𝑿 (2.23)
16
2.5, a cyclic prefix (CP) of length 𝐾 is applied to each 𝒙𝒊 . In this particular analysis, it is
assumed that the channel impulse response duration associated with each permutation of
transmitter and receiver are the same. Taking this into account, the inclusion of the CP
𝒙𝑇𝒄𝒑𝒊 =
𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 𝐾 , 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 𝐾 + 1 , … 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 1 , 𝑥𝑖 0 , 𝑥𝑖 1 , … , 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 1 (2.24)
associated with every possible spatial combination of transmit and receive antennas. In
every possible permutation of transmit and receive antennas. Equation 2.25 depicts the
MIMO channel generically for 𝑚 transmitters and 𝑛 receivers. Each specific channel
coefficient 𝑗𝑖 , where 𝑗 identifies the receiver and 𝑖 identifies the transmitter, is a complex
Gaussian random variable that provides the fading gain for every spatial path of
transmission.
Similar to the SISO analysis, it is assumed that the MIMO channel can be characterized
by slow fading and thus the channel impulse response does not change within one OFDM
symbol. This analysis also does not consider the multi-path associated with each specific
17
transmitter and receiver combination and thus, CP is not actually required. In general
though, the same principles used to define the length of the CP for the SISO case also
apply to MIMO. Therefore, the CP length must exceed the duration of the channel
𝐾 ≥𝐿−1 (2.26)
Once the CP is incorporated into 𝒙 to define 𝒙𝒄𝒑 , the transmission of data into the MIMO
channel occurs. At each receiver in the MIMO system, it is assumed that ISI occurs for
the first 𝐾 received symbols (the CP symbols) and thus these symbols included in
received signal 𝒚𝒄𝒑 are discarded. The procedure for removing the CP from 𝒚𝒄𝒑 to
𝒚𝒄𝒑𝟏 𝐾 − 1 : 𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1
𝒚= ⋮ (2.27)
𝒚𝒄𝒑𝒎 𝐾 − 1 : (𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1)
With the elimination of the CP by the MIMO receiver, signal 𝒚 can be mathematically
represented as the linear convolution between the transmitted signal 𝒙 and associated
Channel noise 𝒘 included in Equation 2.28 exists for each spatial path and is Additive
𝑁0
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) with zero mean and variance 𝜎 2 = , where 𝑁0 is the
2
18
single-sided power spectral density [1]. The channel noise associated with the 𝑗 𝑡 receive
𝑤𝑗 0
𝑤𝑗 1
𝒘𝒋 = (2.29)
⋮
𝑤𝑗 (𝑁 − 1)
At this point, the FFT is applied to the received signal 𝒚 to reverse the IFFT modulation
in the transmitter. Similar to the system’s implementation of the IFFT in the transmitter,
FFT, the notation 𝑭𝑵 is introduced in Equation 2.30 in order to represent the Discrete
an estimate of 𝑿 from 𝒀. Analyzing the assumptions made with respect to the MIMO
OFDM system, it can be concluded that the linear convolution between the MIMO
channel matrix 𝒉 and transmitted signal 𝒙 can be rewritten with multiplication as follows
With this arrangement, the relationship expressed in Equation 2.30 can be substituted into
𝒀𝟏
𝒀𝟐
=
⋮
𝒀𝒏
11 (𝑭−1 −1 −1
𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 12 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟐 ) + ⋯ + 1𝑚 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝟏
−1 −1 −1
(𝑭𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒏 ) 21 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 22 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟐 ) + ⋯ + 2𝑚 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝟐 (2.33)
⋮
𝑛1 (𝑭−1
𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 𝑛2 (𝑭 −1
𝑵 𝑿 −1
𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑚 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝒏
)
Using the properties of the matrix formed by the Kronecker Product, the DFT matrix 𝑭𝑵
𝒀𝟏
𝒀𝟐
=
⋮
𝒀𝒏
Additional rearrangement can be made given the fact that a matrix multiplied by its
inverse results in an Identity matrix. Utilizing said property, Equation 2.34 can be
AWGN.
20
𝑾𝟏 𝒘𝟏
𝑾𝟐 𝒘
𝑾= = (𝑭𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒏 ) 𝟐 (2.36)
⋮ ⋮
𝑾𝒏 𝒘𝒏
For the purposes of simplicity with the explanation going forward, vectors 𝒀, 𝑿 and 𝑾
With the definition of Equation 2.37, the MIMO OFDM communication system can be
2.38.
With Equation 2.38, the communications model has be simplified to the point where an
offers a few different alternatives that can be employed in order to determine a viable
estimate of 𝑿. The focus of this research has been specific to the V-Blast algorithms of
Successive Interference Cancellation (SIC) with Optimal Ordering using both Zero-
Forcing (ZF) and Minimum Mean Square Error (MMSE) equalization. The following
one of the aforementioned V-Blast techniques, the BER is computed in order to measure
spatial filtering matrix 𝑾𝒁𝑭 is computed as follows through utilization of the MIMO
Looking in detail at the relationship contained in Equation 2.40, it can noted that the
In order to reduce the impact of the additive ratio of noise to equalization and improve
section, MMSE equalization is applied to the received signal 𝒀 via a spatial filtering
accurate than ZF and thus allows for computation of a more realistic estimate of
matrix 𝑾𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑬 is computed as follows through utilization of the MIMO channel model
where 𝑁0 is the single-sided noise power spectral density and 𝑰 is the identity matrix [8].
