Power Quality - in - Power - Distribution - Systems IIT WEB

NPTEL Course
on
Power Quality in Power Distribution Systems
Dr. Mahesh Kumar

Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras
Chennai - 600 036
Contents
1 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND ITS COMPONENTS

(Lectures 1-8) 1
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Power Terms in a Single Phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.3 Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.4 Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4.1 Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.2 Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.3 Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4 Non Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.5 Distortion Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.6 Fundamental Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1.4.7 Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS COMPO-

NENTS
(Lectures 9-18) 27
2.1 Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.1 Balanced Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.1.2 Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
i
2.1.3 Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.1.4 Power Invariance in abc and αβ0 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.2 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . 33
2.2.1 Three-Phase Balance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.2.2 Three-Phase Unbalance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.3 Symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.3.1 Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.3.2 Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4 Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.4.1 Neutral Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4.2 Line to Line Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.4.3 Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case . . . 54
2.4.4 Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System . . . . . . 54
2.5 Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.5.1 Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanu’s Resolution . . . . . 58
2.5.2 Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD COMPENSATION

(Lectures 19-24) 69
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.2 Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.1 Power Factor and its Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.2.2 Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.2.3 An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . 75
3.3 Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . 81
3.4 Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . 85
3.4.1 Three-phase Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
ii
3.4.2 Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected Unbalanced Load . . . . . 88
3.4.3 An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase Currents and Powers . . . . . 90
3.4.4 An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta Connected Load . . . . . . 92
3.5 A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using Symmetrical Components . 95
3.5.1 Sampling Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.5.2 Averaging Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.6 Compensator Admittance Represented as Positive and Negative Sequence Admit-
tance Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4 CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD COMPENSATION

(Lectures 25-35) 119
4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
4.1.1 State Space Modeling of the Compensator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
4.1.2 Switching Control of the VSI . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
4.1.3 Generation of Ploss to maintain dc capacitor voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
4.1.4 Computation of load average power (Plavg ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
4.2 Some Misconception in Reactive Power Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.3 Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.3.1 Compensating Star Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4.3.2 Compensating Delta Connected Load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
5 SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE COMPENSATION USING DVR

(Lectures 36-44) 169
5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.2 Conventional Methods to Regulate Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
5.3 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 Operating Principle of DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
5.4.1 General Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
iii
5.5 Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.6 Transient Operation of the DVR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.6.1 Operation of the DVR With Unbalance and Harmonics . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.7 Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source Inverter . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.8 Maximum Compensation Capacity of the DVR Without Real Power Support from
the DC Link . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
iv
Chapter 1
SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

DEFINITIONS AND ITS COMPONENTS
(Lectures 1-8)
1.1 Introduction
The definitions of power and its various components are very important to understand quantitative
and qualitative power quality aspects in power system [1]–[5]. This is not only necessary from the
point of view of conceptual clarity but also very much required for practical applications such as
metering, quantification of active, reactive power, power factor and other power quality parameters
in power system. These aspects become more important when power system is not ideal i.e. it
deals with unbalance, harmonics, faults and fluctuations in frequency. We therefore, in this chapter
explore the concept and fundamentals of single phase system with some practical applications and
illustrations.
1.2 Power Terms in a Single Phase System

Let us consider a single-phase system with sinusoidal system voltage supplying a linear load as
shown in Fig. 1.1. The voltage and current are expressed as below.
√
v(t) = 2V sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2I sin(ωt − φ) (1.1)
The instantaneous power can be computed as,
p(t) = v( t) i(t) = V I [2 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ)]

= V I[cosφ − cos(2ωt − φ)]
= V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt (1.2)
= P (1 − cos 2ωt) − Q sin 2ωt
= pactive (t) − preactive (t)
1
v i
Fig. 1.1 A single phase system
R T +t
Here, P = T1 t=t1 1 p(t) dt = average value of pactive (t). This is called as average active power.
The reactive power Q is defined as,
∆
Q = max {preactive (t)} (1.3)
It should be noted that the way Q is defined is different from P . The Q is defined as maximum
value of the second term of (1.2) and not an average value of the second term. This difference
should always kept in mind.
Equation (1.2) shows that instantaneous power can be decomposed into two parts. The first term
has an average value of V I cos φ and an alternating component of V I cos 2ωt, oscillating at twice
the line frequency. This part is never negative and therefore is called unidirectional or dc power.
The second term has an alternating component V I sin φ sin 2ωt oscillating at twice frequency with
a peak vale of V I sin φ. The second term has zero average value. The equation (1.2) can further
be written in the following form.
p(t) = V I cos φ − V I cos(2ωt − φ)

= p̄(t) + p̃(t)
= paverage + poscillation
= pusef ul + pnonusef ul (1.4)
With the above definitions of P and Q, the instantaneous power p(t) can be re-written as following.
p(t) = P (1 − cos 2ωt) − Q sin 2ωt (1.5)
2
√
Example 1.1 Consider a sinusoidal supply voltage v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt supplying a linear load
of impedance ZL = 12 + j13 Ω at ω = 2πf radian per second, f = 50 Hz. Express current i(t) as
a function of time. Based on v(t) and i(t) determine the following.
1. Instantaneous power p(t), instantaneous active power pactive (t) and instantaneous reactive
power preactive (t)
2. Compute average real power P , reactive power Q, apparent power S, and power factor pf .
3. Repeat the above when load is ZL = 12 − j13 Ω, ZL = 12 Ω, and ZL = j13 Ω
4. Comment upon the results.

Solution: A single phase circuit supplying linear load is shown Fig. 1.1. In general, the current in
the circuit is given as,
√
i(t) = 2I sin(ωt − φ)
where φ = tan−1 (XL /RL ), and I = (V /|ZL |)
Case 1: When load is inductive, ZL = 12 + j13 Ω

p √
|ZL | = RL2 + XL2 = 122 + 132 = 17.692 Ω, and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A
φ = tan−1 (X/R) = tan−1 (13/12) = 47.29o
Therefore we have,
√
v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2 × 13 sin(ωt − 47.29o )
The instantaneous power is given as,
p(t) = V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt

= 230 × 13 cos 47.29o (1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 13 sin 47.29o sin(2 × 314t)
= 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)
= pactive (t) − preactive (t)
The above implies that,
pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

preactive (t) = 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)
3
Average real power (P ) is given as,
1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
P = V I cos φ = 230 × 13 × cos 47.29o = 2028.23 W
Reactive power (Q) is given as maximum value of preactive , and equals to V I sin φ as given below.
Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 13 × sin 47.2906◦ = 2196.9 VAr

p
Apparant power, S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 13 = 2990 VA
P 2028.23
Power factor = = = 0.6783
S 2990
For this case, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.2. As
seen from the figure the current lags the voltage due to inductive load. The pactive has an offset of
2028.23 W, which is also indicated as P in the right bottom graph. The preactive has zero average
value and its maximum value is equal to Q, which is 2196.9 VArs.
400 6000
Voltge (V)
4000
200
VA, W, VAr
2000
0
0
-200
-2000
p(t)
-400 -4000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec sec preact(t)
20 2400
Current (A)
10 2300 Average Power (W)
Reactive Power (VAr)
W, VAr
0 2200
-10 2100
-20 2000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
sec sec
Fig. 1.2 Case 1: Voltage, current and various power components
4
√
Case 2: When load is Capacitive, ZL = 12 − j13 that implies |ZL | = 122 + 132 = 17.692Ω,
and I = 230/17.692 = 13 A, φ = tan−1 (−13/12) = −47.2906o .
√
v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2 × 13 sin(ωt + 47.2906o )
p(t) = V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt
= 230 × 13 cos(−47.2906o )(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 13 sin(−47.2906o ) sin(2 × 314t)
= 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) + 2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)
pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

preactive (t) = −2196.9 sin(2 × 314t)
P = V I cos φ = 230 × 13 × cos 47.2906o = 2028.23 Watt

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 13 × sin(−47.2906o ) = −2196.9 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 13 = 2990 VA
For Case 2, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.3. The
explanation given earlier also holds true for this case.
400 6000
Voltage (V)
4000
200
VA, W, VAr
2000
0
0
-200
-2000
p(t)
-400 -4000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec sec preact(t)
20 3000
Current (A)
2000
10
1000
Average Power (W)
W, VAr
0 0 Reactive Power (VAr)
-1000
-10
-2000
-20 -3000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04
sec sec
5
Case 3: When load is resistive, ZL = 12 Ω, |ZL | = 12 Ω, I = (230/12) = 19.167 A, and φ = 0o .
Therefore, we have
√
v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2 × 19.167 sin ωt
p(t) = 230 × 19.167 cos 0o (1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 19.167 sin 0o sin(2 × 314t)
= 4408.33(1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 0
pactive (t) = 4408.33(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

preactive (t) = 0
P = V I cos φ = 230 × 19.167 × cos 0o = 4408.33 W

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 19.167 × sin 0o = 0 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 19.167 = 4408.33 VA
4408.33
Power factor = =1
4408.33
For Case 3, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.4. Since
the load is resistive, as seen from the graph preactive is zero and p(t) is equal to pactive . The average
value of p(t) is real power (P ), which is equal to 4408.33 W.
400 10000
Voltage (V)
8000
200
VA, W, VAr
6000
0
4000
-200 2000
0
-400 p(t)
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec sec
p (t)
react
30 5000
Current (A)
20 4000
10 3000 Average Power (W)

Reactive Power (VAr)
W, VAr
0 2000
-10 1000
-20 0
-30 -1000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
sec sec
6
Case 4: When the load is purely reactive, ZL = j13 Ω , |ZL | = 13 Ω, I = 230
13
= 17.692 A, and
φ = 90o . Therefore, we have
√
v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt
√
i(t) = 2 × 17.692 sin(ωt − 90o )
p(t) = 230 × 17.692 cos 90o (1 − cos(2 × 314t)) − 230 × 17.692 sin 90o sin(2 × 314t)
= 0 − 4069 sin(2 × 314t)
pactive (t) = 0
preactive (t) = 4069 sin(2 × 314t)
P = V I cos φ = 230 × 17.692 × cos 90o = 0 W

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 17.692 × sin 90o = 4069 VAr
p
S = V I = P 2 + Q2 = 230 × 17.692 = 4069 VA
0
Power factor = =0
4069
For Case 4, the voltage, current and various components of the power are shown in Fig. 1.5. The
load in this case is purely reactive, hence their is no average component of p(t). The maximum
value of p(t) is same as preactive (t) or Q, which is equal to 4069 VArs.
400 5000
Voltage (V)
200
VA, W, VAr
0 0
-200
p(t)
-400 -5000
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 pact(t) 0.03
sec preact(t)
30 5000
Current (A)
20 4000
10
3000
W, VAr
0 Active Power (W)

2000 Reactive Power (VAr)
-10
-20 1000
-30 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
7
1.3 Sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Load Current
The load current is now considered as nonlinear load such as single-phase rectifier load. The
voltage and current are expressed as following.
√
v(t) = 2V sin ωt
∞
√ X
i(t) = 2 In sin(nωt − φn ) (1.6)
n=1
The instantaneous power is therefore given by,
∞
√ √ X
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 2V sin ωt 2 In sin(nωt − φn )
n=1
∞
X
= V [In 2 sin ωt sin(nωt − φn )]
n=1
= V [I1 2 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ1 )]
X∞
+ V [In 2 sin ωt sin(nωt − φn )] (1.7)
n=2
Note that 2 sin A sin B = cos(A − B) − cos(A + B), using this, Eqn. (1.7) can be re-written as
the following.
p(t) = V I1 [cos φ1 − cos(2ωt − φ1 )] − V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt

X∞
+V In [ (cos φn − cos(2nωt − φn )) − sin φn sin 2nωt]
n=2
= V I1 cos φ1 (1 − cos 2ωt) − V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt (1.8)
∞
X
+ V In [ cos φn (1 − cos 2nωt) − sin φn sin 2nωt]
n=2
= A + B
In above equation, average active power P and reactive power Q are given by,
P = P1 = average value of p(t) = V I1 cos φ1

∆
Q = Q1 = peak value of second term in A = V I1 sin φ1 (1.9)
The apparent power S is given by
S = V Iq
S = V [I12 + I22 + I32 + .....] (1.10)
8
Equation (1.10) can be re-arranged as given below.
S 2 = V 2 I12 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + ...]

= (V I1 cos φ1 )2 + (V I1 sin φ1 )2 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + .....]
= P 2 + Q2 + H 2 (1.11)
In above equation, H is known as harmonic power and represents V As corresponding to harmonics

and is equal to,
q
H = V [I22 + I32 + I42 + .....] (1.12)
The following points are observed from description.

