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Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Food Hydrocolloids
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/foodhyd

The effects of gums on macro and micro-structure of breads baked

in different ovens
Semin Ozge Ozkoc a, Gulum Sumnu b, *, Serpil Sahin b
a
The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey, MRC, 41470 Kocaeli, Turkey
b
Department of Food Engineering, Middle East Technical University, 06531 Ankara, Turkey

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: In this study, the effects of gums on macro and micro-structure of breads baked in different ovens
Received 19 December 2008 (infrared (IR)-microwave combination and conventional) were investigated by the help of image and
Accepted 15 April 2009 SEM analysis, respectively. The gums used were xanthan, guar, k-carrageenan and xanthan-guar blend.
The gums were added to the formulation at 0.5% concentration. As a control, no gum added formulations
Keywords: were used. Results of Image analysis demonstrated that xanthan-guar gum blend addition improved
Bread
bread quality with increasing pore area fractions. It was seen that about 75% of the pores of control
Infrared
breads baked in infrared-microwave combination oven and about 63% of the pores of control breads
Microwave
Image analysis baked in conventional oven had diameters of above 1000 mm. According to SEM analysis, pores in control
Micro-structure breads baked in conventional oven were found to be smaller, and had spherical, oval-like shape as
SEM compared to the ones baked in IR-microwave combination oven. Moreover, more homogeneous closed-
cell structure was observed for conventionally baked control breads. The pores of breads baked in
IR-microwave combination oven were so close to each other which resulted in coalescence of the gas
cells to form channels, then the pores were no longer spherical. The starch granules in conventionally
baked breads were more distorted and seen as a continuous sheet of gelatinized starch. On the other
hand, granular residues and continuous starch structure was observed together in IR-microwave
combination heating.
Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction implies two different heating mechanisms together, combining

The physicochemical, sensory, nutritional and transport prop-
erties of foods are largely dependent on the type of components
present, the interactions among them, and their structural orga-
nization (McClements, 2007). When it was looked from the struc-
tural organization point, bread crumb structure is one of the major
quality attributes of bread. Besides the obvious relationship
between crumb structure and crumb appearance, crumb structure
has also a role on loaf volume (Zghal, Scanlon, & Sapirstein, 1999)
and texture (Pyler, 1988). Therefore, it may be concluded that
having knowledge on the structure of breads may be helpful to
predict many of the quality and transport properties of bread.
The baking process sets the sponge-like crumb texture in bread
by creating a hierarchical structure of the gas cells, from macro to
micro-scale within bread crumb (Liu & Scanlon, 2003). Heating
mechanism also has a role on formation of pore structure (Datta,
Sahin, Sumnu, & Keskin, 2007). IR-microwave combination heating
* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ90 312 210 56 28; fax: þ90 312 210 2767.
E-mail address: gulum@metu.edu.tr (G. Sumnu).
time saving advantage of microwave heating with browning and
crisping advantages of infrared heating. It is expected that pore
structure of bread samples may be altered by those different
heating mechanisms in infrared-microwave combination heating
in the presence of different gums.
Gums are water-soluble polysaccharides with high molecular
weights (up to 1 million). Gums act as texture improvers, emulsi-
fiers, fat reducers, binding agents, film formers, stabilizers, shelf-life
extenders (Gurkin, 2002). It was previously stated that hydrocolloids
have ability to affect micro-structure of samples, by multiple inter-
actions with the bread constituents, especially starch granules
(Barcenas & Rosell, 2005; Brennan, Blake, Ellis, & Schofield, 1996).
In providing information on the structural hierarchy within the
bread crumb, image analysis provides opportunity for quantitative
evaluation of pore structure, such as determining gas cell sizes and
their distribution, computer vision systems are used for automatic
inspection based on camera-computer technology. Computer vision
is a non-destructive, automated, and cost-effective solution for quick
inspection of product properties which are in relation with its quality,
and is increasingly finding application area in food industry (Aguilera
& Germain, 2007). Image analysis technique provides generation of