that 𝑾𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑬 contains an additive component dependent on noise. The goal of MMSE is
to develop matrix 𝑾𝑴𝑴𝑺𝑬 to minimize the error between transmitted signal 𝑿 and
The result of MMSE is declared as in Equation 2.45 where the cumulative error
Similar to ZF equalization the remaining error associated with 𝑿 can be further reduced
cancellation is to determine the transmitted array 𝑿𝒊 that most likely was received with
the minimum collective power across all receiver antennas [5]. This is determined by
assessing the magnitude of each MIMO channel coefficient with respect to a specific
𝑃𝑥1 2 2 2
11 + 21 + ⋯ + 𝑛1
𝑷𝒙 = ⋮ = ⋮ (2.46)
𝑃𝑥𝑚 2 2 2
1𝑚 + 2𝑚 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑚
After the computation of 𝑷𝒙 , the 𝑿𝒊 associated with the 𝑃𝑥𝑖 that is the minimum of vector
𝑷𝒙 , will be estimated first using traditional SIC. The SIC algorithm with optimal
ordering ensures that the first estimate of 𝑿 will have a lower probability of error than
any other symbol estimate. As the error probability associated with a symbol estimate
decreases, the likelihood of making incorrect decisions in the receiver decreases. For the
purposes of this description, the estimate of 𝑿𝒊 with associated minimum 𝑃𝑥𝑖 is declared
as 𝑿𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 . The process for estimating 𝑿𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 with SIC requires the subtraction of all
Equation 2.47.
It is important to note that Equation 2.47 includes the additive term 𝑿𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 multiplied by
its associated channel coefficient in order to clearly show that it is not subtracted from 𝒀
like all other vectors of 𝑿. Substituting the definition of 𝒀 into Equation 2.47 results in
the following.
24
𝑹𝟏
𝑹𝟐
=
⋮
𝑹𝒏
11 12 … 1𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝟏 −11 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 1𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 1𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
21 22 … 2𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝟐 + 𝑾 + −21 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 2𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 2𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 (2.48)
⋮ ⋮ … ⋮ ⋮ ⋮
𝑛1 𝑛2 … 𝑛𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒏 −𝑛1 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 𝑛𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 𝑛𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
It can be assumed that the cumulative error included in all values of 𝑿 approximately
accounts for the additive AWGN present in received signal 𝒀 as shown in Equation 2.49
and thus, 𝑿𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 can be determined in an iterative fashion using the format expressed in
Equation 2.50.
11 𝑿𝑇𝟏 + 12 𝑿𝑇𝟐 + ⋯ + 1𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 −11 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 1𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 1𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
21 𝑿𝑇𝟏 + 22 𝑿𝑇𝟐 + ⋯ + 2𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 𝑊 + −21 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 2𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 2𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 ≅
⋮ ⋮
𝑇 𝑇
𝑛1 𝑿𝟏 + 𝑛2 𝑿𝟐 + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 −𝑛1 𝑿𝑇𝟏 − ⋯ − 𝑛𝑚 𝑿𝑇𝒎 + 𝑛𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
1𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
2𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 (2.49)
⋮
𝑛𝑖 𝑿𝑇𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏
𝑅1 (𝑘) 1𝑖
⋮ = ⋮ 𝑋𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑘 , 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0. . 𝑁 − 1 (2.50)
𝑅𝑛 (𝑘) 𝑛𝑖
1𝑖 𝑇∗ 𝑅1 (𝑘)
⋮ ⋮
𝑛𝑖 𝑅𝑛 (𝑘)
𝑋𝑖_𝑚𝑖𝑛 (𝑘) = (2.51)
1𝑖 𝑇∗ 1𝑖
⋮ ⋮
𝑛𝑖 𝑛𝑖
25
Once all values of array 𝑿𝒊_𝒎𝒊𝒏 are computed, the remaining estimates of 𝑿 can be
determined by repeating the process defined in this section for each transmitted 𝑿𝒊 . The
process re-initiates after each estimate by determining the next value of 𝑿 to be computed
based on the smallest value of 𝑷𝒙 for which an associated estimate of 𝑿 has not already
been determined. For each subsequent estimate of 𝑿, all 𝑿𝒊 that have already been
computed via SIC are utilized in place of the original estimates determined with ZF and
MMSE equalization.
26
3. SIMPLIFIED SYSTEM
With the conventional system clearly defined, this chapter introduces the
approach necessary to describe the simplified system. The use of the word “simplified”
is derived from the application of a new approach in performing the Fourier Transform
and Inverse Fourier Transform. As indicated in the previous chapter, the OFDM
implementation of each transmitter and receiver requires the use of the transform in order
to MIMO systems that utilize OFDM modulation, where each receiver utilizes an FFT
and each transmitter utilizes an IFFT, the simplified approach can provide significant
savings in complexity. The approach utilized to execute both the Fourier Transform and
multiplications with values of negative one, zero, one and powers of two. Such
multiplications are very simple to implement and are considered trivial. In doing so, the
Transform. The multiplier-less transforms are derived from the process of intelligently
quantizing functions sin(𝑥) and cos(𝑥) included in the general equation necessary to
27
describe the DFT. Proper utilization of the rounded functions allow for simpler
The general equation for determining the DFT of array 𝒙 is defined by Equation
3.1 [9].
−2𝜋𝑗𝑘𝑛
𝑁−1
𝑋𝑘 = 𝑛 =0 𝑥𝑛 𝑒 𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = 0, … , 𝑁 − 1 (3.1)
The process for determining the DFT can also be represented in a matrix format in
accordance with Equation 3.2 and Equation 3.3, where 𝑭𝑵 represents the conventional
−𝑗 2𝜋
𝜔𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑁 (3.3)
With the definition of matrix 𝑭𝑵 , it can be used to determine the DFT of vector 𝒙 as
𝑿 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒙 (3.4)
In order to derive the simplified version of matrix 𝑭𝑵 , first recall Euler’s Identity as
Substituting Euler’s Identity into Equation 3.3, the twiddle factor can be represented as
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝜔𝑁 = cos − 𝑗 sin (3.6)
𝑁 𝑁
28
Furthermore, the relationship defined in Equation 3.6 can be substituted into Equation 3.2
2𝜋𝑘𝑛 2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑭𝑵 = cos − 𝑗 sin (3.7)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑘,𝑛=0,…,𝑁−1
With the definition of Equation 3.7, the DFT matrix 𝑭𝑵 is in the proper format to apply
the simplification.