1. P and Q are dependent on the fundamental current components
2. H is dependent on the current harmonic components
3. Power components −V I cos 2ωt and V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt are oscillating components and can
be eliminated using appropriately chosen capacitors and inductors
4. There are other terms in (1.10), which are functions of multiple integer of fundamental fre-
quency are reflected in ’B’ terms of Eqn. (1.8). These terms can be eliminated using tuned
LC filters.
This is represented by power tetrahedron instead of power triangle (in case of voltage and current
of sinusidal nature of fundamental frequency). In this context, some important terms are defined
here.
Displacement Factor or Fundamental Power Factor (DPF) is denoted by cos φ1 and is cosine
angle between the fundamental voltage and current.
Distortion Factor (DF) is defined as ratio of fundamental apparent power (V1 I1 ) to the total
apparent power (V I).
p
(P12 + Q21 )
Distortion factor (DF ) =
p S
(V 2 I12 cos2 φ1 + V 2 I12 sin2 φ1 )
=
p VI
V 2 I12
=
VI
I1
= = cos γ (1.13)
I
The Power Factor (pf ) is defined as ratio of average active power to the total apparent power (V I)
and is expressed as,
9
P
Power Factor (pf ) =
S
V I1 cos φ1
=
VI
I1
= cos φ1
I
= cos γ cos φ1 (1.14)
The equation (1.14) shows that power factor becomes less by a factor of cos γ. This is due to the
presence of the harmonics in the load current. The nonlinear load current increases the ampere
rating of the conductor for same amount of active power transfer with increased VA rating. Such
kind of load is not desired in power system.
Example 1.2 Consider following single

√ phase system supplying a rectifier load as given in Fig.
1.6. Given a supply voltage, v(t) = 2 × 230 sin ωt and source impedance is negligible, draw the
voltage and current waveforms. Express current using Fourier series. Based on that determine the
following.
1. Plot instantaneous power p(t).
2. Plot components of p(t) i.e. pactive (t), preactive (t).
3. Compute average real power, reactive power, apparent power, power factor, displacement
factor (or fundamental power factor) and distortion factor.
4. Comment upon the results in terms of VA rating and power output.
i (t ) Id
v (t )
Fig. 1.6 A single phase system with non-linear load
Solution: The above system has been simulated using MATLAB/SIMULINK. The supply volt-
age and current are shown in Fig. 1.7. The current waveform is of the square type and its Fourier
10
series expansion is given below.
∞
X 4Idc
i(t) = sin(nωt) where h = 0, 1, 2 . . .
n=2h+1
nπ
The instantaneous power is therefore given by,
∞
√ X 4Idc
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 2V sin ωt sin(nωt). (1.15)
n=2h+1
nπ
By expansion of the above equation, the average active power (P ) and reactive power (Q) are given
as below.
P = P1 = average value of Pactive (t) or p(t) = V I1 cos φ1

= V I1 (since, φ1 = 0, cos φ1 = 1, sin φ1 = 0)
∆
Q = Q1 = peak value of Preactive (t) = V I1 sin φ1 = 0
300
Supply current (A)
200 Supply voltage (V)
100
0
-100
-200
-300
1 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006

Time(Sec) x 10
5
4
x 10
2.5
1.5
instantaneous power
1 Average power (W)
Reactive power (Var)
0.5
-0.5
1 1.001 1.002 1.003 1.004 1.005 1.006

Time (Sec) x 10
5
Fig. 1.7 Supply voltage, current and instantaneous power waveforms
The rms value of fundamental and rms value of the total source current are given below.
Irms = Id = 103.5 A
√
2 2
I1 = Id = 93.15 A
π
11
The real power (P ) is given by
P = V I1
√
2 2
= V × Id = 21424.5 W .
π
The reactive power (Q) is given by

Q = Q1 = 0.
The apparent power (S) is given by
S = V Irms
= V Id = 23805 VA .
The distortion factor (cos γ) is,
p
(P12 + Q21 )
DF =
S
I1
= = cos γ = 0.9.
Irms
The displacement factor (cos φ1 ) is,
DP F = cos φ1 = 1.
Therefore power factor is given by,
P P1 S1
pf = =
S S1 S
= cos γ cos φ1
= DF × DP F = 0.9 (lag)
1.4 Non-sinusoidal Voltage Source Supplying Non-linear Loads

The voltage source too may have harmonics transmitted from generation or produced due to non-
linear loads in presence of feeder impedance. In this case, we shall consider generalized case of
non-sinusoidal voltage source supplying nonlinear loads including dc components. These voltages
and currents are represented as,
∞
X √
v(t) = Vdc + 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) (1.16)
n=1
and
∞
X √
i(t) = Idc + 2In sin(nωt − φin ) (1.17)
n=1
12
Therefore, instantanteous power p(t) is given by,
∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = [Vdc + 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )].[Idc + 2In sin(nωt − φin )] (1.18)
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
| {z }
I | n=1 {z } | n=1 {z }
II III
∞ ∞
X √ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(nωt − φin ) (1.19)
|n=1 {zn=1 }
IV
p(t) = pdc−dc + pdc−ac + pac−dc + pac−ac (1.20)
The I term (pdc−dc ) contribute to power from dc components of voltage and current. Terms II
(pdc−ac ) and III (pac−dc ) are result of interaction of dc and ac components of voltage and current.
In case, there are no dc components all these power components are zero. In practical cases, dc
components are very less and the first three terms have negligible value compared to IV term. Thus,
we shall focus on IV (pac−ac ) term which correspond to ac components present in power system.
The IV term can be written as,
∞ ∞
X √ X √
IVth term = pac−ac = 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) (1.21)
n=1 h=1
where n = h = 1, 2, 3..., similar frequency terms will interact. When n 6= h, dissimilar
13
frequency terms will interact. This is expressed below.
√ √
pac−ac (t) = 2V1 sin(ωt − φv1 ) 2I1 sin(ωt − φi1 )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2V1 sin(ωt − φv1 ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih )
h=2,h6=1
| {z }
B
√ √
+ 2V2 sin(2ωt − φv2 ) 2I2 sin(2ωt − φi2 )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2V2 sin(2ωt − φv2 ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) + . . . + . . .
h=1,h6=2
| {z }
B
√ √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(nωt − φin )
| {z }
A
∞
√ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Ih sin(hωt − φih ) (1.22)
h=1,h6=n
| {z }
B
The terms in A of above equation form similar frequency terms and terms in B form dissimilar
frequency terms, we shall denote them by pac−ac−nn and pac−ac−nh . Thus,
∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = Vn In 2 sin(nωt − φvn ) sin(nωt − φin ) (1.23)
n=1
and
∞ ∞
X √ X √
pac−ac−nh (t) = 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2In sin(hωt − φih ) (1.24)
n=1 h=1,h6=n
14
Now, let us simplify pac−ac−nn in
∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = Vn In [cos(φin − φvn ) − cos(2nωt − φin − φvn )]
n=1
X∞
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos(2nωt − (φin − φvn ) − 2φvn )]
n=1
∞
X
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos (2nωt − 2φvn ) − φn ]
n=1
X∞
= Vn In [cos(φn ) − cos(2nωt − 2φvn ) cos φn − sin(2nωt − 2φvn ) sin φn ]
n=1
X∞
= [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2φvn )}
n=1
−Vn In sin φn sin(2nωt − 2φvn )] (1.25)
where φn = (φin − φvn ) = phase angle between nth harmonic current and voltage.
∞
X
pac−ac−nn (t) = [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2φvn )}]
n=1
X∞
− [Vn In sin φn sin(2nωt − 2φvn )] (1.26)
n=1
Therefore, the instantaneous power is given by,
p(t) = pdc−dc + pdc−ac + pac−dc + pac−ac−nn + pac−ac−nh

| {z } | {z } | {z } | {z } | {z }
I II III
| IVA {z IVB }
IV
∞ ∞
X √ X √
p(t) = Vdc Idc + Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1 n=1
∞
X
+ [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − φvn )}]
n=1
∞
X
− [Vn In sin φn . sin(2nωt − φin )] (1.27)
n=1
1.4.1 Active Power

Instantaneous active power, pactive (t) is expressed as,
∞
X
pactive (t) = Vdc Idc + [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − φvn )}] (1.28)
n=1
15
It has non-negative value with some average component, giving average active power. Therefore,
1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
X∞
= Vdc Idc + Vn In cos φn . (1.29)
n=1
Reactive power can be defined as

∞
X
q(t) = preactive (t) = − [Vn In sin φn sin(2nωt − 2φvn )] (1.30)
n=1
resulting in
Q , max of (1.30) magnitude

∞
X
= Vn In sin φn . (1.31)
n=1
From (1.29)
∞
X
P = Pdc + Vn In cos φn
n=1
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos φ1 + V2 I2 cos φ2 + V3 I3 cos φ3 + . . .
= Pdc + P1 + P2 + P3 + . . .
= Pdc + P1 + PH (1.32)
In above equation,
Pdc = Average active power corresponding to the dc components
P1 = Average fundamental active power
PH = Average Harmonic active power
Average fundamental active power (P1 ) can also be found from fundamentals of voltage and cur-
rent i.e.,
Z T
1
P1 = v1 (t) i1 (t)dt (1.33)
T 0
and harmonic active power (PH ) can be found
∞
X
PH = Vn In cos φn = P − P1 (1.34)
n=1
16
1.4.2 Reactive Power
The reactive power or Budeanu’s reactive power (Q) can be found by summing maximum value of
each term in (1.30). This is given below.
∞
X
Q = Vn In sin φn
n=1
= V1 I1 sin φ1 + V2 I2 sin φ2 + V3 I3 sin φ3 + . . .
= Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + . . .
= Q1 + QH (1.35)
Usually this reactive power is referred as Budeanu’s reactive power, and sometimes we use sub-
script B’ to indicate that i.e.,
QB = Q1B + QHB (1.36)
The remaining dissimilar terms of (1.27) are accounted using prest (t). Therefore, we can write,
p(t) = pdc−dc + pactive (t) + preactive (t) + p (t) (1.37)
| {z } | rest
{z }
similar frequency terms non-similar frequency terms
where,
pdc−dc = Vdc Idc
∞
X
pactive (t) = [Vn In cos φn {1 − cos(2nωt − 2 φvn )}]
n=1
X∞
preactive (t) = − [Vn In sin φn . sin(2nωt − 2 φvn )]
n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
prest (t) = Vdc 2In sin(nωt − φin ) + Idc 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
+ 2Vn sin(nωt − φvn ) 2Im sin(mωt − φim ) (1.38)
n=1 m=1,m6=n
1.4.3 Apparent Power

The scalar apparent power which is defined as product of rms value of voltage and current, is
expressed as following.
S = V
qI q
= Vdc2 + V12 + V22 + · · · Idc
2
+ I12 + I22 + · · · (1.39)
q q
2 2 2 2
= Vdc + V1 + VH Idc + I12 + IH
2
17
Where,
∞
X
VH2 = V22 + V32 + · · · = Vn2
n=2
∞
X
2
IH = I22 + I32 + · · · = In2 (1.40)
n=2
VH and IH are denoted as harmonic voltage and harmonic current respectively. Expanding (1.39)
we can write
S2 = V 2I 2
= (Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 )(Idc2
+ I12 + IH2
)
= Vdc Idc + Vdc I1 + Vdc IH + V1 I1 + V12 Idc
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
+ V12 IH
2
+ VH2 Idc
2
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
2
= Vdc2 Idc
2
+ V12 I12 + VH2 IH
2
+ Vdc2 (I12 + IH
2 2
) + Idc (V12 + VH2 ) + V12 IH
2
+ VH2 I12
2
= Sdc + S12 + SH 2
+ SD 2
= S12 + Sdc 2
+ SH 2
+ SD 2
| {z }
= S12 + SN
2
(1.41)
In above equation, the term SN is as following.
2
SN = Vdc2 I12 + Vdc2 IH
2
+ V12 Idc
2
+ V12 IH
2
+ VH2 Idc
2
+ VH2 I12 + VH2 IH
2 2 2
+ Idc 2
IH + Idc Vdc2 (1.42)
Practically in power systems dc components are negligible. Therefore neglecting the contribution
of Vdc and Idc associated terms in (1.42), the following is obtained.
2
SN = I12 VH2 + V12 IH
2
+ VH2 IH
2
= DV2 + DI2 + SH 2
(1.43)
The terms DI and DV in (1.43) are known as apparent powers due to distortion in current and
voltage respectively. These are given below.
DV = I1 VH
DI = V1 IH (1.44)
These are further expressed in terms of THD components of voltage and current, as given below.
VH
T HDV =
V1
IH
T HDI = (1.45)
I1
From (1.45), the harmonic components of current and voltage are expressed below.
VH = T HDV V1
IH = T HDI I1 (1.46)
18
Using (1.44) and (1.46),
DV = V1 I1 T HDV = S1 T HDV
DI = V1 I1 T HDI = S1 T HDI
SH = VH IH = S1 T HDI T HDV (1.47)
Therefore using (1.43) and (1.47), SN could be expressed as following.
2
SN = S12 (T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2 ) (1.48)
Normally in power system, T HDV << T HDI , therefore,
SN ≈ S1 DI (1.49)
The above relationship shows that as the THD content in voltage and current increases, the non fun-
damental apparent power SN increases for a given useful transmitted power. This means there are
more losses and hence less efficient power network.
1.4.4 Non Active Power

Non active power is denoted by N and is defined as per following equation.
S2 = P 2 + N 2 (1.50)
This power includes both fundamental as well as non fundamental components, and is usually
computed by knowing active power (P ) and apparent power (S) as given below.
√
N = S2 − P 2 (1.51)
1.4.5 Distortion Power

Due to presence of distortion, the total apparent power S can also be written in terms of active
power (P ), reactive power (Q) and distortion power (D)
S 2 = P 2 + Q2 + D2 . (1.52)
Therefore,
p
D= S 2 − P 2 − Q2 . (1.53)
1.4.6 Fundamental Power Factor

Fundamental power factor is defined as ratio of fundamental real power (P1 ) to the fundamental
apparent power (S1 ). This is given below.
P1
pf1 = cos φ1 = (1.54)
S1
The fundamental power factor as defined above is also known as displacement power factor.
19
1.4.7 Power Factor
Power factor for the single phase system considered above is the ratio of the total real power (P )
to the total apparent power (S) as given by the following equation.
P
pf =
S
P 1 + PH
= p 2 2
S1 + SN
(1 + PH /P1 ) P1
= p (1.55)
1 + (SN /S1 )2 S1
Substituting SN from (1.48), the power factor can further be simplified to the following equation.
(1 + PH /P1 )
pf = p pf1 (1.56)
1 + T HDI2 + T HDV2 + T HDI2 T HDV2
Thus, we observe that the power factor of a single phase system depends upon fundamental (P1 )
and harmonic active power (PH ), displacement factor(DP F = pf1 ) and THDs in voltage and
current. Further, we note following points.
1. P/S is also called as utilization factor indicator as it indicates the usage of real power.
2. The term SN /S1 is used to decide the overall degree of harmonic content in the system.
3. The flow of fundamental power can be characterized by measurement of S1 , P1 , pf1 , and Q1 .
For a practical power system P1 >> PH and T HDV << T HDI , the above expression of power
factor is further simplified as given below.
pf1
pf = p (1.57)
1 + T HDI2
Example 1.3 Consider the following voltage and current in single phase system.
√ √
vs (t) = 2 × 230 sin(ωt) + 2 × 50 sin(3ωt − 30◦ )
√ √
i(t) = 2 + 2 × 10 sin(ωt − 30◦ ) + 2 × 5 sin(3ωt − 60◦ )
Determine the following.
(a) Active power, (P )

(b) Reactive power, (Q)
(c) Apparent power, (S)
(d) Power factor, (pf )
20
Solution: Here the source is non-sinusoidal and is feeding a non-linear load. The instantaneous
power is given by,
p(t) = v(t) i(t)
∞
X√ ∞
X √
p(t) = {Vdc + 2 Vn sin(nωt − φvn )} {Idc + 2 In sin(nωt − φin )}
n=1 n=1
(a) The active power ’P’ is given by,
1 T
Z
P = p(t) dt
T 0
= Pdc + V1 I1 cos φ1 + V2 I2 cos φ2 + ...... + Vn In cos φn (1.58)
= Pdc + P1 + PH
where,
φn = φin − φvn
Pdc = Vdc Idc
P1 = V1 I1 cos φ1
X∞
PH = Vn In cos φn
n=2
Here, Vdc = 0, V1 = 230 V, φv1 = 0, V3 = 50 V, φv3 = 30◦ , Idc = 2 A, I1 = 10 A, φi1 = 30◦ ,
I3 = 5 A, φi3 = 60◦ . Therefore, φ1 = φi1 − φv1 = 30◦ and φ3 = φi3 − φv3 = 30◦ .
Substituting these values in (1.58), the above equation gives,
P = 0 × 2 + 230 × 10 × cos 30◦ + 50 × 5 × cos 30◦ = 2208.36 W.