0268-005X/$ – see front matter Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.foodhyd.2009.04.003
 Author's personal copy
S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189
precise descriptive data, reduction of human involvement in the
analysis, quick evaluation and objectivity. Computer image analysis
was previously used in characterizing structure properties of meat,
fish, pizza, cheese and bread (Brosnan & Sun, 2004).
Characterization of bread structure using image analysis has
been done on bread crumb in literature (Bertrand, Le Guerneve,
Marion, Devaux, & Robert, 1992; Datta et al., 2007; Zghal, Scanlon, &
Sapirstein, 2002). A mathematical method was proposed by Ber-
trand et al. (1992), to characterize the appearance of bread crumb
from digital images. Zghal et al. (2002) examined the effect of
structural parameters and structural heterogeneity, quantified by
digital image analysis, on mechanical properties of fresh bread
crumb. Datta et al. (2007) demonstrated that more representative
data on the pore size distribution for materials having large pores,
such as bread, in terms of covering pore sizes outside the range of
typical porosimetry apparatus, can be obtained from scanned
image based information.
SEM analysis provides achievement of qualitative observations
about the pore characteristics of samples. It is capable of per-
forming microstructural analysis at the magnifications ranging
from 20 to 10,000. Whole samples can be observed, and both
surface and internal structure of samples can be analyzed.
However, coating the surface of samples with a conductive material
(e.g. gold) is required to avoid surface charging (Aguilera &
Germain, 2007). Recently, new techniques have been developed to
make the SEM analysis easier, such as environmental scanning
electron microscope (ESEM), cryo scanning electron microscope
(Cryo-SEM) and variable-pressure scanning electron microscope
(VPSEM), etc. Among these techniques, the variable-pressure SEM
(VPSEM) instrument allows the examination of surfaces of almost
any specimen, wet or dry, because the environment around the
specimen has no longer to be at high vacuum (Goldstein et al.,
2003). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies have shown
qualitative relationships between bread’s mechanical properties
and the size and distribution of gas cells in the crumb (Hayman,
Hoseney, & Faubion, 1998; Zayas, 1993). Micro-structure changes
during baking of breads have been studied by Khoo, Christianson,
and Inglett (1975), Pomeranz, Meyer, and Seibel (1984), Datta et al.
(2007). The effect of composition on micro-structure of conven-
tionally baked breads was studied by various researchers (Brennan
et al., 1996; Hayman et al., 1998; Pomeranz, Shogren, Finney, &
Behtel, 1977; Rojas, Rosell, de Barber, Perez-Munuera, & Lluch,
2000). However, there is no study in literature on micro-structure
of breads with different gums and baked in IR-microwave combi-
nation oven.
The objective of this study was to determine the effects of
different gums on structure of breads baked in infrared-microwave
combination and conventional ovens at micro and macro scale by
the help of SEM and image analysis, respectively.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
Wheat flour containing 30% wet gluten, 13.5% moisture and
0.54% ash was used in the study. Sugar, milk powder, salt, yeast,
margarine were supplied from a local market. The gums used were
guar gum (Guar Gum Powder HV-101 FCC, AEP Colloids Inc., NY,
USA), xanthan gum (XAN-80 NF FCC, AEP Colloids Inc., NY, USA) and
k-carrageenan (Calcium Carrageenan, AEP Colloids Inc., NY, USA).
2.2. Extensograph measurements
Extensograph characteristics of wheat flour was determined
according to the method of AACC 54-10 by an extensograph
2183
(Brabender extensograph type 860000, Germany) (AACC, 2000).
Wheat flour of 300 g was mixed in the farinograph (Brabender
farinograph SEW, Germany) with salt solution (6 g salt dissolved in
150 ml distilled water at 30  C) to obtain the reference consistency.
After mixing, the dough was divided into two pieces (150 g/piece)
and the pieces were shaped out. They were then rested in
a humidity chamber at 30  C for 45 min. Then the pieces were
stretched until rupture. This procedure was repeated for resting
times of 90 and 135 min also. The results (resistance to stretching,
extensibility, energy and ratio of resistance to stretching to exten-
sibility) were recorded on the extensogram.
2.3. Dough preparation
The dough was prepared according to the hamburger bread
formulation, which contained 100% flour, 8% sugar, 6% milk powder,
2% salt, 3% compressed yeast, 8% margarine and 55% water on flour
weight basis. The gums were added to the formulation at 0.5%
concentration (on flour weight basis). Xanthan and guar gums were
mixed at equal concentrations to obtain the xanthan-guar blend. As
a control, no gum added formulation was used.
Dough was prepared by using straight dough method. That is,
the dry ingredients were mixed, first. Yeast was dissolved in water
at 30  C. Margarine was melted and added to the dry ingredients in
liquid phase together with dissolved yeast. All the ingredients were
mixed by a mixer (Kitchen Aid, 5K45SS, USA). After complete
mixing of the dough, it was placed into the incubator at 30  C for
fermentation. Total duration of the fermentation was 125 min. After
the first 70 min, the dough was taken out of the incubator, punched
and placed into the incubator again. A second punch took place
after 35 min. After fermentation, the dough was divided into 50 g
pieces. Each piece was shaped and placed into the incubator for the
last time for 20 min under the same incubation conditions.
2.4. Baking
Conventional baking was performed in a commercial electrical
oven (Arçelik ARMF 4 Plus, Turkey). The prepared dough samples
were baked at 200  C for 13 min. Four breads were baked at a time.
Infrared-microwave baking was performed in combination oven
(Advantium ovenÔ, General Electric Company, Louisville, KY, USA).
Power of the oven at the microwave mode was 706 W determined
by IMPI 2-L test (Buffler, 1993). There were two halogen lamps at
the top and one at the bottom, each having 1500 W. Four breads
were baked using 70% halogen lamp power both at the top and at
the bottom and 20% microwave power for 8 min which was the
optimum condition determined by preliminary experiments. Two
beakers, each containing 400 ml water, were placed at the back
corners of the oven to provide required humidity during baking.
2.5. Analysis of bread
2.5.1. Image analysis
Breads formulated with different gums baked in different ovens
were cut into two halves vertically. The cut side of one of the halves
was placed over the glass of a scanner (HP Scanjet 5470C, USA). The
scanned image having a resolution of 300 dpi was analyzed using
the software Image J (http://rsb.info.nih.gov/ij/; Abramoff, Magel-
haes, & Ram, 2004; Braadbaart & Van Bergen, 2005; Datta et al.,
2007) that uses the contrast between the two phases (pores and
solid part) in the image. The scanned color image is first converted
to gray scale. Using bars of known lengths, pixel values are con-