In order to represent the rounded sin(𝑥) and cos(𝑥) functions, the following
syntax is introduced, where 𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑() is the round-off operation and 𝑘 indicates the level
of quantization [10].
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑘 cos 𝑥 )
𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 𝑥 = (3.8)
𝑘
𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑 (𝑘 sin 𝑥 )
𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 = (3.9)
𝑘
As the value of 𝑘 is increased, the response of functions 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 and 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 𝑥 approach
the behavior of the conventional sin(𝑥) and cos(𝑥) functions [10]. Figure 3.1 displays
1
Conventional Sine
0.8 Quantized Sine
0.6
0.4
0.2
Amplitude
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Phase (radians)
Increasing the value of 𝑘 to eight and comparing the response of 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 with sin(𝑥) as
shown in Figure 3.2, it is observed that the response of 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 more closely
approximates sin(𝑥).
30
1
Conventional Sine
0.8 Quantized Sine
0.6
0.4
0.2
Amplitude
-0.2
-0.4
-0.6
-0.8
-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Phase (radians)
Equation 3.10.
𝑄𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑝𝑠 = 2𝑘 + 1 (3.10)
it is time to apply the quantization directly to the DFT matrix. To do so, the 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥
and 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 𝑥 functions are substituted into Equation 3.7 as shown by Equation 3.11
2𝜋𝑘𝑛 2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑭𝑵 = rcosk − 𝑗 rsink (3.11)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑘,𝑛=0,…,𝑁−1
In order to achieve the system level simplification expected of this research, the values of
multiplications with values of negative one, zero, one and powers of two are very simply
Equation 3.11 can be optimized by selecting values of 𝑘 that will result in a DFT matrix
that consists entirely of values that provide trivial multiplications and thus permitting the
that the responses of 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 and 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 𝑥 include as many powers of two as possible.
This is achieved by utilizing values of 𝑘 that are in fact a power of two. Equation 3.12
Simply utilizing values of 𝑘 in accordance with Equation 3.12 will not completely result
in a matrix that consists of values that support trivial multiplications. For example, when
𝑘 = 4, the DFT matrix will contain values of 0.75, which of course are not a power of
two. There is a method though that will permit DFT matrices of all possible values of 𝑘,
even though a value of 0.75 is not a power of two, it can be obtained via the addition or
subtraction two values that are in fact powers of two such as one minus 0.25 or 0.25 plus
0.50. With this observation, it can be stated that a multiplier-less DFT matrix for all
example where 𝑘 = 4, every instance of 0.75 in the DFT matrix will result in two
32
minimum area-time digital hardware complexity for 𝑛-bit multiplication and addition
𝐴 = 𝐶𝑖𝑝 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎
𝑇 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝛼 ∈ 0, 1
When comparing (𝑛) 𝐴𝑇 2𝛼 𝑀 with (𝑛) 𝐴𝑇 2𝛼 𝐴, as shown in Equation 3.13, the result is
(𝑛 ) 𝐴𝑇 2𝛼 𝑀
=Ω 𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝛼 (3.13)
(𝑛) 𝐴𝑇 2𝛼 𝐴
the IDFT matrix is also be considered. Utilizing an approach similar to the determination
of the rounded DFT, consider the general equation for the IDFT of an array 𝑿 as defined
by Equation 3.14.
2𝜋𝑖𝑘𝑛
1 𝑁−1
𝑥𝑛 = 𝑁 𝑘=0 𝑋𝑘 𝑒 𝑁 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑛 = 0, … , 𝑁 − 1 (3.14)
As in the case of the DFT, the process for determining the IDFT can be represented in a
matrix format in accordance with Equations 3.3.2 and 3.3.3 where 𝑭−1
𝑵 represents the
1 −𝑘𝑛
𝑭−𝟏
𝑵 = (𝜔𝑁 )𝑘,𝑛=0,…,𝑁−1 (3.15)
𝑁
−𝑗 2𝜋
𝜔𝑁 = 𝑒 𝑁 (3.16)
Similar to the derivation for the rounded DFT, the rounded IDFT matrix, with notation
𝑭−1
𝑵 , can be determined through utilization of the 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 𝑥 and 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 𝑥 functions to
1 2𝜋𝑘𝑛 2𝜋𝑘𝑛
𝑭−1
𝑵 = 𝑁 rcosk + 𝑗 rsink (3.17)
𝑁 𝑁 𝑘,𝑛=0,…,𝑁−1
Another method that can be utilized to determine the rounded DFT is to simply
compute the inverse of the rounded DFT matrix. Given the fact that a true inverse of the
rounded DFT cannot be easily computed for all values of 𝑁, another approach must be
utilized in order to determine the rounded IDFT matrix. To start, consider the fact that
any square matrix 𝑨 when applied to its inverse will result in an Identity matrix as shown
in Equation 3.18.
𝑨 ∙ 𝑨−1 = 𝑰 (3.18)
In order to determine the rounded IDFT, a matrix can be computed such that when
applied to the rounded DFT, the result is an approximate identity function as shown in
Equation 3.19.