(b). The reactive power (Q) is given by,
X ∞
Q = Vn In sin φn
n=1
= V1 I1 sin φ1 + V2 I2 sin φ2 + .....Vn In sin φn
= 230 × 10 × sin 30◦ + 50 × 5 × sin 30◦ = 1275 VAr.
(c). The Apparent power S is given by,
S = Vrms Irms
q q
2 2 2 2
= Vdc + V1 + V2 + ....Vn2 Idc + I12 + I22 + .....In2
q q
= Vdc2 + V12 + VH2 Idc
2
+ I12 + IH2
where,
q
VH = V22 + V32 + ....Vn2
q
IH = I22 + I32 + .....In2
21
Substituting the values of voltage and current components, the apparent power S is computed as
following.
√ √
S = 0 + 2302 + 502 22 + 102 + 52
= 235.37 × 11.357 = 2673.31 VA
(d). The power factor is given by
P 2208.36
pf = = = 0.8261 lag
S 2673.31
Example 1.4 Consider following system with distorted supply voltages,
∞ √
X 2Vn
v(t) = Vdc + sin(nωt − φvn )
n=1
n2
√
with Vdc = 10 V, Vn /n2 = 230 2/n2 and φvn = 0 f or n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .
The voltage source supplies a nonlinear current of,
∞ √
X 2In
i(t) = Idc + sin(nωt − φin ).
n=1
n
with Idc = 2 A, In = 20/n A and φin = n × 30o for n = 1, 3, 5, 7, . . .
Compute the following.
1. Plot instantaneous power p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc , and prest (t).
2. Compute P, P1 , PH (= P3 + P5 + P7 + . . .).
3. Compute Q, Q1 , QH (= Q3 + Q5 + Q7 + . . .).
4. Compute S, S1 , SH , N, D.
5. Comment upon each result.
Solution: Instantaneous power is given as following.
22
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
p(t) = v(t) i(t) = 10 + 2
sin(nωt) 2+ sin n(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
∞ √ ∞ √
X 20 2 0
X 230 2
= |{z}
20 + 10 sin n(ωt − 30 ) + 2 sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n2
I
| {z } | {z }
II III
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin(nωt) sin n(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
| {z }
IV
∞ √ ∞ √
X 200 2 X 460 2
= |{z}
20 + sin n(ωt − 300 ) + 2
sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n
I
| {z } | {z }
II III
∞
X 4600
+ 3
(cos(30o n)(1 − cos 2nωt) − sin (2nωt) sin(30o n))
n=1,3,5
n
| {z }
IV A
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin nωt sin h(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n h=1,3,5;h6=n
h
| {z }
IV B
1. Computation of p(t), pactive (t), preactive (t), Pdc ., and prest (t)
pdc−dc (t) = 20 W
∞
X 4600
pactive (t) = 3
cos n300 (1 − cos 2nωt)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
X 4600
preactive (t) = − 3
sin(n300 ) sin(2nωt)
n=1,3,5
n
∞ √ ∞ √
X 200 2 0
X 460 2
prest (t) = sin n(ωt − 30 ) + sin(nωt)
n=1,3,5
n n=1,3,5
n2
∞ √ ! ∞ √ !
X 230 2 X 20 2
+ 2
sin nωt sin h(ωt − 300 )
n=1,3,5
n h=1,3,5;h6=n
h
23
2. Computation of P, P1 , PH
Z T
1
P = p(t)dt
T 0
∞
X 4600
= 20 + 3
cos(30o n)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
X 4600
= 20 + 4600 cos 300 + 3
cos(30o n)
n=3,5,7...
n
= 20 + 3983.71 + (−43.4841)
= Pdc + P1 + PH
Thus,
Active power contributed by dc components of voltage and current, Pdc = 20 W.
Active power contributed by fundamental frequency components of voltage and current, P1 =

3983.71 W.
Active power contributed by harmonic frequency components of voltage and current, PH = −43.4841
W.
3. Computation of Q, Q1 , QH
∞
X 4600
Q = 3
sin(30o n)
n=1,3,5
n
∞
0
X 4600
= 4600 sin 30 + 3
sin(30o n)
n=3,5,7...
n
= 2300 + 175.7548 VArs
= Q1 + QH
P∞ 3 o
The above implies that, Q1 = 4600 VArs and QH = n=3,5,7... (4600/n ) sin(30 n) = 175.7548
VArs.
4. Computation of Apparent Powers and Distortion Powers
24
The apparent power S is expressed as following.
q
Vrms = Vdc2 + V12 + V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
p
= 102 + 2302 + (230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
= 231.87 V (up to n = 9)
q
2
Irms = Idc + I12 + I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
p
= 22 + 202 + (20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
= 21.85 A (up to n = 9)
The apparent power, S = Vrms Irms = 231.87 × 21.85 = 5066.36 VA.

Fundamental apparent power, S1 = V1 x I1 = 4600 VA.
Apparent power contributed by harmonics SH = VH × IH
q
VH = V32 + V52 + V72 + V92 + ....
p
= (230/32 )2 + (230/52 )2 + (230/72 )2 + (230/92 )2 + ....
= 27.7 V (up to n = 9)
q
IH = I32 + I52 + I72 + I92 + ....
p
= (20/3)2 + (20/5)2 + (20/7)2 + (20/9)2 + ....
= 8.57 A (up to n = 9).
Therefore the harmonic apparent power, SH = VH × IH = 237.5 VA.

√ √
Non active power, N = pS 2 − P 2 = 50672 − √
3960.22 = 3160.8 VArs (up to n=9)
Distortion Power D = 2 2
S − P − Q = 2 50672 − 3960.22 − 2475.772 = 1965.163
VArs (up to n=9).
Displacement power factor (cos φ1 )

P1 3983.7
cos φ1 = = = 0.866 lagging
S1 (230)(20)
Power factor (cos φ)
P 3960.217
cos φ = = = 0.781 lagging
S 5067
The voltage, current, various powers and power factor are plotted in the Fig. 1.8, verifying
above values.
25
200
20
Voltage (v)
Current (A)
100
10
0
0
-100
-10
-200
-20
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) time (sec)
Inst. active power (W)

4000 4000
Inst. Power (W)
2000 3000
2000
0
1000
-2000
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Rest of inst. power (W)

Inst. reactive power
1000
2000
500
0
0
-500
-1000
-2000
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04 0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
time (sec) Non active power (VA) time (sec)
3000 1168
2500
1167
Avg. active power (W)
2000
Avg. reactive power (VAr)
Total apparent power (VA)

1166
1500
Distortion power (W)
1000 1165
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03 0.035 0.04
Fig. 1.8 Various powers
References
[1] IEEE Group, “IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quan-
tities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions,” 2000.
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, “New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697–703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, “A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 86–90, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, “A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568–577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, “A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523–527, 1992.
26
Chapter 2
THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS
COMPONENTS
(Lectures 9-18)
2.1 Three-phase Sinusoidal Balanced System

Usage of three-phase voltage supply is very common for generation, transmission and distribution
of bulk electrical power. Almost all industrial loads are supplied by three-phase power supply for
its advantages over single phase systems such as cost and efficiency for same amount of power us-
age. In principle, any number of phases can be used in polyphase electric system, but three-phase
system is simpler and giving all advantages of polyphase system is preferred. In previous section,
we have seen that instantaneous active power has a constant term V Icosφ as well pulsating term
V I cos(2ωt − φ). The pulsating term does not contribute to any real power and thus increases the
VA rating of the system.
In the following section, we shall study the various three-phase circuits such as balanced, un-
balanced, balanced and unbalanced harmonics and discuss their properties in details [1]–[5].
2.1.1 Balanced Three-phase Circuits
A balanced three-phase system is shown in Fig. 2.1 below.
Three-phase balanced system is expressed using following voltages and currents.

√
va (t) = 2V sin(ωt)
√
vb (t) = 2V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) (2.1)
√
vc (t) = 2V sin(ωt + 120◦ )
27
a a
b b
c c
Fig. 2.1 A three-phase balanced circuit
and
√
ia (t) = 2I sin(ωt)
√
ib (t) = 2I sin(ωt − 120◦ ) (2.2)
√
ic (t) = 2I sin(ωt + 120◦ )
In (2.1) and (2.2) subscripts a, b and c are used to denote three phases which are balanced. Balanced
three-phase means that the magnitude (V ) is same for all three phases and they have a phase shift
of −120o and 120o . The balanced three phase system has certain interesting properties. These will
be discussed in the following section.
2.1.2 Three Phase Instantaneous Active Power

Three phase instantaneous active power in three phase system is given by,
p3φ (t) = p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)

= pa + pb + pc (2.3)
In above equation, pa (t), pb (t) and pc (t) are expressed similar to single phase system done previ-
ously. These are given below.
pa (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos 2ωt} − V I sin φ sin 2ωt
pb (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos(2ωt − 120o )} − V I sin φ sin 2(ωt − 120o ) (2.4)
pc (t) = V I cos φ {1 − cos(2ωt + 120o )} − V I sin φ sin 2(ωt + 120o )
Adding three phase instantaneous powers given in (2.4), we get the three-phase instantaneous
power as below.
p(t) = 3 V I cos φ − V I cos φ{cos 2ωt + cos 2(ωt − 120o ) + cos 2(ωt + 120o )}
− V I sin φ{sin 2ωt + sin 2(ωt − 120o ) + sin 2(ωt + 120o )} (2.5)
Summation of terms in curly brackets is always equal to zero. Hence,
p3φ (t) = p(t) = 3V I cos φ. (2.6)
28
This is quite interesting result. It indicates for balanced three-phase system, the total instantaeous
power is equal to the real power or average active power (P ), which is constant. This is the reason
we use 3-phase system. It does not involve the pulsating or oscillating components of power as in
case of single phase systems. Thus it ensures less VA rating for same amount of power transfer.
Here, total three-phase reactive power can be defined as sum of maximum value of preactive (t)
terms in (2.4). Thus,
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 3V I sin φ. (2.7)
Is there any attempt to define instantaneous reactive power q(t) similar to p(t) such that Q is
average value of that term q(t)?. H. Akagi et al. published paper [6], in which authors defined term
instantaneous reactive power. The definition was facilitated through αβ0 transformation. Briefly
it is described in the next subsection.
2.1.3 Three Phase Instantatneous Reactive Power

H.Akagi et.al. [6] attempted to define instantaneous reactive power(q(t)) using αβ0 transforma-
tion. This transformation is described below.
The abc coordinates and their equivalent αβ0 coordinates are shown in the Fig. 2.2 below.

vc
-j c
- c /2
- b /2 60
o O va 
vb j b
j
Fig. 2.2 A abc to αβ0 transformation
Resolving a, b, c quantities along the αβ axis we have,

r
2 vb vc
vα = (va − − ) (2.8)
3 2 2
r √
2 3
vβ = (vb − vc ) (2.9)
3 2
q
Here, 23 is a scaling factor, which ensures power invariant transformation. Along with that, we
define zero sequence voltage as,
29
r r
2 1
v0 = (va + vb + vc ) (2.10)
3 2
Based on Eqns.(4.60)-(2.10) we can write the above equations as follows.

v0 (t)
 r  √1 √1 √1

va (t)

2 2 −1
2
−1
2
 vα (t)  = 1 √2 2
√
  vb (t)  (2.11)
vβ (t) 3 3 − 3 vc (t)
0 2 2
   
v0 va
 vα  = [Aoαβ ]  vb 
vβ vc
The above is known as Clarke-Concordia transformation. Thus, va , vb and vc can also be expressed
in terms of v0 , vα and vβ by pre-multiplying (2.11) by matrix [A0αβ ]−1 , we have
   
va v0
 vb  = [A0αβ ]−1  vα 
vc vβ
It will be interesting to learn that
r  1 −1
√ √1 √1
2  2 −12 −12 
[A0αβ ]−1 = [Aabc ] =  1 √2 2
√
3 3 − 3
0 2
  1  2
r √
2
1 0
 2  √1 −1 √3 
[A0αβ ]−1 =   2 2 2
√
T
 = [A0αβ ] = [Aabc ] (2.12)
3 1 −1 − 3
√
2 2 2
Similarly, we can write down instantaneous symmetrical transformation for currents, which is
given below.
 r  1
√1 √1
  
i0 √ ia
2 2 2 2
 iα  =  1 −1 −1   ib 
√2 2
√
(2.13)
iβ 3 3 − 3 ic
0 2 2
Now based on ’0αβ’ transformation, the instantaneous active and reactive powers are defined as
follows. The three-phase instantaneous power p(t) is expressed as the dot product of 0αβ compo-
nents of voltage and currents such as given below.
30
p(t) = vα iα + vβ iβ + v0 i0
" √ √
2 vb vc ib ic 3 3
= va − − ia − − − (vb − vc ) (ib − ic )
3 2 2 2 2 2 2

1 1
+ √ (va + vb + vc ) √ (ia + ib + ic )
2 2
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic (2.14)
Now what about instantaneous reactive power? Is there any concept defining instantaneous reactive
power? In 1983-84,authors H.akagi have attempted to define instantaneous reactive power using
stationary αβ0 frame, as illustrated below. In [6], the instantaneous reactive power q(t) is defines
as the cross product of two mutual perpendicular quantities, such as given below.
q(t) = vα × iβ + vβ × iα
q(t) = vα iβ − vβ iα
" √ √ #
2 vb vc 3 3 ib ic
= va − − (ib − ic ) − (vb − vc ) ia − −
3 2 2 2 2 2 2
√ h
2 3 vb vc vb vc vb vc vb vc i
= (−vb + vc ) ia + va − − + − ib + −va + + + − ic
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
= − √ [(vb − vc ) ia + (vc − va ) ib + (va − vb ) ic ]
3 √
= − [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ] / 3 (2.15)
This is also equal to the following.