verted into distance units. The largest possible rectangular cross-
section of the bread halves was cropped. After adjusting the
threshold, area-based pore size distribution, and pore area as
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2184 S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189
fraction of total area were determined using the software. The
results were obtained from two replicates.
2.5.2. Scanning electron microscopy analysis
The bread samples for SEM analysis were frozen (40  C) and
freeze dried. The freeze-dried bread crumb pieces having size of
approximately 5  5  5 mm were then viewed and photographed
with Zeiss EVO 50 XVP SEM (Cambridge, UK) in variable-pressure
mode at an accelerating voltage of 25 kV. The instrument used in
the analysis was capable of ‘‘low vacuum’’ operation (50 Pa). In this
work, SEM in variable-pressure mode was used and the samples
were not coated. Scanning electron micrographs with appropriate
magnifications (70 and 1000) were selected for the presentation
of results.
2.6. Statistical analysis
Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine
whether there was significant difference between gum and oven
types (P < 0.05). Variable means were compared by Tukey Single
Range test by using MINITAB statistics programme (MINITAB for
Windows, Version 14, Minitab Inc., State College, Pa., USA).
3. Results and discussion
Extensograph characteristics of the flour used in bread formu-
lations were determined for dough resting times of 45, 90 and
135 min. The results are shown in Table 1.
Macro and micro-structure of the samples were obtained by
Image and SEM analysis, respectively. By the help of image analysis
quantitative data in terms of area-based pore size distribution and
pore area as fraction of total area can be obtained, whereas char-
acterization of micro-structure provides qualitative observations
about the pore characteristics and starch granules.
3.1. Image analysis
It was stated by McClements (2007) that pore diameter range of
100 mm–100 mm represents macro-scale pore structure, which is
related to appearance of the samples. In our study, the pore
diameter range was within macro-scale pore diameter range,
which was obtained by the software, Image J. Image J uses the
contrast between the two phases (pores and solid part) in the
image during the analysis. Fig. 1a shows the scanned image of
conventionally baked control breads. From that scanned image, the
largest possible rectangular cross-section is cropped and pore areas
are extracted by the software, Image J, an example of which is
shown in Fig. 1b and c.
The pore area fractions of breads formulated with different
gums baked in conventional and IR-microwave combination ovens
can be seen in Fig. 2,. It was seen that the highest pore area fractions
were obtained for breads formulated with xanthan-guar blend
baked both in conventional and IR-microwave combination ovens.
It was observed that k-carrageenan added samples had the
lowest pore area fraction values in conventional and IR-microwave
Table 1
Extensograph characteristics of wheat flour.
Resting time (min) Extensograph characteristics
Resistance to Extensibility Energy
streching (BU) (mm) (cm2)
45 502 144 102
90 751 123 131
135 840 114 135
combination ovens (Fig. 2). The interaction of k-carrageenan with
the ingredients in the formulation, such as gluten, may be the
reason of low pore area fraction or porosity values. It was demon-
strated in literature (Ribotta, Ausar, Beltramo, & Leon, 2005) that
carrageenan isoforms (sulphated hydrocolloids) had selective
interaction with medium molecular weight gluten proteins
(30,000–42,000), which could form hydrophilic complexes,
affecting its solubility. The capacity of complexation appears to be
related to the density of the anionic group in the polysaccharide.
Moreover, it has been stated that hydrocolloids may interact with
gluten proteins having different molecular weights rather than
medium molecular weight (high (78,000–105,000) and low
(16,000–26,000) molecular weight gluten proteins) and the
resulting complexes may be water-insoluble (León et al., 2000;
Ribotta et al., 2005). These complexes may affect formation of
desirable starch-gluten matrix in terms of gluten strength for gas
holding, at the end, affecting pore cell wall structure and porosity of
the final product.
Pore area fractions of samples baked in IR-microwave combi-
nation oven were found to be significantly higher than that of the
conventionally baked ones (Fig. 2). The high pressure formed inside
the bread because of microwave heating mechanism may have
yielded a loose, void porous structure in microwave-assisted
baking. High pressure gradients related to microwave heating as
compared to conventional heating was stated by different
researchers in literature (Datta, 1990; Sumnu, Sahin, & Sevimli,
2005). Moreover, in a study by Demirekler, Sumnu, and Sahin
(2004), it was demonstrated that the porosity of bread samples
baked in IR-microwave combination oven was higher than that of
conventionally baked ones.
Cumulative pore area fraction versus pore diameter of breads
baked in conventional oven can be seen in Fig. 3a. Although the
difference among the cumulative pore area fractions of breads
formulated with different gums was slight, it was found that breads
formulated with xanthan-guar blend had the highest percentage of
pores (Fig. 3a). When the cumulative pore area fraction of samples
baked in IR-microwave combination oven was considered, in
breads formulated with xanthan-guar blend, about 70% of the pores
had diameter above 1000 mm, which was the highest amount
among the samples formulated with other gum types (Fig. 3b). On
the other hand, it was seen that control breads had the highest
percentage of pores (75%) having diameter above 1000 mm.
It was seen that about 75% of the pores of control breads baked
in IR-microwave combination and about 63% of the pores of control
breads baked in conventional oven had diameter of above 1000 mm
(Fig. 3a and b). Moreover, gum addition had more significant effect
on the pore size distribution of breads baked in IR-microwave
combination oven than that of conventionally baked ones (Fig. 3a
and b). The heating mechanisms in conventional and IR-microwave
combination baking differ. The high pressure formed during IR-
microwave combination heating, resulting in high moisture
removal may be the reason of observing such kind of difference in
the effects of gum types on pore size distribution of breads. Since
gums have the ability to redistribute water inside the matrix and
they have different water binding capacities, these abilities may be
more distinguishable in IR-microwave combination heating. The
difference in dielectric properties of different gum containing
breads may also affect the heating rate and pore formation during
IR-microwave combination baking (Keskin, Sumnu, & Sahin, 2007).
Ratio number 3.2. SEM analysis
(maximum)
3.4 It was seen from Fig. 4 that the micro-structure of control breads
6.1 baked in conventional oven seemed to have more smooth structure
7.4
than that of gum added ones.
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S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189 2185