𝑭𝑵 ∙ 𝑭−1
𝑵 ≅𝑰 (3.19)
The approximate rounded IDFT matrix can be computed by taking the conjugate
the simplified implementation of the DFT [10]. Since the inverse is an approximation,
34
use of the IDFT computed in this manner will result in additional error in system
described in the previous two sections in order to utilize the Fourier Transform. As the
demand for improved performance increases, efficient algorithms have been introduced
to allow for fast and simple transformation. One such implementation of DFT is the
Radix-4 Fast Fourier Transform. The Radix-4 is derived by breaking up the original DFT
𝑁
equation into four separate summations by providing consecutive samples of 𝒙 in each
4
sum as dictated by Decimation In Frequency (DIF) [9]. With some simplification, the
four summations can be recombined into the construct of a single summation as shown in
𝑋 𝑘 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 + (−𝑗)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 + 4 + (−1)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 + (𝑗)𝑘 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝜔𝑁𝑛𝑘 (3.21)
4
In its current form, Equation 3.21 cannot be used to determine an FFT as the array length
is not consistently defined to be 𝑁/4 due to the definition of the twiddle factor that
4, the sequence 𝑋 𝑘 is again divided into four separate summations for the cases of
𝑛𝑘
𝑘 = 4𝑟, 𝑘 = 4𝑟 + 1, 𝑘 = 4𝑟 + 2 and 𝑘 = 4𝑟 + 3. With the property 𝜔𝑁4𝑛𝑘 = 𝜔𝑁/4 , the
four sequences that comprise the Radix-4 FFT can defined by Equation 3.22, Equation
𝑋 4𝑟 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 𝑛𝑟
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛+ 4 +𝑥 𝑛+2 +𝑥 𝑛+ 𝜔𝑁0 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.22)
4
𝑋 4𝑟 + 1 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 𝑛𝑟
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 4 − 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 + 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 𝜔𝑁𝑛 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.23)
4
𝑋 4𝑟 + 2 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 𝑛𝑟
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑥 𝑛+ 4 +𝑥 𝑛+2 −𝑥 𝑛+ 𝜔𝑁2𝑛 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.24)
4
𝑋 4𝑟 + 3 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 𝑛𝑟
𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 4 − 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 − 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 𝜔𝑁3𝑛 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.25)
4
Each of the four equations listed above, collectively represent the Radix-4 FFT and can
be described as four length 𝑁/4 FFTs. Another method commonly used to visualize the
x(n) +
ωN0 ωN/4
nk
X(k)
x(n + N/4)
j
+
ωNn ωN/4
nk
X(k + N/4)
-1
j
x(n + N/2)
-1
+
ω2nNωN/4
nk
X(k + N/2)
-1
x(n + 3N/4)
-1
+
ω3nNωN/4
nk
X(k + 3N/4)
j
Figure 3.3 clearly shows the dependency between each value of 𝑥 𝑛 on one another to
Utilizing concepts developed to simplify the DFT matrix, the same approach can
be applied to the implementation of the Radix-4 algorithm. Reviewing each of the four
equations that comprise the Radix-4 FFT, it can be observed that the only multiplications
are with respect to the twiddle factors associated with each 𝑁/4 FFT. Focusing
3.26.
𝑛𝑟
𝑡𝑓1 = 𝜔𝑁0 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.26)
Using the properties defined to create the rounded DFT matrix, a quantized version of 𝑡𝑓1
8𝜋𝑟𝑛 8𝜋𝑟𝑛
𝑡𝑓1 = rcosk − 𝑗 rsink (3.28)
𝑁 𝑁
With the definition of 𝑡𝑓1 , it can be applied to Equation 3.22 to result in the multiplier-
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑋 4𝑟 = 𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 +𝑥 𝑛+ 4 +𝑥 𝑛+ 2 +𝑥 𝑛+ 𝑡𝑓1 (3.29)
4
The remaining three equations that comprise the Radix-4 are not as simply quantized.
Looking in detail with respect to Equation 3.23, the associated twiddle factor is defined
as in Equation 3.30.
𝑛𝑟
𝑡𝑓2 = 𝜔𝑁𝑛 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.30)
Using the properties defined to create the rounded DFT matrix, a quantized version of 𝑡𝑓2
2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
𝑡𝑓2 = rcosk 1 + 4𝑟 − 𝑗 rsink 1 + 4𝑟 (3.32)
𝑁 𝑁
The definition of 𝑡𝑓2 can be applied to Equation 3.23 resulting in the multiplier-less
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑋 4𝑟 + 1 = 𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 − 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + −𝑥 𝑛+ + 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑡𝑓2 (3.33)
4 2 4
Progressing with the same procedure, twiddle factors 𝑡𝑓3 and 𝑡𝑓4 can be represented as
shown in Equation 3.34 and Equation 3.35 and are used to define Equation 3.36 and
4𝑛𝜋 4𝑛𝜋
𝑡𝑓3 = rcosk 1 + 2𝑟 − 𝑗 rsink 1 + 2𝑟 (3.34)
𝑁 𝑁
2𝑛𝜋 2𝑛𝜋
𝑡𝑓4 = rcosk 3 + 4𝑟 − 𝑗 rsink 3 + 4𝑟 (3.35)
𝑁 𝑁
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑋 4𝑟 + 2 = 𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 −𝑥 𝑛+ 4 +𝑥 𝑛+ 2 −𝑥 𝑛+ 𝑡𝑓3 (3.36)
4
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑋 4𝑟 + 3 = 𝑛=0 𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 4 − 𝑥 𝑛 + 2 − 𝑗𝑥 𝑛 + 𝑡𝑓4 (3.37)
4
To conclude the definition of the rounded FFT, the butterfly diagram of Figure 3.3 has
been updated as shown in Figure 3.4, to clearly show the quantized twiddle factors.