1 ib ic ib ic ib ic ib ic
q(t) = √ (ib − ic ) va + − + − ia + + vb + − + + ia − − vc
3 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
1
= √ [(ib − ic ) va + (ic − ia ) vb + (ia − ib ) vc ] (2.16)
3
2.1.4 Power Invariance in abc and αβ0 Coordinates
As a check for power invariance, we shall compute the energy content of voltage signals in two
transformations. The energy associated with the abc0 system is given by (va2 + vb2 + vc2 ) and the
energy associated with the αβ0 components is given by v02 + vα2 + vβ2 . The two energies must
be equal to ensure power invariance in two transformations. It is proved below. Using, (2.11) and
31
squares of the respective components, we have the following.
"r #2
2 vb vc
vα2 = va − −
3 2 2
vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc

2
vα2 = 2
v + + − + −
3 a 4 4 2 4 2
2 2
2 2 vb v 2va vb vb vc 2va vc
= va + + c − + − (2.17)
3 6 6 3 3 3
Similary we can find out square of vβ term as given below.
"√ r #2
3 2
vβ2 = (vb − vc )
2 3
1 2
vb + vc2 − 2vb vc

=
2
v2 v2
= b + c − vb vc (2.18)
2 2
Adding (2.17) and (2.18), we find that,
2 2
vα2 + vβ2 = va + vb2 + vc2 − vc vb − vb vc − vc va

3 2
va vb2 vc2 2va vb 2vb vc 2va vc

2 2 2

= va + vb + vc − + + + + +
3 3 3 3 3 3
1
= va2 + vb2 + vc2 − (va + vb + vc )2

3
2
2 2 2
1
= va + vb + vc − √ (va + vb + vc ) (2.19)
3
Since v0 = √1 (va + vb + vc ), the above equation, (2.19) can be written as,

3
vα2 + vβ2 + v02 = va2 + vb2 + vc2 . (2.20)
From the above it is implies that the energy associated with the two systems remain same instant to
instant basis. In general the instantaneous power p(t) remain same in both transformations. This
is proved below.
32
Using (2.14), following can be written.
p(t) = vα iα + vβ iβ + vo io
 T  
v0 i0
p(t) =  vα   iα 
vβ iβ
  T   
va ia
= [Aabc ]  vb  [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 T  
va ia
=  vb  [Aabc ]T [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 T  
va ia
=  vb  [Aabc ]−1 [Aabc ]  ib 
vc ic
 
ia
= va vb vc  ib 
ic
= va ia + vb ib + vc ic (2.21)
From (2.12), [Aabc ] and its inverse are as following.

 
r √1 √1 √1
2 2 2
2 −1 −1
[Aabc ] =  1 √ √ 
3 √2 √2

3 − 3
0 2 2
and (2.22)
√1
 
r 2
1 0
√
−1 T 2 √1 −1
√ 3
[Aabc ] = [Aabc ] =

2 2 2
√
3
 
√1 −1
√ − 3
2 2 2
2.2 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits
In the previous section instantaneous active and reactive powers were defined using αβ0 trans-
formation. In this section we shall study these powers for various three-phase circuits such as
three-phase balanced, three-phase unbalanced, balanced three-phase with harmonics and unbal-
anced three-phase with harmonics. Each case will be considered and analyzed.
33
2.2.1 Three-Phase Balance System
For three-phase balanced system, three-phase voltages have been expressed by equation (2.1). For
these phase voltages, the line to line voltages are given as below.
√ √
vab = 3 2v sin (ωt + 30◦ )
√ √
vbc = 3 2v sin(ωt − 90◦ )
√ √
vca = 3 2v sin (ωt + 150◦ ) (2.23)
The above relationship between phase and line to line voltages is also illustrated in Fig. 2.3. For
Vc Vb
o
30
3 V

V ab
Va  V0o
Vb
Fig. 2.3 Relationship between line-to-line and phase voltage
the above three-phase system, the instantaneous power p(t) can be expressed using (2.21) and it is
equal to,
p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= vα iα + vβ iβ + v0 i0
= 3 V I cosφ (2.24)
The instantaneous reactive power q(t) is as following.

√ √ √
q(t) = [ 3 2V sin (ωt − 90o ) 2I sin (ωt − φ)
√ √ √
+ 3 2V sin (ωt + 150o ) 2I sin (ωt − 120o − φ)
√ √ √ √
+ 3 2V sin (ωt + 30o ) 2I sin (ωt + 120◦ − φ)]/ 3
√
= − 3V I[cos (90◦ − φ) − cos (2ωt − 90o − φ)
+ cos (90o − φ) − cos (2ωt − 30o − φ)
√
+ cos (90o − φ) − cos (2ωt + 150o − φ)]/ 3
√
= − 3V I[3 sin φ − cos (2ωt − φ + 30o ) − cos (2ωt − φ + 30o + 120o )
√
− cos (2ωt − φ + 30o − 120o )]/ 3
= −V I [3 sin φ − 0]
q(t) = −3V I sin φ (2.25)
34
The above value of instantaneous reactive power is same as defined by Budeanu’s [1] and is given
in equation (2.7). Thus, instantaneous reactive power given in (2.15) matches with the conven-
tional definition of reactive power defined in (2.7). However the time varying part of second terms
of each phase in (2.4) has no relevance with the definition given in (2.15).
Another interpretation of line to line voltages in (2.15) is that the voltages vab , vbc and vca have
o
90 phase shift with respect to voltages vc , va and vb respectively. These are expressed as below.
√
vab = 3vc ∠ − 90o
√
vbc = 3va ∠ − 90o (2.26)
√ o
vca = 3vb ∠ − 90
In above equation, vc ∠ − 90o implies that vc ∠ − 90o lags vc by 90o . Analyzing each term in
(2.15) contributes to,
√
vbc ia = 3va ∠ − 90◦ . ia
√ √ √
= 3 2V sin (ωt − 90◦ ) . 2I sin (ωt − φ)
√
= 3V I 2 sin (ωt − 90◦ ) . sin (ωt − φ)
√
= 3V I [cos (90◦ − φ) − cos (2ωt − 90◦ − φ)]
√
= 3V I [sin φ − cos {90◦ + (2ωt − φ)}]
√
= 3V I [sin φ + sin (2ωt − φ)]
√
= 3V I [sin φ + sin 2ωt cos φ − cos 2ωt sin φ]
√
vbc ia / 3 = V I [sin φ (1 − cos 2ωt) + cos φ sin 2ωt]
Similarly,
√

2π
vca ib / 3 = V I sin φ 1 − cos 2 ωt −
3

2π
+V I cos φ. sin 2 ωt −
3
√

2π
vab ic / 3 = V I sin φ 1 − cos 2 ωt +
3

2π
+V I cos φ. sin 2 ωt + (2.27)
3
Thus, we see that the role of the coefficients of sin φ and cos φ have reversed. Now if we take
average value of (2.27), it is not equal to zero but V I sin φ in each phase. Thus three-phase reactive
power will be 3V I sin φ. The maximum value of second term in (2.27) represents active average
power i.e., V I cos φ. However, this is not normally convention about the notation of the powers.
But, important contribution of this definition is that average reactive power could be defined as the
average value of terms in (2.27).
2.2.2 Three-Phase Unbalance System

Three-phase unbalance system is not uncommon in power system. Three-phase unbalance may
result from single-phasing, faults, different loads in three phases. To study three-phase system
35
with fundamental unbalance, the voltages and currents are expressed as following.
√
va = 2Va sin (ωt − φva )
√
vb = 2Vb sin (ωt − 120o − φvb ) (2.28)
√
vc = 2Vc sin (ωt + 120o − φvc )
and,
√
ia = 2Ia sin (ωt − φia )
√
ib = 2Ib sin (ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.29)
√
ic = 2Ic sin (ωt + 120o − φic )
For the above system, the three-phase instantaneous power is given by,
p3φ (t) = p(t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
√
= 2Va sin (ωt − φva ) sin (ωt − φia )
√ √
+ 2Vb sin (ωt − 120o − φvb ) 2Ib sin (ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.30)
√ √
+ 2Vc sin (ωt + 120o − φvc ) 2Ic sin (ωt + 120o − φic )
Simplifying above expression we get,
p3φ (t) = Va Ia cos φa {1 − cos (2ωt − 2φva )}
| {z }
pa,active
−V I sin φa sin (2ωt − 2φva )
| a a {z }
pa,reactive
+Vb Ib cos φb [1 − cos {2 (ωt − 120◦ ) − 2φvb }]
−Vb Ib sin φb sin {2 (ωt − 120◦ ) − 2φvb }
+Vc Ic cos φc [1 − cos {2 (ωt + 120◦ ) − 2φvc }]
−Vc Ic sin φc sin {2 (ωt + 120◦ ) − 2φvc } (2.31)
where φa = (φia − φva )
Therefore,
p3φ (t) = pa,active + pb,active + pc,active + pa,reactive + pb,reactive + pc,reactive
= pa + pb + pc + pea + peb + pec (2.32)
where,
pa = Pa = Va Ia cos φa
pb = Pb = Vb Ib cos φb (2.33)
pc = Pc = Vc Ic cos φc
and
pea = −Va Ia cos (2 ωt − φa − 2 φva )
peb = −Vb Ib cos (2 ωt − 240o − φb − 2 φvb ) (2.34)
pec = −Vc Ic cos (2ωt + 240 − φc − 2 φvc )
36
Also it is noted that,
pa + pb + p c = va ia + vb ib + vc ic = P (2.35)
and,
pea + peb + pec = −Va Ia cos(2ωt − φva − φib )
−Vb Ib cos {2(ωt − 120) − φvb − φib }
−Vc Ic cos {2(ωt + 120) − φvc − φic }
6= 0
This implies that, we no longer get advantage of getting constant power, 3V I cos φ from interaction
of three-phase voltages and currents. Now, let us analyze three phase instantaneous reactive power
q(t) as per definition given in (2.15).
1
q(t) = − √ (vb − vc )ia + (vc − va )ib + (va − vb )ic
3
2 h
= − √ {Vb sin(ωt − 120o − φvb ) − Vc sin(ωt + 120o − φvc )} Ia sin(ωt − φia )
3
√
+ {Vc sin(ωt + 120o − φvc ) − Va sin(ωt − φva )} 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φib ) (2.36)
√ i
+{Va sin(ωt − 120o − φva ) − Vb sin(ωt − 120o − φvb )} 2Ic sin(ωt + 120o − φic )
From the above,

√ h
3q(t) = − Vb Ia {cos(φia − 120o − φvb ) − cos(2ωt − 120o − φia − φvb )}
−Vc Ia {cos(φia + 120o − φvc ) − cos(2ωt + 120o − φia − φvc )}
+Vc Ib {cos(φib + 240o − φvc ) − cos(2ωt − φib − φvc )} (2.37)
−Va Ib {cos(φib − 120o − φva ) − cos(2ωt − 120o − φva − φib )}
+Va Ic {cos(φic − 120o − φva ) − cos(2ωt + 120o − φva − φic )}
i
−Vb Ic {cos(φic − 240o − φvb ) − cos(2ωt − φic − φvb )}
Now looking this expression,we can say that
Z T
1 1 h
q(t)dt = − √ Vb Ia cos(φia − φvb − 120o )
T 0 3
−Vc Ia cos(φia − φvc + 120o )
+Vc Ib cos(φib + 240o − φvc )
−Va Ib cos(φib − 120o − φva )
+Va Ic cos(φic − 120o − φva )
i
o
−Vb Ic cos(φic − 240 − φvb )
= q a (t) + q b (t) + q c (t)
6 = Va Ia cos φa + Vb Ib cos φb + Vc Ic cos φc (2.38)
37
Hence the definition of instantaneous reactive power does not match to that defined by Budeanue’s
reactive power [1] for three-phase unbalanced circuit. If only voltages or currents are distorted, the
above holds true as given below. Let us consider that only currents are unbalanced, then
√
va (t) = 2V sin(ωt)
√
vb (t) = 2V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) (2.39)
√ ◦
vc (t) = 2V sin(ωt + 120 )
and
√
ia (t) = 2Ia sin(ωt − φa )
√
ib (t) = 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φb ) (2.40)
√ o
ic (t) = 2Ic sin(ωt + 120 − φc )
And the instantaneous reactive power is given by,
q(t) = − √13 [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ]
√ √ √
= − √13 [ 3 va ∠−π/2 ia + 3 vb ∠ − π/2 ib + 3 vc ∠ − π/2 ic ]
√ √
= −[√ 2V sin(ωt − π/2) 2Ia sin(ωt √ − φia )
+√2V sin(ωt − 120 − π/2)√ 2Ib sin(ωt − 120o − φib )
o
+ 2V sin(ωt + 120o + π/2) 2Ic sin(ωt + 120o − φic )]

= −[V Ia cos(π/2 − φia ) − cos {π/2 − (2ωt − φia )}
+V Ib cos(π/2 − φib ) − cos(2ωt − 240o − π/2 − φib )
+V Ic cos(π/2 − φic ) − cos(2ωt + 240o − π/2 − φic )]
= −[(V Ia sin φia + V Ib sin φib + V Ic sin φic )
+V Ia sin(2ωt − φia ) + V Ib sin(2ωt − 240o − φib ) + V Ic sin(2ωt + 240o − φic )]
Thus,
1 T
Z
Q= q(t)dt = −(V Ia sin φia + V Ib sin φib + V Ic sin φic ) (2.41)
T 0
Which is similar to Budeanu’s reactive power.
The oscillating term of q(t) which is equal to qe(t) is given below.
qe(t) = V Ia sin(2ωt − φia ) + V Ib sin(2ωt − 240o − φib ) + V Ic sin(2ωt + 240o − φic ) (2.42)
which is not similar to what is being defined as reactive component of power in (2.4).
2.3 Symmetrical components

In the previous section, the fundamental unbalance in three phase voltage and currents have been
considered. Ideal power systems are not designed for unbalance quantities as it makes power sys-
tem components over rated and inefficient. Thus, to understand unbalance three-phase systems,
38
a concept of symmetrical components introduced by C. L. Fortescue, will be discussed. In 1918,
C. L Fortescue, wrote a paper [7] presenting that an unbalanced system of n-related phasors can
be resolved into n system of balanced phasors, called the symmetrical components of the original
phasors. The n phasors of each set of components are equal in length and the angles. Although,
the method is applicable to any unbalanced polyphase system, we shall discuss about three phase
systems.
For the discussion of symmetrical components, a complex operator denoted as a is defined as,
a = 1∠120o = ej2π/3 = cos 2π/3 + j sin 2π/3