Fig. 1. a) Scanned image of conventionally baked control bread used in image analysis, b) The contrast used in the scanned image to find the edges of pores c) The regions
representing voids before determining their areas.

When the micro-structure of breads formulated with different Figs. 4a and 5a show the micro-structure of control breads
gums baked in IR-microwave combination oven was taken into baked in different ovens at 70 magnification. From the general
consideration, pores were mostly in spherical and/or oval-like view, it can be said that the gas cells present large cavities and
shapes in the case of gum containing formulations, resulting in some smaller holes in samples baked in both conventional and IR-
formation of stable morphology (Fig. 5). Gum addition may microwave combination ovens. The pores of breads baked in
influence the stability of gas cells by forming thick layer on their conventional oven were found to be smaller than those baked in
surface and reduce the opportunity for coalescence of individual IR-microwave combination oven (Figs. 4a and 5a). Pores of
gas cells, and remain each bubble as a separate discrete entity, conventionally baked breads had spherical, oval-like shapes
resulting in ‘stable morphology’. It has been stated by Ornebro, (Fig. 4a). Moreover, more homogeneous closed-cell structure was
Nylander, and Eliasson (2000) that, during the early phase of observed for conventionally baked control breads. The pores of
mixing when the flour was hydrated to form a cohesive dough, breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven are so close to
both soluble and insoluble components would be brought to the each other that coalescence of the gas cells to form channels are
bubble surface and in this stage, the composition of the bubble
surface throughout the process and the stability of the bubbles
during the later stages of breadmaking would be influenced (Mills,
Salt, & Wilde, 2007). Moreover, during proving, the bubbles
introduced into a bread dough during mixing expanded as a result
of gas production by yeast and therefore bubble stability became
an important issue. For a bread to remain stable, each bubble must
remain as a separate discrete entity for as long as possible and
coalescence of individual gas cells is a major source of instability
in foams (Mills et al., 2007), such as bread. A protective, adsorbed
layer of molecules formed around the bubbles is required in
stabilizing the foam against coalescence. It was stated in literature
that bubbles with very thick layer would repel each other and
therefore reduced the opportunity for coalescence (Mills et al.,
2007) resulting in ‘‘stable morphology’’.