x(n) + X(k)
j X(k + N/4)
x(n + N/4) +
-1
j
-1
x(n + N/2) + X(k + N/2)
-1
j
-1
x(n + 3N/4) + X(k + 3N/4)
j
Similar to DFT, a “fast” version of the IDFT, referred to as the IFFT, can be
developed. In this description, the Radix-4 concept also provides the framework for
derivation of the rounded IFFT. The original definition of IDFT is broken into four
39
the four summations can be recombined into the construct of a single summation as
𝑥 𝑛 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 + (𝑗)𝑛 𝑋 𝑘 + 4 + (−1)𝑛 𝑥 𝑘 + 2 + (−𝑗)𝑛 𝑥 𝑘 + 𝜔𝑁−𝑛𝑘 (3.38)
4
In its current form, Equation 3.38 cannot be used to determine an IFFT as the array length
order to rearrange Equation 3.38 into an IFFT of length 𝑁/4, the sequence x 𝑛 is
−𝑛𝑘
and 𝑛 = 4𝑟 + 3. Noting the property 𝜔𝑁−4𝑛𝑘 = 𝜔𝑁/4 , the four sequences that comprise
the Radix-4 IFFT are defined by Equation 3.39, Equation 3.40, Equation 3.41 and
Equation 3.42.
𝑥 4𝑟 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 −𝑟𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 +𝑋 𝑘+ 4 +𝑋 𝑘+ 2 +𝑋 𝑘+ 𝜔𝑁−0 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.39)
4
𝑥 4𝑟 + 1 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 −𝑟𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 4 − 𝑋 𝑘 + 2 − 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 𝜔𝑁−𝑘 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.40)
4
𝑥 4𝑟 + 2 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 −𝑟𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 −𝑋 𝑘+ 4 +𝑋 𝑘+ 2 −𝑋 𝑘+ 𝜔𝑁−2𝑘 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.41)
4
𝑥 4𝑟 + 3 =
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁 −𝑟𝑘
𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 − 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 4 − 𝑋 𝑘 + 2 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 𝜔𝑁−3𝑘 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.42)
4
40
Each of the four equations listed above represent the Radix-4 IFFT and can be described
as four length 𝑁/4 IFFTs. As with any FFT, a butterfly chart can be used to visualize the
X(k) +
ωN0 ωN/4
nk
x(n)
X(k + N/4)
j
+
ωNn ωN/4
nk
x(n + N/4)
-1
-j
X(k + N/2)
-1
+
ω2nNωN/4
nk
x(n + N/2)
-1
-j
X(k + 3N/4)
-1
+
ω3nNωN/4
nk
x(n + 3N/4)
j
Utilizing the concepts developed to simplify the FFT, the same approach can be
applied to the implementation of the Radix-4 IFFT algorithm. Reviewing each of the
four equations that comprise the Radix-4 IFFT, it can be observed that the only
multiplications are with respect to the twiddle factors associated with each 𝑁/4 IFFT.
Equation 3.43.
−𝑟𝑘
𝑡𝑓1 = 𝜔𝑁−0 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.43)
41
−𝑟𝑘
𝑡𝑓1 = 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.44)
Using the properties defined to create the rounded IDFT matrix, a quantized version of
8𝜋𝑘𝑟 8𝜋𝑘𝑟
𝑡𝑓1 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 + 𝑗 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 (3.45)
𝑁 𝑁
Twiddle factor 𝑡𝑓1 can then be applied to Equation 3.39, resulting in a multiplier-less
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑥 4𝑟 = 𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 +𝑋 𝑘+ 4 +𝑋 𝑘+ 2 +𝑋 𝑘+ 𝑡𝑓1 (3.46)
4
The remaining three equations that comprise the Radix-4 are not as simply quantized.
Looking in detail with respect to Equation 3.40, the associated twiddle factor is defined
as in Equation 3.47.
−𝑟𝑘
𝑡𝑓2 = 𝜔𝑁−𝑘 𝜔𝑁/4 (3.47)
Using the properties defined to create the rounded IDFT matrix, a quantized version of
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑡𝑓2 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 1 + 4𝑟 + 𝑗 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 1 + 4𝑟 (3.49)
𝑁 𝑁
The definition of 𝑡𝑓2 can be applied to Equation 3.40, resulting in the multiplier-less
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑥 4𝑟 + 1 = 𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 4 − 𝑋 𝑘 + 2 − 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 𝑡𝑓2 (3.50)
4
42
Furthermore, twiddle factors 𝑡𝑓3 and 𝑡𝑓4 can be represented as shown in Equation 3.51
and Equation 3.52 and applied to define Equation 3.53 and Equation 3.54 in order to fully
4𝑘𝜋 4𝑘𝜋
𝑡𝑓3 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 1 + 2𝑟 + 𝑗 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 1 + 2𝑟 (3.51)
𝑁 𝑁
2𝑘𝜋 2𝑘𝜋
𝑡𝑓4 = 𝑟𝑐𝑜𝑠𝑘 3 + 4𝑟 − 𝑗 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 3 + 4𝑟 (3.52)
𝑁 𝑁
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑥 4𝑟 + 2 = 𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 −𝑋 𝑘+ 4 +𝑋 𝑘+ 2 −𝑋 𝑘+ 𝑡𝑓3 (3.53)
4
𝑁/4 −1 𝑁 𝑁 3𝑁
𝑥 4𝑟 + 3 = 𝑘=0 𝑋 𝑘 − 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 4 − 𝑋 𝑘 + 2 + 𝑗𝑋 𝑘 + 𝑡𝑓4 (3.54)
4
To conclude the definition of the rounded IFFT, the butterfly diagram of Figure 3.5 has
been updated as shown in Figure 3.6, to clearly display the quantized twiddle factors.