√
= −1/2 + j 3/2
a2 = 1∠240o = 1∠ − 120o = ej4π/3 = e−j2π/3 = cos 4π/3 + j sin 4π/3
√
= −1/2 − j 3/2
a3 = 1∠360o = ej2π = 1
Also note an interesting property relating a, a2 and a3 ,
a + a2 + a3 = 0. (2.43)
a  1120
o
o a  1o
3 o
a 2  1  120o
Fig. 2.4 Phasor representation of a, a2 and a3
These quantities i.e., a, a2 and a3 = 1 also represent three phasors which are shifted by 120o
from each other. This is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Knowing the above and using Fortescue theorem, three unbalanced phasor of a three phase un-
balanced system can be resolved into three balanced system phasors.
1. Positive sequence components are the composed of three phasors equal in magnitude and dis-
placed from each other by 120 degrees in phase and having a phase sequence of original phasors.
39
2. Negative sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude, phase shift of
−120o and 120o between phases and with phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors.
3. Zero sequence components consist of three phasors equal in magnitude with zero phase shift
from each other.
Positive sequence components: V a1 , V b1 , V c1

Negative sequence components: V a2 , V b2 , V c2
Zero sequence components: V a0 , V b0 , V c0
Thus we can write,
V a = V a1 + V a2 + V a0
V b = V b1 + V b2 + V b0 (2.44)
V c = V c1 + V c2 + V c0
Graphically, these are represented in Fig. 2.5. Thus if we add the sequence components of each
phase vectorially, we shall get V a , V b and V s as per (2.44). This is illustrated in Fig. 2.6.
V c1
Vb 2
Va0
Vb 0
V a1 Vc0
Va2
Vc2
(a) (b) (c)
V b1
Fig. 2.5 Sequence components (a) positive sequence (b) negative sequence (c) zero sequence
Now knowing all these preliminaries, we can proceed as following. Let V a1 be a reference phasor,
therefore V b1 and V c1 can be written as,
V b1 = a2 V a1 = V a1 ∠ − 120◦
V c1 = aV a1 = V a1 ∠120◦ (2.45)
Similarly V b2 and V c2 can be expressed in terms of V a2 as following.
V c2 = a2 V b2 = V a2 ∠ − 120◦
V b2 = aV a2 = V a2 ∠120◦ (2.46)
40
Vc2
Vc0
V c1
Vc V a1 Va2
Va0
o Va
V b1
Vb 2 Vb
Vb 0
Fig. 2.6 Unbalanced phasors as vector sum of positive, negative and zero sequence phasors
The zero sequence components have same magnitude and phase angle and therefore these are
expressed as,
V b0 = V c0 = V a0 (2.47)
Using (2.45), (2.46) and (2.47) we have,
V a = V a0 + V a1 + V a2 (2.48)
V b = V b0 + V b1 + V b2
= V a0 + a2 V a1 + a V a2 (2.49)
V c = V c0 + V c1 + V c2
= V a0 + a V a1 + a2 V a2 (2.50)
Equations (2.48)-(2.50) can be written in matrix form as given below.

    
Va 1 1 1 V ao
 V b  = 1 a2 a  V a1  (2.51)
Vc 1 a a2 V a2
 
1 1 1
Premultipling by inverse of matrix [Aabc ] which is equal to 1 a2 a , the symmetrical com-
1 a a2
41
ponents are expressed as given below.
    
V ao 1 1 1 Va
V a1  = 1 1 a a2   V b  (2.52)
3 1 a2 a
V a2 Vc
 
Va
= [A012 ] V b 

Vc
The symmetrical transformation matrices Aabc and A012 are related as following.
[A012 ] = [Aabc ]−1 = 3 [Aabc ]∗ (2.53)
From (2.52), the symmetrical components can therefore be expressed as phase voltages as follow-
ing.
1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
1
V a1 = (V a + aV b + a2 V c ) (2.54)
3
1
V a2 = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
The other component i.e., V bo , V co , V b1 , V c1 , V b2 , V c2 can be found from V ao , V a1 , V a2 . It should
be noted that quantity V ao does not exist if sum of unbalanced phasors is zero. Since sum of line
to line voltage phasors i.e., V ab + V bc + V ca = (V a − V b ) + (V b − V c ) + (V c − V a ) is always
zero, hence zero sequence voltage components are never present in the line voltage, regardless of
amount of unbalance. The sum of the three phase voltages, i.e., V a + V b + V c is not necessarily
zero and hence zero sequence voltage exists.
Similarly sequence components can be written for currents. Denoting three phase currents by
I a , I b , and I c respectively, the sequence components in matrix form are given below.
    
I ao 1 1 1 Ia
I a1  = 1 1 a a2   I b  (2.55)
3 1 a2 a
I a2 Ic
Thus,
1
I ao = (I a + I b + I c )
3
1
I a1 = (I a + aI b + a2 I c )
3
1
I a2 = (I a + a2 I b + aI c )
3
42
In three-phase, 4-wire system, the sum of line currents is equal to the neutral current (I n ). thus,
1
I n = (I a + I b + I c )
3
= 3I a0 (2.56)
This current flows in the fourth wire called neutral wire. Again if neutral wire is absent, then zero
sequence current is always equal to zero irrespective of unbalance in phase currents. This is illus-
trated below.
a a
a a
b b
b b
c c
c c
(a) (b)
Fig. 2.7 Various three phase systems (a) Three-phase three-wire system (b) Three-phase four-wire system
In 2.7(b), in may or may not be zero. However neutral voltage (VN n ) between the system and
load neutral is always equal to zero. In 2.7(a), there is no neutral current due to the absence of the
neutral wire. But in this configuration the neutral voltage, VN n , may or may not be equal to zero
depending upon the unbalance in the system.
Example 2.1 Consider a balanced 3 φ system with following phase voltages.
V a = 100∠0o
V b = 100∠ − 120o
V c = 100∠120o
Using (2.54), it can be easily seen that the zero and negative sequence components are equal to
zero, indicating that there is no unbalance in voltages. However the converse may not apply.
Now consider the following phase voltages. Compute the sequence components and show that the
energy associated with the voltage components in both system remain constant.
V a = 100∠0o
V b = 150∠ − 100o
V c = 75∠100o
43
Solution Using (2.54), sequence components are computed. These are:
1
V a0 = (V a + V b + V c )
3
= 31.91∠ − 50.48o V
1
V a1 = (V a + aV b + a2 V c )
3
= 104.16∠4.7o V
1
V a2 = (V a + a2 V b + aV c )
3
= 28.96∠146.33o V
If you find energy content of two frames that is abc and 012 system, it is found to be constant.
Eabc = k [Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ] = k.(381.25)
2 2 2
E012 = k 3[Va0 + Va1 + Va2 ] = k.(381.25)
Thus, Eabc = E012 with k some constant of proportionality.
The invariance of power can be further shown by following proof.

 ∗
Ia
S v = P + jQ = [ V a V b V c ] I b 
Ic
 T  ∗
Va Ia
= Vb
   Ib
Vc Ic
  T   ∗
V a0 I a0
= [Aabc ] V a1
    [Aabc ] I a1 

V a2 I a2
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
=  V a1  [Aabc ]T [Aabc ]∗  I a1  (2.57)
V a2 I a2
The term S v is referred as vector or geometric apparent power. The difference between will be
given in the following. The transformation matrix [Aabc ] has following properties.
1
[Aabc ]−1 = [Aabc ]T and (2.58)
3
[Aabc ]∗ = [Aabc ]
44
Therefore using (2.58), (2.57) can be written as the following.
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
S v = P + jQ = V a1  3[I]I a1 
V a2 I a2
 T  ∗
V a0 I a0
= 3 V a1
  I a1 
V a2 I a2
∗ ∗ ∗
S v = P + jQ = V a I a + V b I b + V c I c
∗ ∗ ∗
= 3 [V a0 I a0 + V a1 I a1 + V a2 I a2 ] (2.59)
Equation (2.59) indicates that power invariance holds true in both abc and 012 components. But,
this is true on phasor basis. Would it be true on the time basis? In this context, concept of instanta-
neous symmetrical components will be discussed in the latter section. The equation (2.59) further
implies that,
S v = P + jQ = 3 [ (Va0 Ia0 cos φa0 + Va1 Ia1 cos φa1 + Va2 Ia2 cos φa2 )
+j(Va0 Ia0 sin φa0 + Va1 Ia1 sin φa1 + Va2 Ia2 sin φa2 ) ] (2.60)
The power terms in (2.60) accordingly form positive sequence, negative sequence and zero se-
quence powers denoted as following. The positive sequence power is given as,
P + = Va1 Ia1 cos φa1 + Vb1 Ib1 cos φb1 + Vc1 Ic1 cos φc1
= 3Va1 Ia1 cos φa1 . (2.61)
Negative sequence power is expressed as,
P − = 3Va2 Ia2 cos φa2 . (2.62)
The zero sequence power is
P 0 = 3Va0 Ia0 cos φa0 . (2.63)
Similarly, sequence reactive power are denoted by the following expressions.
Q+ = 3Va1 Ia1 sin φa1

Q− = 3Va2 Ia2 sin φa2
Q0 = 3Va0 Ia0 sin φa0 (2.64)
Thus, following holds true for active and reactive powers.

P = Pa + Pb + Pc = P0 + P1 + P2
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = Q0 + Q1 + Q2 (2.65)
45
Here, positive sequence, negative sequence and zero sequence apparent powers are denoted as the
following.
+
p
S + = |S | = P +2 + Q+2 = 3Va1 Ia1
+
p
S − = |S | = P −2 + Q−2 = 3Va2 Ia2
+
p
S 0 = |S | = P 02 + Q02 = 3Va0 Ia0 (2.66)
The scalar value of vector apparent power (S v ) is given as following.

0 + −
Sv = |S a + S b + S c | = |S + S + S |
= |(Pa + Pb + Pc ) + j(Qa + Qb + Qc )| (2.67)
p
= P 2 + Q2
Similarly, arithematic apparent power (S A ) is defined as the algebraic sum of each phase or se-
quence apparent power, i.e.,
SA = |S a | + |S b | + |S c |
= |Pa + jQa | + |Pb + jQb | + |Pc + jQc | (2.68)
p q p
= Pa2 + Q2a + Pb2 + Q2b + Pc2 + Q2c
In terms of sequence components apparent power,

0 + −
SA = |S | + |S | + |S |
= |P 0 + jQ0 | + |P + + jQ+ | + |P − + jQ− | (2.69)
q q q
2 2
= P + Q + P + Q + P − 2 + Q− 2
0 0 + 2 + 2
Based on these two definitions of the apparent powers, the power factors are defined as the follow-
ing.
P
Vector apparent power = pfv = (2.70)
Sv
P
Arithematic apparent power = pfA = (2.71)
SA
46
Example 2.2 Consider a 3-phase 4 wire system supplying resistive load, shown in Fig. 2.8
below. Determine power consumed by the load and feeder losses.
r jx a
a'
Ia R
r jx Va
' b
Ib
r jx Vb c
c'
Ic
r jx Vc
'
n
n
In
Fig. 2.8 A three-phase unbalanced load
√
( 3V )2 3V 2
Power dissipated by the load = =
√ R R
3V Va−Vb
The current flowing in the line = =| |
R R
and I b = −I a
√ !2 √ !2
3V 3V
Therefore losses in the feeder = ×r+ ×r
R R
r 3 V 2
=2
R R
Now, consider another example of a 3 phase system supplying 3-phase load, consisting of three
resistors (R) in star as shown in the Fig. 2.9. Let us find out above parameters.
2
V 3V 2
Power supplied to load = 3 ×R=
R R
2
r 3V 2

V
Losses in the feeder = 3 ×r =
R R R
Thus, it is interesting to see that power dissipated in the unbalanced system is twice the power loss
in balanced circuit. This leads to conclusion that power factor in phases would become less than
unity, while for balanced circuit, the power factor is unity. Power analysis of unbalanced circuit
shown in Fig. 2.8 is given below.
47
r jx a R
a'
Ia
r jx Va b R
b' n
Ib
r jx Vb c R
c'
Ic
r jx Vc
n'
In
Fig. 2.9 A three-phase balanced load
√
Va−Vb V ab 3 Va
The current in phase-a, I a = = = ∠30◦
R √ R R
3V
The current in phase-b, I b = −I a = ∠(30 − 180)o
√ R
3V
= ∠ − 150o
R
The current in phase-c and neutral are zero, I c = I n = 0
The phase voltages are: V a = V ∠0o , V b = V ∠ − 120o , V c = V ∠120o .
The phase active and reactive and apparent powers are as following.
√
◦ 3
Pa = Va Ia cos φa = V I cos 30 = VI
2
1
Qa = Va Ia sin φa = V I sin 30◦ = VI
2
Sa = Va Ia = V I
√
◦ 3
Pb = Vb Ib cos φb = V I cos(−30) = VI
2
1
Qb = Vb Ib sin φb = V I sin(−30)◦ = − V I
2
Sb = Vb Ib = V I
Pc = Qc = Sc = 0
√
3 √
Thus total active power P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 2 × V I = 3V I
√ 2
√ 3V
= 3V
R
3V 2
P =
R
Total reactive power Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0
48
p
The vector apparent power, Sv = P 2 + Q2 = 3 V 2 /R = P √
The arithmetic apparent power, SA = Sa + Sb + Sc = 2 V I = (2/ 3) P
From the values of Sv and SA , it implies that,

P P
pfv = = =1
Sv P
√
P P 3
pfA = = √ = = 0.866
SA (2/ 3) P 2
This difference between the arthmetic and vector power factors will be more due to the unbalances
in the load.
For balance load SA = SV , therefore, pfA = pfV = 1.0. Thus for three-phase electrical cir-
cuits, the following holds true.
pfA ≤ pfV (2.72)
2.3.1 Effective Apparent Power

For unbalanced three-phase circuits, their is one more definition of apparent power, which is known
as effective apparent power. The concept assumes that a virtual balanced circuit that has the same
power output and losses as the actual unbalanced circuit. This equivalence leads to the definition
of effective line current Ie and effective line to neutral voltage Ve .
The equivalent three-phase unbalanced and balanced circuits with same power output and losses
are shown in Fig. 2.10. From these figures, to maintain same losses,
r jx Va Ra r jx Re
a' a'
Ia Iea
r jx Vb Rb r jx Vea Re
'
b n b' n
Ib Ieb
r jx Vc Rc r jx Veb Re
c' c'
Ic Iec
r jx Vn r jx Vec
'
n n'
(a) In (b) In  0
Fig. 2.10 (a) Three-phase with unbalanced voltage and currents (b) Effective equivalent three-phase system
rIa2 + rIb2 + rIc2 + rIn2 = 3rIe2

The above equation implies the effective rms current in each phase is given as following.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )
Ie = (2.73)
3
49
For the original circuit shown in Fig. 2.8, the effective current Ie is computed using above equation
and is given below.
r
(Ia2 + Ib2 )
Ie = since, Ic = 0and In = 0
3 s
r √ 2
2 Ia2 2 ( 3V /R)
= =
3 3
√
2V
=
R
To account same power output in circuits shown above, the following identity is used with Re = R
in Fig. 2.10.
Va2 Vb2 Vc2 Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 3Ve2 9Ve2
+ + + = + (2.74)
R R R 3R R 3R
From (2.74), the effective rms value of voltage is expressed as,
r
1
Ve = {3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 } (2.75)
18
Assuming, 3 (Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) ≈ Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 , equation (2.75) can be written as,
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve = =V (2.76)
3
Therefore, the effective apparent power (Se ), using the values of Ve and Ie , is given by,
√
3 2V 2
Se = 3 Ve Ie =
R
Thus the effective power factor based on the definition of effective apparent power (Se ), for the
circuit shown in Fig. 2.8 is given by,
P 3 V 2 /R 1
pfe = = √ = √ = 0.707
S e 3 2 V /R2 2
Thus, we observe that,
SV ≤ SA ≤ Se ,
pfe (0.707) ≤ pfA (0.866) ≤ pfV (1.0).
When the system is balanced,
Va = Vb = Vc = Ven = Ve ,
Ia = Ib = Ic = Ie ,
In = 0,
and SV = SA = Se .
50
2.3.2 Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power
The unbalance power Su can be expressed in terms of fundamental positive sequence powers P + ,
Q+ and S + as given below.
q
Su = Se2 − S + 2 (2.77)
2 2 2
where S + = 3 V + I + and S + = P + + Q+ .
2.4 Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System
A three-phase nonsinusoidal system is represented by following set of equaitons.