Fig. 3. Variation in cumulative pore area fraction of bread samples formulated with
Fig. 2. Variation in pore area fraction of bread samples formulated with different gums different gums baked in a) conventional oven and b) IR-microwave ovens (
baked in conventional and IR-microwave combination ovens. xanthan guar xanthan-guar carrageenan control).
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2186 S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189
Fig. 4. Micro-structure at 70 magnification of a) no gum b) xanthan c) guar d) xanthan-guar blend e) k-carrageenan added breads baked in conventional oven.
observed, therefore, the pores were no longer spherical (Fig. 5a).
This may be because of the pressure driven moisture removal in
combination baking which resulted in a different pore structure.
Similar findings were obtained in some studies for microwave-
baked cakes (Demirkol, 2007; Martin & Tsen, 1981). It can be seen
that breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven was more
porous than the conventionally baked ones (Figs. 4 and 5). This
result was supported by image analysis results where higher pore
area fractions were obtained for breads baked in IR-microwave
combination oven (Fig. 2).
Additionally, more uniform micro-structure was observed for
the samples formulated with xanthan baked in IR-microwave
combination oven (Fig. 5b). Since xanthan may thicken the crumb
air cell walls (Rosell, Rojas, & Benedito, 2001), the samples formu-
lated with this gum can compensate microwave induced high
pressure formed during IR-microwave combination baking,
resulting in uniform morphology. Gums may form adsorbed layer
of molecules around the bubbles, resulting in thickening of crumb
walls surrounding the air spaces.
The samples formulated with carrageenan were found to have
larger pores (Fig. 5e). This may be because of the high dielectric
properties of gum carrageenan (Keskin et al., 2007). The breads
formulated with this gum were heated more efficiently and
higher internal pressure resulted in larger pores in bread
samples.
Fig. 6a and b show the micro-structure at 1000 magnification
of control breads baked in IR-microwave combination and
conventional ovens, respectively. The starch granules in breads
baked in IR-microwave combination oven were deformed but not
completely lost their identity and did not disintegrate completely.
Granular residues and deformed starch structure were observed
together in IR-microwave combination heating (Fig. 6a). Incom-
plete disintegration of starch granules may be due to the fact that
microwave heating causes high moisture loss, affecting starch
swelling and gelatinization. The starch granules in conventionally
baked control breads were more distorted and they lost their
identity and formed a more continuous sheet of gelatinized starch
(Fig. 6b).
The results obtained for control breads are also valid for the
samples formulated with gums. The starch granules in conven-
tionally baked samples containing gums were more distorted
compared to the ones baked in IR-microwave combination oven
(Fig. 7). It was observed that gums coated the surface of starch
granules and formed veil-like structure (Fig. 7b, d, f and h). This
was also seen in other studies (Barcenas & Rosell, 2005; Brennan
et al., 1996). When the effects of gums on micro-structure of
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S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189 2187