X(k) + x(n)
j
X(k + N/4) + x(n + N/4)
-1
-j
-1
X(k + N/2) + x(n + N/2)
-1
-j
-1
X(k + 3N/4) + x(n + 3N/4)
j
Now that simplified versions of both the FFT and IFFT algorithms have been
defined, it is time to apply both to the SISO OFDM system. To start, consider the
simplified OFDM multi-carrier modulation system with single transmit and receive
X(0) \ Y(0)
h + \ Y(1)
X(1)
X(N-1) \ Y(N-1)
Channel . Simp .
Estimation . FFT .
. .
It is important to the note that the difference between Figure 2.2 and Figure 3.7 is specific
to the simplification of the FFT and IFFT blocks. The complex information symbols are
denoted in Figure 3.7 by 𝑋(𝑖), where 𝑖 = 0,1, … , 𝑁 − 1, where 𝑁 is the total number of
carriers. The values associated with the complex symbols are derived from bit-to-symbol
mapping techniques such as QPSK and QAM. The simplified IFFT block provides the
approximate time domain representation via the rounded IFFT algorithm. Depending on
the level of quantization, execution of the rounded IFFT algorithm provides near carrier
44
with carrier orthogonality, is injected into the system due to the characteristics of the
simplified IFFT algorithm. As the level of quantization specified for the rounded IFFT
the rounded IFFT length is equal to the number of carriers associated with 𝑿, defined as
𝑭−1
𝑵 is introduced in Equation 3.55 in order to represent the rounded IDFT matrix of size
𝑁𝑥𝑁.
𝒙 = 𝑭−1
𝑵 𝑿 (3.55)
Vector 𝒙 is the result of evaluating Equation 3.55, which is the length 𝑁 approximate
time domain representation of 𝑿. Stepping through Figure 3.7 from left to right, a cyclic
included in signal 𝒙 via the identical procedure defined for the conventional SISO OFDM
𝒙𝒄𝒑 =
As in the standard system, it is assumed that the channel can be characterized by slow
fading and thus the channel impulse response does not change within one OFDM symbol.
Once the CP is incorporated into 𝒙, 𝒙𝒄𝒑 is transmitted through the wireless channel. At
transmitted signal 𝒙𝒄𝒑 and the channel impulse response, plus channel noise 𝒘, as
𝐿−1
𝑦𝑐𝑝 𝑚 = 𝑙=0 𝑙 𝑥𝑐𝑝 𝑚 − 𝑙 + 𝑤 𝑚 , 𝑚 = 0,1, … 𝑁 + 𝐾 + 𝐿 − 2 (3.58)
Equation 3.57 generically describes the convolution, where as Equation 3.58 represents
𝑁0
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) with zero mean, variance 𝜎 2 = and 𝑁0 is the single-
2
sided power spectral density. In simple OFDM, the CP is removed from received signal
𝒚𝒄𝒑 in the same manner as in the conventional system per Equation 3.59.
𝒚 = 𝒚𝒄𝒑 𝐾 : (𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1) (3.59)
The removal of the CP converts the linear convolution between the transmitted symbols
and the channel impulse response into a cyclic convolution. The result of the cyclic
𝒚 = 𝒉𝒙 + 𝒘 (3.60)
𝒚 = 𝒉𝑭−𝟏
𝑵 𝑿+𝒘 (3.61)
The next step in the receive chain is to apply the rounded FFT to signal 𝒚. Similar to the
system’s use of the rounded IFFT contained in the transmitter, the simple FFT length is
𝒀 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒚 (3.62)
46
The relationship defined in Equation 3.62 can be substituted into Equation 3.61 to define
Equation 3.63.
𝒀 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭−1
𝑵 𝑿 + 𝑭𝑵 𝒘 (3.63)
𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭−1
𝑵 will not result in a completely diagonal matrix as in the conventional system.
standard system.
−1
𝑿 = 𝑭𝑵 𝒉𝑭−1
𝑵 𝒀 (3.64)
A simple zero-forcing (ZF) detector, that requires one division per carrier as defined in
𝑌𝑀
𝑋𝑀 = 𝑤𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑀 = 0,1, … , 𝑁 − 1 (3.65)
𝐻𝑀
Figures 4.1 through 4.27, contained in Chapter 4, provide the BER curves
necessary to evaluate the performance of the conventional SISO OFDM system described
In order to study the application of the rounded FFT and IFFT algorithms to
MIMO OFDM multi-carrier modulation, consider a system with 𝑚 transmit and 𝑛 receive
X1(0) Y1(0)
X1(1)
h11 + Y1(1)
. . w . . .
Simp Add Remove
P/S S/P Simp FFT
. IFFT . CP CP . . .
. . hn1 + . . .
X1(N-1) Y1(N-1)
h1m +
VBLAST
Symbol
w Detection
Xm(0) Yn(0)
Xm(1)
hnm + Yn(1)
Xm(N-1) Yn(N-1)
In this system, the complex information symbols associated with the 𝑖 𝑡 transmitter are
identified as 𝑿𝒊 . Each set of complex symbols 𝑿𝒊 is derived from a data set defined as 𝑿.
For example, if the number of transmitters is equal to three, then 𝑚 equals three and 𝑿
would have a vector length 3𝑁 where 𝑁 is the total number of carriers associated with a
single transmitter. In order to define each 𝑿𝒊 , 𝑿 is parsed into 𝑚 data vectors of equal
length such that different sets of complex symbols can be transmitted in parallel. The
values associated with the complex symbols of 𝑿 are derived from bit-to-symbol
mapping techniques such as QPSK and QAM. Similar to the SISO case, the rounded
48
IFFT blocks represented in Figure 3.8 provide the capability to transform the complex
information symbols associated with a specific transmitter, into a near time domain
communications can still be obtained. It is important to note that as the quantization level
associated with the rounded IFFT increases, errors due to approximate orthogonality are
reduced. Each rounded IFFT is of length 𝑁, which is equal to the number of carriers
Equation 3.66 to represent the rounded Inverse Discrete Fourier Transform (IDFT) matrix
of size 𝑁𝑥𝑁.