∞
√ √ X
va (t) = 2V1 sin(wt − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(nwt − αn )
n=2
∞
√ ◦
√ X
vb (t) = 2V1 sin(wt − 120 − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(n(wt − 120◦ ) − αn ) (2.78)
n=2
∞
√ √ X
vc (t) = 2V1 sin(wt + 120◦ − α1 ) + 2 Vn sin(n(wt + 120◦ ) − αn )
n=2
Similarly, the line currents can be expressed as,

∞
√ √ X
ia (t) = 2I1 sin(wt − β1 ) + 2 In sin(nwt − βn )
n=2
∞
√ ◦
√ X
ib (t) = 2I1 sin(wt − 120 − β1 ) + 2 In sin(n(wt − 120◦ ) − βn ) (2.79)
n=2
∞
√ √ X
ic (t) = 2I1 sin(wt + 120◦ − β1 ) + 2 In sin(n(wt + 120◦ ) − βn )
n=2
In this case,
Sa = Sb = Sc ,
Pa = P b = Pc , (2.80)
Qa = Qb = Qc ,
Da = Db = Dc .
The above equation suggests that such a system has potential to produce significant additional
power loss in neutral wire and ground path.
51
2.4.1 Neutral Current
The neutral current for three-phase balanced system with harmonics can be given by the following
equation.
in = ia + ib + ic
√
= 2 [ Ia1 sin (wt − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt − β3 )
+Ia1 sin (wt − 120o − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt − 240o − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt − 360o − β3 )
+Ia1 sin (wt + 120o − β1 ) + Ia2 sin (2wt + 240o − β2 ) + Ia3 sin (3wt + 360o − β3 )
+Ia4 sin (4wt − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt − β6 )

+Ia4 sin (wt − 4 × 120o − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt − 5 × 120o − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt − 6 × 120o − β6 )
+Ia4 sin (wt + 4 × 120o − β4 ) + Ia5 sin (5wt + 5 × 120o − β5 ) + Ia6 sin (6wt + 6 × 120o − β6 )
(2.81)
+Ia7 sin (7wt − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt − β9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt − 7 × 120o − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt − 8 × 120o − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt − 9 × 120o − β9 )
+Ia7 sin (7wt + 7 × 120o − β7 ) + Ia8 sin (8wt + 8 × 120o − β8 ) + Ia9 sin (9wt + 9 × 120o − β9 ) ]
From the above equation, we observe that, the triplen harmonics are added up in the neutral current.
All other harmonics except triplen harmonics do not contribute to the neutral current, due to their
balanced nature. Therefore the neutral current is given by,
∞
X √
in = ia + ib + ic = 3 2In sin(nwt − βn ). (2.82)
n=3,6,..
The RMS value of the current in neutral wire is therefore given by,
" ∞ #1/2
X
In = 3 In2 . (2.83)
n=3,6,..
Due to dominant triplen harmonics in electrical loads such as UPS, rectifiers and other power
electronic based loads, the current rating of the neutral wire may be comparable to the phase wires.
It is worth to mention here that all harmonics in three-phase balanced systems can be catego-
rized in three groups i.e., (3n + 1), (3n + 2) and 3n (for n = 1, 2, 3, ...) called positive, nega-
tive and zero sequence harmonics respectively. This means that balanced fundamental, 4th, 7th
10th,... form positive sequence only. Balanced 2nd, 5th, 8th, 11th,... form negative sequence only
and the balanced triplen harmonics i.e. 3rd, 6th, 9th,... form zero sequence only. But in case of
unbalanced three-phase systems with harmonics, (3n + 1) harmonics may start forming negative
and zero sequence components. Similarly, (3n + 2) may start forming positive and zero sequence
components and 3n may start forming positive and negative sequence components.
2.4.2 Line to Line Voltage

For the three-phase balanced system with harmonics, the line-to-line voltages are denoted as vab ,
vbc and vca . Let us consider, line-to-line voltage between phases a and b. It is given as following.
52
vab (t) = va (t) − vb (t)
∞ ∞
X √ X √
= 2Vn sin(n ωt − αn ) − 2Vn sin(n (ωt − 120o ) − αn )
n=1 n=1
∞ ∞
X √ X √
= 2Vn sin(n ωt − αn ) − 2Vn sin((n ωt − αn ) − n × 120o )
n=1 n=1
∞
X √
= 2Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ) − sin(n ωt − αn ) cos(n × 120o )
n=1
+ cos(n ωt − αn ) sin(n × 120o )]
∞
X √
= 2Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ) − sin(n ωt − αn ) (−1/2)
n6=3,6,9...
√ i
+ cos(n ωt − αn ) (± 3/2)
∞
√ X h √ i
= 2 Vn (3/2) sin(n ωt − αn ) + (± 3/2) cos(n ωt − αn )
n6=3,6,9...
∞
√ √ X h√ i
= 3 2 Vn ( 3/2) sin(n ωt − αn ) + (±1/2) cos(n ωt − αn ) (2.84)
n6=3,6,9...
√
Let 3/2 = rn cos φn and ±1/2 = rn sin φn . This impliles rn = 1 and φn = ±30o . Using this,
equation (2.84) can be written as follows.
∞
√ √ X
vab (t) = 3 2 Vn [sin(n ωt − αn ± 30o )] . (2.85)
n6=3,6,9...
In equations (2.84) and (2.85), vab = 0 for n = 3, 6, 9, . . . and for n = 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, . . ., the ± sign
of 1/2 or sign of 300 changes alternatively. Thus it is observed that triplen harmonics are missing
in the line to line voltages, inspite of their presence in phase voltages for balanced three-phase
system with harmonics. Thus the following identity hold true for this system,
√
VLL ≤ 3 VLn (2.86)
Above equation further implies that,
√
3 VLL I ≤ 3 VLn I. (2.87)
In above equation, I refers the rms value of the phase current. For above case, Ia = Ib = Ic = I
and In = 3 ∞ 2
P
n=3,6,9... In . Therefore, effective rms current, Ie is given by the following.
53
s P∞ 2
3 I2 + 3 n=3,6,9... In
Ie =
3
v
u ∞
X
In 2
u
= tI 2 + (2.88)
n=3,6,9...
≥I
2.4.3 Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case

The apparent power is given as,
q
2
S = 3Vln I = P 2 + Q2B + DB
p
= P 2 + Q2 + D2 (2.89)
where,
P = P1 + PH = P1 + P2 + P3 + ....
∞
X
= 3V1 I1 cos φ1 + 3 Vn In cos φn
n=1
(2.90)
where, φn = βn − αn . Similarly,
Q = QB = QB1 + QBH
= Q1 + QH (2.91)
Where Q in (2.89) is called as Budeanu’s reactive power (VAr) or simply reactive power which is
detailed below.
Q = Q1 + QH = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + ....
∞
X
= 3V1 I1 sin φ1 + 3 Vn In sin φn (2.92)
n=1
2.4.4 Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System

The effective apparent power Se for the above system is given by,
Se = 3Ve Ie (2.93)
For a three-phase, three-wire balanced system, the effective apparent power is found after cal-
culating effective voltage and current as given below.
q
Ve = (Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )/9
√
= Vll / 3 (2.94)
54
q
Ie = (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 )/3
= I (2.95)
Therefore √
Se = S = 3Vll I (2.96)
For a four-wire system, Ve is same is given (2.94) and Ie is given by (2.88). Therefore, the
effective apparent power is given below.
√
3Vll I ≤ 3 Vln Ie (2.97)
Se ≥ SA . (2.98)
Therefore, it can be further concluded that,
pfe (= P/Se ) ≥ pfA (= P/SA ). (2.99)
2.5 Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System

In this system, we shall consider most general case i.e., three-phase system with voltage and current
quantities which are unbalanced and non-sinusoidal. These voltages and currents are expressed as
following.
∞
X √
va (t) = 2Van sin(n ωt − αan )
n=1
∞
X √
vb (t) = 2Vbn sin {n (ωt − 120o ) − αbn } (2.100)
n=1
∞
X √
vc (t) = 2Vcn sin {n (ωt + 120o ) − αcn }
n=1
Similarly, currents can be expressed as,

∞
X √
ia (t) = 2Ian sin(n ωt − βan )
n=1
∞
X √
ib (t) = 2Ibn sin {n (ωt − 120o ) − βbn } (2.101)
n=1
∞
X √
ic (t) = 2Icn sin {n (ωt + 120o ) − βcn }
n=1
55
For the above voltages and currents in three-phase system, instantaneous power is given as follow-
ing.
p(t) = va (t)ia (t) + vb (t)ib (t) + vc (t)ic (t)

= pa (t) + pb (t) + pc (t)
∞
! ∞ !
X √ X√
= 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Ian sin(nωt − βan ) (2.102)
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vbn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − αbn } 2Ibn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − βbn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vcn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − αcn } 2Icn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − βcn }
n=1 n=1
In (2.102), each phase power can be found using expressions derived in Section 1.4 of Unit 1. The
direct result is written as following.
∞
X ∞
X
pa (t) = Van Ian cos φan {1 − cos(2nωt − 2αan )} − Van Ian sin φan cos(2nωt − 2αan )
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Iam sin(mωt − βam )
n=1 m=1, m6=n
∞
X X∞
= Pan {1 − cos(2nωt − 2αan )} − Qan cos(2nωt − 2αan )
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Van sin(nωt − αan ) 2Iam sin(mωt − βam ) (2.103)
n=1 m=1, m6=n
In the above equation, φan = (βan − αan ). Similarly, for phases b and c, the instantaneous
power is expressed as below.
∞
X ∞
X
o
pb (t) = Pbn [1 − cos {2n(ωt − 120 ) − 2αbn }] − Qbn cos {2n(ωt − 120o ) − 2αbn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vbn sin {n(ωt − 120o ) − αbn } 2Ibm sin {m(ωt − 120o ) − βbm }
n=1 m=1, m6=n
(2.104)
56
and
∞
X ∞
X
o
pc (t) = Pcn [1 − cos {2n(ωt + 120 ) − 2αcn }] − Qcn cos {2n(ωt + 120o ) − 2αcn }
n=1 n=1
∞
! ∞
!
X √ X √
+ 2Vcn sin {n(ωt + 120o ) − αcn } 2Icm sin {m(ωt + 120o ) − βcm }
n=1 m=1, m6=n
(2.105)
From equations (2.103), (2.104) and (2.105), the real powers in three phases are given as follows.
∞
X
Pa = Van Ian cos φan
n=1
∞
X
Pb = Vbn Ibn cos φbn (2.106)
n=1
X∞
Pc = Vcn Icn cos φcn
n=1
Similarly, the reactive powers in three phases are given as following.
∞
X
Qa = Van Ian sin φan
n=1
∞
X
Qb = Vbn Ibn sin φbn (2.107)
n=1
X∞
Qc = Vcn Icn sin φcn
n=1
Therefore, the total active and reactive powers are computed by summing the phase powers using
equations (2.106) and (2.107), which are given below.
∞
X
P = P a + Pb + Pc = (Van Ian cos φan + Vbn Ibn cos φbn + Vcn Icn cos φcn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 cos φa1 + Vb1 Ib1 cos φb1 + Vc1 Ic1 cos φc1
X∞
+ (Van Ian cos φan + Vbn Ibn cos φbn + Vcn Icn cos φcn )
n=2
∞
X
= Pa1 + Pb1 + Pc1 + (Pan + Pbn + Pcn )
n=2
= P1 + PH (2.108)
57
and,
∞
X
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = (Van Ian sin φan + Vbn Ibn sin φbn + Vcn Icn sin φcn )
n=1
= Va1 Ia1 sin φa1 + Vb1 Ib1 sin φb1 + Vc1 Ic1 sin φc1
X∞
+ (Van Ian sin φan + Vbn Ibn sin φbn + Vcn Icn sin φcn )
n=2
∞
X
= Qa1 + Qb1 + Qc1 + (Qan + Qbn + Qcn )
n=2
= Q1 + QH (2.109)
2.5.1 Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanu’s Resolution