Fig. 5. Micro-structure at 70 magnification of a) no gum b) xanthan c) guar d) xanthan-guar blend e) k-carrageenan added breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven.

breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven were
compared, the starch granules in breads formulated with
carrageenan were found to be more distorted (Fig. 7g). This may
be because of the high dielectric properties of gum carrageenan
(Keskin et al., 2007). Breads formulated with this gum were
heated more efficiently which resulted in more starch gelatini-
zation. On the other hand, granular boundaries of starch
molecules can be easily observed in xanthan-guar and guar gum
added samples baked in IR-microwave combination oven
(Fig. 7c and e).

Fig. 6. Micro-structure of control breads at 1000 magnification baked in a) IR-microwave combination and b) conventional ovens (White arrows ( ) represent starch granule
residues, whereas black arrows ( ) represent deformed starch structure).
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2188 S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189

Fig. 7. Micro-structure of a,b) xanthan c,d) guar e,f) xanthan-guar blend g,h) k-carrageenan added breads at 1000  magnification baked in IR-microwave combination (a, c, e and g)
and conventional ovens (b, d, f and h) (White arrows ( ) represent starch granule residues, whereas black arrows ( ) represent deformed starch structure).

4. Conclusion xanthan gum to the formulation increased the uniformity of

Heating mechanism was found to be effective on pore-structure
development. Pore area fractions of samples baked in IR-microwave
combination oven were found to be significantly higher than that of
the conventionally baked ones. The results of the SEM analysis also
demonstrated that the effects of heating mechanism on micro-
structure development were more significant than formulation.
Control breads baked in IR-microwave combination oven had larger
pores than those baked in conventional oven. The addition of
micro-structure of breads baked in IR-microwave combination
oven. Moreover, the samples formulated with carrageenan baked in
IR-microwave combination oven were found to have larger pores.
SEM analysis showed that the starch granules in conventionally
baked control breads were more distorted and they formed a more
continuous sheet of gelatinized starch. On the other hand, both
granular residues and deformed starch structure were observed in
IR-microwave combination heating which may be as a consequence
of insufficient gelatinization.
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S. Ozge Ozkoc et al. / Food Hydrocolloids 23 (2009) 2182–2189
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