𝒙 = (𝑭−1
𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒎 )𝑿 (3.66)
Progressing through Figure 3.8 from left to right, a cyclic prefix (CP) of length 𝐾 must be
applied to each vector 𝒙𝒊 . In this description of the simplified MIMO OFDM system, the
CP is applied to each 𝒙𝒊 in the same manner as in the conventional system with the result
𝒙𝑇𝒄𝒑𝒊 =
𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 𝐾 , 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 𝐾 + 1 , … 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 1 , 𝑥𝑖 0 , 𝑥𝑖 1 , … , 𝑥𝑖 𝑁 − 1 (3.67)
accordance with every possible combination of transmit and receive antennas. Equation
3.68 provides a generic representation of the MIMO channel for 𝑚 transmitters and 𝑛
receivers. Each specific channel coefficient 𝑗𝑖 , where 𝑗 identifies the receiver and 𝑖
49
identifies the transmitter, is a complex Gaussian random variable that provides the fading
slow fading and thus the channel impulse response does not change within one OFDM
symbol. This analysis also does not account for the multi-path associated with each
specific combination of transmit and receive antenna and thus no CP is actually required.
In general though, the same principles used to define the length of the CP for the
previously discussed systems also apply to simple MIMO. Once 𝒙𝒄𝒑 is defined as
indicated in Equation 3.67, the corresponding data is transmitted through the MIMO
wireless channel. At each receiver in the simple MIMO system, the CP associated with
𝒚𝒄𝒑𝟏 𝐾 − 1 : (𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1)
𝒚= ⋮ (3.69)
𝒚𝒄𝒑𝒎 𝐾 − 1 : (𝑁 + 𝐾 − 1)
convolution between the transmitted signal 𝒙 and associated MIMO channel coefficient,
Channel noise 𝑤 included in Equation 3.70, exists for each spatial path and is Additive
𝑁0
White Gaussian Noise (AWGN) with zero mean and variance 𝜎 2 = , where 𝑁0 is the
2
single-sided power spectral density. The channel noise associated with the 𝑗 𝑡 receive
𝑤𝑗 0
𝑤𝑗 1
𝒘𝒋 = (3.71)
⋮
𝑤𝑗 (𝑁 − 1)
At this point, the rounded DFT of length 𝑁 is applied to received signal 𝒚 in order to
reverse the impact of the rounded IDFT modulation in the transmitter. In order to
in Equation 3.72.
After computing 𝒀, the next step in the receiver is to determine an approach for
recovering an estimate of 𝑿 from 𝒀. Analyzing the assumptions made with respect to the
simplified MIMO OFDM system, it can be concluded that the linear convolution between
the MIMO channel matrix 𝒉 and transmitted signal 𝒙, as indicated in Equation 3.70, can
impulse response.
With this arrangement, the relationship expressed in Equation 3.72 can be substituted into
𝒀𝟏
𝒀𝟐 =
⋮
𝒀𝒏
11 (𝑭−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 12 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟐 ) + ⋯ + 1𝑚 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟏 −𝟏
(𝑭𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒏 ) 21 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 22 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟐 ) + ⋯ + 2𝑚 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝟐 (3.75)
⋮
𝑛1 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟏 ) + 𝑛2 (𝑭𝑵 𝑿𝟐 ) + ⋯ + 𝑛𝑚 (𝑭−𝟏
−𝟏 −𝟏
𝑵 𝑿𝒎 ) + 𝒘𝒏
Using the properties of the matrix formed by the Kronecker Product, the rounded DFT
𝒀𝟏
𝒀𝟐 =
⋮
𝒀𝒏
Additional reduction can be performed given the fact that a matrix multiplied by its
inverse results in an Identity matrix. Utilizing said property, Equation 3.76 can be
AWGN.
𝑾𝟏 𝒘𝟏
𝒘
𝑾 = 𝑾𝟐 = (𝑭𝑵 ⨂𝑰𝒏 ) 𝟐 (3.78)
⋮ ⋮
𝑾𝒏 𝒘 𝒏
For the purposes of simplicity going forward with the explanation, vectors 𝒀, 𝑿 and 𝑾
With the definition of Equation 3.79, the simple MIMO OFDM communication system
Equation 3.80.
With the specification of Equation 3.80, the communications model has been defined to
the point where an estimate of 𝑿 can be determined using a standard V-Blast approach.
All V-Blast approaches introduced for the conventional MIMO OFDM system also apply
performance.
53
Figure 4.28 through Figure 4.43, contained in Chapter 4, provide the BER curves
4. SIMULATION RESULTS
Using the relationships defined in Chapters 2 and 3, a MATLAB model has been
developed in order to represent the performance of the conventional and simplified SISO
OFDM modulated systems [1]. Simulations of the model have been executed to generate
the results presented in this section. The key parameter used to analyze the performance
of the system is bit error rate (BER). As such, BER curves with respect to the ratio of bit
energy to single-sided noise power spectral density are computed in order to evaluate the
performance of the conventional system with respect to the simplified system. With
regards to the model developed to represent the simplified system, the levels of
quantization used to implement the rounded FFT and rounded IFFT are as follows.
Table 4.1
Rounded FFT/IFFT Twiddle Factor Quantization
𝑘 Quantization
Steps
2 5
4 9
8 17
16 33
55
QPSK and 16QAM as well as three different wireless channel models. The first channel
model represents a flat fading channel with the following frequency response.