Using Budeanu’s resolution, the arithmetic apparent power for phase-a, b and c are expressed as
following.
p
Sa = Pa2 + Q2a + Da2
q
Sb = Pb2 + Q2b + Db2 (2.110)
p
Sc = Pc2 + Q2c + Dc2
The three-phase arithmetic apparent power is arithmetic sum of Sa , Sb and Sc in the above equation.
This is given below.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc (2.111)
The three-phase vector apparent power is given as following.
p
Sv = P 2 + Q2 + D2 (2.112)
Where P and Q are given in (2.108) and (2.109) respectively. The total distortion power D is given
as following.
D = Da + Db + Dc (2.113)
Based on above definitions of the apparent powers, the arithmetic and vector power factors are
given below.
P
pfA =
SA
P
pfv = (2.114)
Sv
From equations (2.111), (2.112) and (2.114), it can be inferred that
SA ≥ Sv
pfA ≤ pfv (2.115)
58
2.5.2 Effective Apparent Power
Effective apparent power (Se =3Ve Ie ) for the three-phase unbalanced systems with harmonics can
be found by computing Ve and Ie as following. The effective rms current (Ie ) can be resolved into
two parts i.e., effective fundamental and effective harmonic components as given below.
q
2 2
Ie = Ie1 + IeH (2.116)
Similarly,
q
Ve = 2
Ve12 + VeH (2.117)
For three-phase four-wire system,

r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Ie = (2.118)
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ia2 + ... + Ib1 + Ib2 + ... + Ic1 + Ic2 + ... + In1 + In2 + ...
=
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 + ... + Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 + ...
=
r 3
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1 Ia2 + Ia3 + ... + Ib2 + Ib3 + ... + Ic2 + Ic3 + ... + In2 + In3 ...
= +
q 3 3
2 2
Ie = Ie1 + IeH
In the above equation,

r
2 2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1 + In1
Ie1 =
r 3
2 2 2 2
IaH + IbH + IcH + InH
IeH = (2.119)
3
Similarly, the effective rms voltage Ve is given as following.
r
1
Ve = [3(Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ) + (Vab2 + Vbc2 + Vca2 )]
18
q
= Ve12 + VeH2
(2.120)
Where
r
1 2
Ve1 = [3(Va1 + Vb12 + Vc12 ) + (Vab1
2 2
+ Vbc1 2
+ Vca1 )]
18
r
1 2 2 2 2 2 2
VeH = [3(VaH + VbH + VcH ) + (VabH + VbcH + VcaH )] (2.121)
18
For three-phase three-wire system, In = 0 = In1 = InH .
59
r
2 2 2
Ia1 + Ib1 + Ic1
Ie1 =
r 3
2 2 2
IaH + IbH + IcH
IeH = (2.122)
3
Similarly
r
2 2 2
Vab1 + Vbc1 + Vca1
Ve1 =
r 9
2 2 2
VabH + VbcH + VcaH
VeH = (2.123)
9
The expression for effective apparent power Se is given as following.
Se = 3 Ve Ie
q q
= 3 Ve12 + VeH 2 2
Ie1 2
+ IeH
q
= 9 Ve12 Ie1
2
+ (9Ve12 IeH
2 2 2
+ 9VeH 2 2
Ie1 + 9VeH IeH )
q
2 2
= Se1 + SeN (2.124)
Se1 = 3 Ve1 Ie1 (2.125)
q
2
SeN = Se2 − Se1
q
2 2 2
= DeV + DeI + SeH
q
2 2
= 3(Ie1 VeH ) + 3(Ve12 IeH
2 2 2
) + 3(VeH IeH ) (2.126)
In equation (2.126), distortion powers DeI , DeV and harmonic apparent power SeH are given as
following.
DeI = 3Ve1 IeH
DeV = 3VeH Ie1 (2.127)
SeH = 3VeH IeH
By defining above effective voltage and current quantities, the effective total harmonic distortion
(T HDe ) are expressed below.
VeH
T HDeV =
Ve1
IeH
T HDeI = (2.128)
Ie1
Substituting VeH and IeH in (2.126),
q
2 2 2 2
SeN = Se1 T HDe1 + T HDeV + T HDeI T HDeV . (2.129)
60
In above equation,
DeI = Se1 T HDI
DeV = Se1 T HDV (2.130)
SeH = Se1 (T HDI )(T HDV ).
Using (2.124) and (2.129), the effective apparent power is given as below.
q q
2 2 2 2 2 2
Se = Se1 + SeN = Se1 1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI (2.131)
Based on above equation, the effective power factor is therefore given as,
P P1 + P H
pfe = = p
Se Se1 1 + T HDeV2 2
+ T HDeI 2
+ T HDeV 2
T HDeI
(1 + PH /P1 ) P1
= p 2 2 2 2 S
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI e1
(1 + PH /P1 )
= p 2 2 2 2
pfe1 (2.132)
1 + T HDeV + T HDeI + T HDeV T HDeI
Practically, the THDs in voltage are far less than those of currents THDs, therefore T HDeV <<
T HDeI . Using this practical constraint and assuming PH << P1 , the above equation can be
simplified to,
pfe1
pfe ≈ p 2
(2.133)
1 + T HDeI
In the above context, their is another useful term to denote unbalance of the system. This is
defined as fundamental unbalanced power and is given below.
q
SU 1 = 2
Se1 − (S1+ )2 (2.134)
Where, S1+ is fundamental positive sequence apparent power, which is given below.
q
+
S1 = (P1+ )2 + (Q+
1)
2 (2.135)
In above, P1+ = 3V1+ I1+ cos φ+ + + + +

1 and Q1 = 3V1 I1 sin φ1 . Fundamental positive sequence power
+ +
factor can thus be expressed as a ratio of P1 and S1 as given below.
P1+
Pf+1 = (2.136)
S1+
Example 2.3 Consider the following three-phase system. It is given that voltages V a , V b and V c
are balanced sinusoids with rms value of 220 V. The feeder impedance is rf +jxf = 0.02+j0.1 Ω.
The unbalanced load parameters are: RL = 12 Ω and XL = 13 Ω. Compute the following.
a. The currents in each phase, i.e., I a , I b and I c and neutral current, I n .
61
r f  jx f
va Va
Ia
XL
vb Vb
LOAD
Ib
vc Vc
Ic RL
vn Vn
In
Fig. 2.11 An unbalanced three-phase circuit
b. Losses in the system.

c. The active and reactive powers in each phase and total three-phase active and reactive powers.
d. Arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers and power factors based on them.
Solution:
a. Computation of currents
√
va (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt)
√
vb (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt − 120◦ )
√
vc (t) = 220 2 sin (ωt + 120◦ )
√
vab (t) = 220 6 sin (ωt + 30◦ )
Therefore,
√
220 3∠30
Ia = ◦
= 29.31∠−60◦ A
13∠90
Ib = −I a = −29.311∠−60◦ = 29.31∠120◦ A
220∠120◦
Ic = = 18.33∠120◦ A.
12
Thus, the instantaneous expressions of phase currents can be given as following.
ia (t) = 41.45 sin (ωt − 60◦ )

ib (t) = −ia (t) = −41.45 sin (ωt − 60◦ ) = 41.45 sin (ωt + 120◦ )
ic (t) = 25.93 sin (ωt + 120◦ )
b. Computation of losses
62
The losses occur due to resistance of the feeder impedance. These are computed as below.
Losses = rf (Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2 )

= 0.02 (29.312 + 29.312 + 18.332 + 18.332 ) = 47.80 W
c. Computation of various powers
Phase-a active and reactive power:

∗
S a = V a I a = 220∠0◦ × 29.31∠60◦ = 3224.21 + j5584.49
implies that, Pa = 3224.1 W, Qa = 5584.30 VAr
Similarly,
∗
S b = V b I b = 220∠−120◦ × 29.31∠60◦ = −3224.21 + j5584.49
implies that, Pb = −3224.1 W, Qb = 5584.30 VAr
For phase-c,
∗
S c = V c I c = 220∠120◦ × 18.33∠−120◦ = 4032.6 + j0
implies that, Pc = 4032.6 W, Qc = 0 VAr
Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,
P3−phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 3224.1 − 3224.1 + 4032.6 = 4032.6 W

Q3−phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 5584.30 + 5584.30 + 0 = 11168.60 VAr.
d. Various apparent powers and power factors
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.
SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |

= 6448.12 + 6448.12 + 4032.6 = 16928.84 VA
Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |4032.6 + j11168.6| = |11874.32∠70.14| = 11874.32 VA
r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 × 220 ×
r 3
29.31 + 29.31 + 18.332 + 18.332
2 2
= 3 × 220 × = 3 × 220 × 28.22
3
= 18629.19 VA
63
Based on the above apparent powers, the arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors
are computed as below.
P3−phase 4032.6
pfA = = = 0.2382
SA 16928.84
P3−phase 4032.6
pfv = = = 0.3396
Sv 11874.32
P3−phase 4032.6
pfe = = = 0.2165
Se 18629.19
In the above computation, the effective voltage and current are found as given in the following.
r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2
Ve = = 220 V
3
r
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2 + In2
Ie = = 28.226 A
3
Example 2.4 A 3-phase, 3-wire system is shown in Fig. 2.12. The 3-phase voltages are balanced
sinusoids with RMS value of 230 V. The 3-phase loads connected in star are given as following.
Za = 5 + j12 Ω, Zb = 6 + j8 Ω and Zc = 12 − j5 Ω.
Compute the following.
a. Line currents, i.e., I la , I lb and I lc and their instantaneous expressions.
b. Load active and reactive powers and power factor of each phase.
c. Compute various apparent powers and power factors based on them.
Vsa I la
Vsc I lc a
N
Vsb I lb
c Zb
Fig. 2.12 A star connected three-phase unbalanced load
Solution:
a. Computation of currents
64
Given that Za = 5 + j 12 Ω, Zb = 6 + j 8 Ω, Zc = 12 − j 5 Ω.
V sa = 230∠0◦ V
V sb = 230∠−120◦ V
V sc = 230∠120◦ V

1 V sa V sb V sc
V nN = 1 + +
Za
+ Z1b + Z1c Za Zb Zc
230∠0◦ 230∠−120◦ 230∠120◦

1
= 1 1 1 + +
5+j12
+ 6+j8 + 12−j5 5 + j12 6 + 8j 12 − j5
1
= ◦
31.23∠−164.50◦
0.2013∠−37.09
= −94.22 − j123.18 = 155.09∠−127.41◦ V
Now the line currents are computed as below.
V sa − V nN 230∠0◦ − 155.09∠−127.41◦
I al = = = 26.67∠−46.56◦ A
Za 5 + j12
V sb − V nN 230∠−120◦ − 155.09∠−127.41◦
I bl = = = 7.88∠−158.43◦ A
Zb 6 + j8
V sc − V nN 230∠120 − 155.09∠−127.41◦
◦
I cl = = = 24.85∠116.3◦ A
Zc 12 − j5
Thus, the instantaneous expressions of line currents can be given as following.
ial (t) = 37.72 sin (ωt − 46.56◦ )

ibl (t) = 11.14 sin (ωt − 158.43◦ )
icl (t) = 35.14 sin (ωt + 116.3◦ )
b. Computation of load active and reactive powers
∗
Sa = V a I a = 230∠0◦ × 26.67∠46.56◦ = 4218.03 + j4456.8
∗
Sb = V b I b = 230∠−120◦ × 7.88∠158.43◦ = 1419.82 + j1126.06
∗
Sc = V c I c = 230∠120◦ × 24.85∠−116.3◦ = 5703.43 + j368.11
implies that,
Pa = 4218.03 W, Qa = 4456.8 VAr
Pb = 1419.82 W, Qb = 1126.06 VAr
Pc = 5703.43 W, Qc = 368.11 VAr
65
Total three-phase active and reactive powers are given by,
P3−phase = Pa + Pb + Pc = 4218.03 + 1419.82 + 5703.43 = 11341.29 W
Q3−phase = Qa + Qb + Qc = 4456.8 + 1126.06 + 368.11 = 5950.99 VAr.
The power factors for phases a, b and c are given as follows.
Pa 4218.03 4218.03
pfa = =√ = = 0.6873 (lag)
|Sa | 2
4218.03 + 4456.8 2 6136.3
Pb 1419.82 1419.82
pfb = = 2 2
= = 0.7835 (lag)
|Sb | 1419.82 + 1126.06 1812.16
Pc 5703.43 5703.43
pfc = = 2 2
= = 0.9979 (lag)
|Sc | 5703.43 + 368.11 5715.30
c. Computation of various apparent powers and power factors
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent powers are computed as below.
SA = |Sa | + |Sb | + |Sc |
= 6136.3 + 1812.16 + 5715.30 = 13663.82 VA
Sv = |Sa + Sb + Sc |
= |11341.29 + j5909.92| = 12807.78 VA
r
2
Ila + Ilb2 + Ilc2 + Iln
2
Se = 3Ve Ie = 3 × 230 ×
r 3
26.67 + 7.88 + 24.852 + 02
2 2
= 3 × 220 × = 3 × 230 × 21.53
3
= 14859.7 VA
The arithmetic, vector and effective apparent power factors are computed as below.
P3−phase 11341.29
pfA = = = 0.8300
SA 13663.82
P3−phase 11341.29
pfv = = = 0.8855
Sv 12807.78
P3−phase 11341.29
pfe = = = 0.7632
Se 14859.7
References
[1] IEEE Group, “IEEE trial-use standard definitions for the measurement of electric power quan-
tities under sinusoidal, nonsinusoidal, balanced, or unbalanced conditions,” 2000.
66
[2] E. Watanabe, R. Stephan, and M. Aredes, “New concepts of instantaneous active and reactive
powers in electrical systems with generic loads,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 8,
no. 2, pp. 697–703, 1993.
[3] T. Furuhashi, S. Okuma, and Y. Uchikawa, “A study on the theory of instantaneous reactive
power,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 86–90, 1990.
[4] A. Ferrero and G. Superti-Furga, “A new approach to the definition of power components in
three-phase systems under nonsinusoidal conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation
and Measurement, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 568–577, 1991.
[5] J. Willems, “A new interpretation of the akagi-nabae power components for nonsinusoidal
three-phase situations,” IEEE Transactions on Instrumentation and Measurement, vol. 41,
no. 4, pp. 523–527, 1992.
[6] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneous reactive power compensators compris-
ing switching devices without energy storage components,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, no. 3, pp. 625–630, 1984.
[7] C. L. Fortesque, “Method of symmetrical co-ordinates applied to the solution of polyphase
networks,” AIEE, 1918.
67
68
Chapter 3
FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD

COMPENSATION
(Lectures 19-24)
3.1 Introduction
In general, the loads which cause fluctuations in the supply voltage due to poor power factor,
unbalanced and harmonics, d.c components require compensation. Typical loads requiring com-
pensation are arc furnaces, induction furnaces, arc welders, steel rolling mills, winders, very large
motors, which start and stop frequently, high energy physics experiments,which require pulse high
power supplies. All these loads can be classified into three basic categories.
1. Unbalanced ac load
2. Unbalanced ac + non linear load
3. Unbalanced ac + nonlinear ac + dc component load.
The dc component is generally caused by the usage of have wave rectifiers. These loads, par-
ticularly nonlinear loads generate harmonics as well as fundamental frequency voltage variations.
For example arc furnaces generate significant amount of harmonics at the load bus.
Other serious loads which degrade power quality are adjustable speed drives which include power
electronic circuitry, all power electronics based converters such as thyristor controlled drives, rec-
tifiers, cyclo converters etc.. In general, following aspects are important, while we do provide the
load compensation in order to improve the power quality [1].
1. Type of Load (unbalance , harmonics and dc component)