-2
Magnitude (dB)
-3
-4
-5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
1
Phase (degrees)
0.5
-0.5
-1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
The flat fading channel will attenuate the magnitude of the transmission by slightly less
than -3 dB; however, there is no effect on the transmission phase. The second channel
model included in this analysis represents a typical office environment with 50 nano
second root mean square (RMS) delay spread and Rayleigh fading. The frequency
Magnitude (dB)
-5
-10
-15
-20
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
200
Phase (degrees)
150
100
50
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
The last channel included in this research characterizes a large open area with 100 nano
second RMS delay spread and Rayleigh fading. The frequency response of channel
10
Magnitude (dB)
0
-10
-20
-30
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
200
Phase (degrees)
100
-100
-200
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Normalized Frequency ( rad/sample)
In conjunction with the degrees of freedom included in the SISO OFDM model, static
parameters such as a symbol rate equal to 250 KHz, presence of AWGN and FFT/IFFT
and rounded FFT/IFFT Length of 64 are employed. The following figures are plots
generated to describe the performance of the conventional SISO OFDM system versus
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM QPSK
-1 Rounded OFDM QPSK
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
OFDM 16QAM
-1 Rounded OFDM 16QAM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Eb/N0
MATLAB to provide the performance of both the conventional and simplified MIMO
OFDM modulated systems [1]. Simulations of the MIMO model have been performed in
order to generate the results presented in this section. As in the SISO system, the key
parameter used to analyze the performance of the MIMO architecture is BER. As such,
several BER curves are computed in order to evaluate the performance of the
conventional system with respect to the simplified system. The levels of quantization
used to implement the rounded FFT and rounded IFFT for the simplified MIMO
architecture are the same as in the simulations for the simplified SISO model. The
quantization levels used to execute the rounded FFT and rounded IFFT are indicated in
Table 4.1. Other parameters included in this analysis are bit-to-symbol mappings of
QPSK and 16QAM as well as the symbol detection technique of Optimal Ordered SIC
coupled with ZF and MMSE equalization. Additionally, results are generated for
randomly generated flat fading complex channel. Static parameters used in the
simulation are a symbol rate equal to 250 KHz, presence of AWGN, FFT/IFFT and
rounded FFT/IFFT Length of 64, two transmit antennas and two receive antennas. The
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.28. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=2
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.29. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=4
72
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.30. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=8
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.31. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and QPSK BER, k=16
73
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.32. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=2
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.33. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=4
74
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.34. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=8
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.35. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and QPSK BER, k=16
75
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.36. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=2
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.37. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=4
76
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.38. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=8
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.39. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered ZF-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=16
77
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.40. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=2
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.41. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=4
78
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.42. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=8
Rounded MIMO-OFDM
-1 MIMO-OFDM
10
-2
10
Bit Error Rate
-3
10
-4
10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Eb/N0
Fig. 4.43. MIMO OFDM with Optimal Ordered MMSE-SIC and 16QAM BER, k=16
79
5. CONCLUSIONS
A new concept has been developed that can be utilized in conjunction with
existing systems such that they can be considered cutting-edge and innovative. The new
concept introduced in this research is the application of the rounded Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) and rounded Inverse Fast Fourier Transform (IFFT) to both SISO and
MIMO OFDM modulated systems. As the descriptions and associated results presented
in this research confirm, inclusion of the rounded FFT and rounded IFFT into both SISO
and MIMO OFDM systems provide performance that approaches the conventional
system, while eliminating all non-trivial multiplications. Furthermore, the results prove
that the approach introduced for simple OFDM leads to viable communication systems.
Considering the results associated with the simple SISO architecture presented in
Chapter 4.1, it is clear that the performance of systems that include QPSK bit-to-symbol
conventional. It is also evident that the low end of “twiddle factor” quantization (i.e. k =
2, k = 4) performs poorly in the SISO system as error is introduced both in the multi-
carrier modulation process as well as in the equalizer due to the use of the rounded FFT
regards to the MIMO system, the simulation results presented in Chapter 4.2 clearly
indicate that the performance degradation is smaller than what has been concluded for the
80
SISO system. This observation is significant for systems that implement MIMO as the
IFFT and FFT algorithms are required for every spatial stream (i.e. antenna) and thus the
IFFT will allow for simpler hardware implementation due to the reduction in
implement the conventional Radix-2 and Radix-4 FFT versus the rounded algorithm as
Table 5.1
FFT and Rounded FFT Complexity
The values provided for additions and multiplications as represented in Table 5.1 are the
described, different levels of quantization can be utilized to develop the rounded FFT and
IFFT. As the level of quantization increases, the overall system performance approaches
81
application, different variations of the rounded FFT and IFFT can be utilized in order to
Table 5.1 clearly describes that the implementation rounded FFT requires a slight
increase of additions along with zero non-trivial multiplications when compared to the
Radix-2 and Radix-4 FFT; however, this result must be further quantified. Using the
Equation 3.13, a ratio can be developed in order to scale the complexity associated with
Furthermore, an estimate of overall complexity can be computed and compared for the
Radix-2 FFT, Radix-4 FFT and rounded FFT with the results contained in Table 5.2.
Table 5.2
Complexity Reduction Provided by Rounded FFT
To summarize the results included in Table 5.2, the rounded FFT provides an estimated
minimum reduction in complexity of 45% with respect to the Radix-2 FFT and a
minimum reduction in complexity of 36% with respect to the Radix-4 FFT for systems
that represent numerical values with a number of bits greater than six. Table 5.2 provides
the critical result necessary to quantify the reduction in complexity for the new rounded
system.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
83
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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