2. Real and Reactive power requirements (maximum, minimum and concurrence of maximum real
and reactive power requirements in multiple loads)
3. Rate of change of real and reactive power etc.
In this unit, we however, discuss fundamental load compensation techniques for unbalanced linear
loads such as combination of resistance, inductance and capacitance and their combinations. The
69
objective here will be to maintain currents balanced and unity factor with their voltages.
3.2 Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation
We shall find some fundamental relation ship between supply system the load and the compensator.
We shall start with the principle of power factor correction, which in its simplest form, and can be
studied without reference to supply system [2]–[5].
The supply system, the load and the compensator can be modeled in various ways. The supply
system can be modeled as a Thevenin’s equivalent circuit with an open circuit voltage and a se-
ries impedance, (its current or power and reactive power) requirements. The compensator can be
modeled as variable impedance or as a variable source (or sink) of reactive current. The choice of
model varied according to the requirements. The modeling and analysis done here is on the basis
of steady state and phasor quantities are used to note the various parameters in system.
3.2.1 Power Factor and its Correction
Consider a single phase system shown in 3.1(a) shown below. The load admittance is represented
Is
V
l IR V
IX Il
Il
Fig. 3.1 (a) Single line diagram of electrical system (b) Phasor diagram
by Yl = Gl + jBl supplied from a load bus at voltage V = V ∠0. The load current is I l is given as,
I l = V (Gl + jBl ) = V Gl + jV Bl (3.1)

= IR + jIX
According to the above equation, the load current has a two components, i.e. the resistive or in
phase component and reactive component or phase quadrature component and are represented by
IR and IX respectively. The current, IX will lag 90o for inductive load and it will lead 90o from
the reference voltage. This is shown in 3.1(b). The load apparent power can be expressed in terms
70
of bus voltage V and load current Il as given below.
Sl = V (Il )∗
= V (IR + j IX )∗
= V (IR − j IX )
= V (Il cos φl − j Il sin φl )
= V Il cos φl − j V Il sin φl
= Sl cos φl − j Sl sin φl (3.2)
From (3.1), I l = V (Gl + jBl ) = V Gl + jV Bl , equation (3.2) can also be written as following.
Sl = V (Il )∗
= V (V Gl + jV Bl )∗
= V (V Gl − jV Bl )
= V 2 Gl − j V 2 Bl
= Pl + jQl (3.3)
From equation (3.129), load active (Pl ) and reactive power (Ql ) are given as,
Pl = V 2 Gl
Ql = −V 2 Bl (3.4)
Now suppose a compensator is connected across the load such that the compensator current, Iγ is
equal to −IX , thus,
I γ = V Yγ = V (Gγ + jBγ ) = −IX
= −j V Bl (3.5)
The above condition implies that Gγ = 0 and Bγ = −Bl . The source current Is , can therefore
given by,
I s = I l + Iγ = IR (3.6)
Therefore due to compensator action, the source supplies only in phase component of the load
current. The source power factor is unity. This reduces the rating of the power conductor and
losses due to the feeder impedance. The rating of the compensator is given by the following
expression.
S γ = Pγ + j Qγ = V (I γ )∗
= V (−j V Bl )∗
= jV 2 Bl (3.7)
Using (3.4), the above equation indicates the Pγ = 0 and Qγ = − Ql . This is an interesting
inference that the compensator generates the reactive power which is equal and opposite to the
load reactive and it has no effect on active power of the load. This is shown in Fig. 3.2.
71
Is
I  I X
V Is  IR
l
IX Il
I Il
Fig. 3.2 (a) Single line diagram of compensated system (b) Phasor diagram
Using (3.2) and (3.7), the compensator rating can further be expressed as,
p
Qγ = −Ql = −Sl sin φl = −Sl 1 − cos2 φl VArs (3.8)
From (3.8),
p
|Qγ | = 1 − cos2 φl (3.9)
If |Qγ | < |Ql | or |Bγ | < |Bl |, then load is partially compensated. The compensator of fixed
admittance is incapable of following variations in the reactive power requirement of the load. In
practical however a compensator such as a bank of capacitors can be divided into parallel sections,
each of switched separately, so that discrete changes in the reactive power compensation can be
made according to the load. Some sophisticated compensators can be used to provide smooth and
dynamic control of reactive power.
Here voltage of supply is being assumed to be constant. In general if supply voltage varies, the
Qγ will not vary separately with the load and compensator error will be there. In the following
discussion, voltage variations are examined and some additional features of the ideal compensator
will be studied.
3.2.2 Voltage Regulation

Voltage regulation can be defined as the proportional change in voltage magnitude at the load bus
due to change in load current (say from no load to full load). The voltage drop is caused due to
feeder impedance carrying the load current as illustrated in Fig. 3.3(a). If the supply voltage is
represented by Thevenin’s equivalent, then the voltage regulation (VR) is given by,

E − V E − |V |
VR = = (3.10)
V |V |
for V being a reference phasor.

In absence of compensator, the source and load currents are same and the voltage drop due to the
72
feeder is given by,
∆V = E − V = Zs Il (3.11)
The feeder impedance, Zs = Rs + jXs . The relationship between the load powers and its voltage
and current is expressed below.
S l = V (I l )∗ = Pl + jQl (3.12)
Since V = V , the load current is expressed as following.
Pl − jQl
Il = (3.13)
V
Substituting, Il from above equation into (3.11), we get

Pl − jQl
∆V = E − V = (Rs + jXs )
V
Rs Pl + Xs Ql Xs Pl − Rs Ql
= +j
V V
= ∆VR + j∆VX (3.14)
Thus, the voltage drop across the feeder has two components, one in phase (∆VR ) and another is
in phase quadrature (∆VX ). This is illustrated in Fig. 3.3(b).
E
Feeder
Z s  Rs  jX s E j VX
Is 
l V VR
V R Il jX l I l
Load
Yl  Gl  jBl Il
Il Sl  Pl  jQl
Fig. 3.3 (a) Single phase system with feeder impedance (b) Phasor diagram
From the above it is evident that load bus voltage (V ) is dependent on the value of the feeder
impedance, magnitude and phase angle of the load current. In other words, voltage change (∆V )
depends upon the real and reactive power flow of the load and the value of the feeder impedance.
Now let us add compensator in
parallel
with the load as shown in Fig. 3.4(a). The question is:
whether it is possible to make E = V , in order to achieve zero voltage regulation irrespective of

change in the load. The answer is yes, if the compensator consisting of purely reactive components,
has enough capacity to supply to required amount of the reactive power. This situation is shown
using phasor diagram in Fig. 3.4(b).
The net reactive at the load bus is now Qs = Qγ + Ql . The compensator
reactive power (Qγ ) has
to be adjusted in such a way as to rotate the phasor ∆V until E = V .
73
E
Feeder
Z s  Rs  jX s
I
E jX s I s
Is Is
V V

l V
Comp.
Rs Is
Load
Q Yl  Gl  jBl
I Il Sl  Pl  jQl Il
Fig. 3.4 (a) Voltage with compensator (b) Phasor diagram
From (3.14) and Fig. 3.3(b),

Rs Pl + Xs Qs Xs Pl − Rs Qs
E∠δ = V + +j (3.15)
V V
The above equation implies that,
2 2
2 Rs Pl + Xs Qs Xs Pl − Rs Qs
E = V + +
V V
(3.16)
The above equation can be simplified to,
E 2 V 2 = (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Q2s + 2(V 2 +
RsPl ) Xs Qs
+Xs2 Pl2 + Rs2 Q2s − (
(
2X
(s(P(l Rs Qs
(( (3.17)
Above equation, rearranged in the powers of Qs , is written as following.
(Rs2 + Xs2 ) Q2s + 2V 2 Xs Qs + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + (Xs Pl )2 − E 2 V 2 = 0 (3.18)
Thus the above equation is quadratic in Qs and can be represented using coefficients of Qs as given
below.
a Q2s + b Qs + c = 0 (3.19)
Where a = Rs2 + Xs2 , b = 2V 2 Xs and c = (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 − E 2 V 2 .
Thus the solution of above equation is as following.

p
−b ± (b2 − 4ac)
Qs = (3.20)
2a
In the actual compensator, this value would be determined automatically by control loop. The
equation also indicates that, we can find the value of Qs by subjecting a condition such as E = V
74
irrespective of the requirement of the load powers (Pl , Ql ). This leads to the following conclusion
that a purely reactive compensator can eliminate supply voltage variation caused by changes in
both the real and reactive power of the load, provided that there is sufficient range and rate of Qs
both in lagging and leading pf. This compensator therefore acts as an ideal voltage regulator. It
is mentioned here that we are regulating magnitude of voltage and not its phase angle. In fact its
phase angle is continuously varying depending upon the load current.
It is instructive to consider this principle from different point of view. We have seen that com-
pensator can be made to supply all load reactive power and it acts as power factor correction device.
If the compensator is designed to compensate power factor, then Qs = Ql + Qγ = 0. This im-
plies that Qγ = −Ql . Substituting Qs = 0 for Ql in (3.14) to achieve this condition, we get the
following.
(Rs + jXs )
∆V = Pl (3.21)
V
From above equation, it is observed that ∆V is independent of Ql . Thus we conclude that a purely
reactive compensator cannot maintain both constant voltage and unity power factor simultaneously.
Of course the exception to this rule is a trivial case when Pl = 0.
3.2.3 An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation

Consider a supply system with short circuit capacity (Ssc ) at the load bus. This short circuit capac-
ity can be expressed in terms of short circuit active and reactive powers as given below.
∗
E2

∗ E
S sc = Psc + jQsc = E I sc = E = ∗ (3.22)
Zsc Zsc
Where Zsc = Rs + jXs and I sc is the short circuit current. From the above equation
E2
|Zsc | =
Ssc
E2
Therefore, Rs = cos φsc
Ssc
E2
Xs = sin φsc
Ssc
Xs
tan φsc = (3.23)
Rs
Substituting above values of Rs and Xs , (3.14) can be written in the following form.
Pl sin φsc − Ql cos φsc E 2

∆V Pl cos φsc + Ql sin φsc
= +j
V V2 V2 Ssc
∆V ∆VR ∆VX
= +j (3.24)
V V V
75
Using an approximation that E ≈ V , the above equation reduces to the following.

∆V Pl cos φsc + Ql sin φsc Pl sin φsc − Ql cos φsc
= +j (3.25)
V Ssc Ssc
∆VR Pl cos φsc + Ql sin φsc
≈
V Ssc
∆VX Pl sin φsc − Ql cos φsc
≈
V Ssc
Often (∆VX /V ) is ignored on the ground that the phase quadrature component contributes negli-
gible to the magnitude of overall phasor. It mainly contributes to the phase angle. Therefore the
equation (3.25) is simplified to the following.
∆V ∆VR Pl cos φsc + Ql sin φsc

= = (3.26)
V V Ssc
Implying that the major change in voltage regulation occurs due to in phase component, ∆VR .
Although approximate, the above expression is quite useful in terms of short circuit level (Ssc ),
(Xs /Rs , active and reactive power of the load.
On the basis of incremental changes in active and reactive powers of the load, i.e., 0 → Pl and
0 → Ql , the above equation can further be written as,
∆V ∆VR ∆Pl cos φsc + ∆Ql sin φsc

= = . (3.27)
V V Ssc
Further, feeder reactance (Xs ) is far greater than feeder resistance (Rs ), i.e., Xs >> Rs . This
implies that, φsc → 90o , sin φsc → 1 and cos φsc → 0. Using this approximation the voltage
regulation is given as following.
∆V ∆VR ∆Ql ∆Ql

≈ ≈ sin φsc ≈ . (3.28)
V V Ssc Ssc
That is, per unit voltage change is equal to the ratio of the reactive power swing to the short circuit
level of the supply system. Representing ∆V approximately by E − V , the equation (3.28) can be
writtwn as,
E−V Ql
≈ . (3.29)
V Ssc
The above leads to the following expression,
E Ql
V ' ∆Ql
' E(1 − ) (3.30)
(1 + Ssc ) Ssc
76
with the assumption that, Ql /Ssc << 1. Although above relationship is obtained with approxi-
mations, however it is very useful in visualizing the action of compensator on the voltage. The
above equation is graphically represented as Fig. 3.5. The nature of voltage variation is drooping
with increase in inductive reactive power of the load. This is shown by negative slope −E/Ssc as
indicated in the figure.
The above characteristics also explain that when load is capacitive, Ql is negative. This makes
V > E. This is similar to Ferranti effect due to lightly loaded electric lines.
E

S sc
0 Ql
Fig. 3.5 Voltage variation with reactive power of the load
Example 3.1 Consider a supply at 10 kV line to neutral voltage with short circuit level of 250
MVA and Xs /Rs ratio of 5, supplying a star connected load inductive load whose mean power is
25 MW and whose reactive power varies from 0 to 50 MVAr, all quantities per phase.
(a) Find the load bus voltage (V ) and the voltage drop (∆V ) in the supply feeder. Thus determine
load current (I l ), power factor and system voltage (E ).
(b) It is required to maintain the load bus voltage to be same as supply bus voltage i.e. V =10 kV.
Calculate reactive power supplies by the compensator.
(c) What should be the load bus voltage and compensator current if it is required to maintain the
unity power factor at the supply?
Solution: The feeder resistance and reactance are computed as following.

Zs = Es2 /Ssc = (10 kV)2 /250 = 0.4 Ω/phase
It is given that, Xs /Rs = tan φsc = 5, therefore φsc = tan−1 5 = 78.69o . From this,
Rs = Zs cos φsc = 0.4 cos(78.69o ) = 0.0784 Ω

Xs = Zs sin φsc = 0.4 sin(78.69o ) = 0.3922 Ω
(a) Without compensation Qs = Ql , Qγ = 0

To know ∆V , first the voltage at the load bus has to be computed. This is done by rearranging
77
(3.18) in powers of voltage V . This is given below.
(Rs2 + Xs2 ) Q2l + 2 V 2 Xs Ql + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 − E 2 V 2 = 0
(R2 + X 2 ) Q2 + 2 V 2 X Q + V 4 + R2 P 2 + 2 V 2 R P + X 2 P 2 − E 2 V 2 = 0
| s {z s }l | {z s }l |{z} | s{z l} | {z s }l | s{z l} | {z }
III II I III II III II
Combining the I, II and III terms in the above equation, we get the following.
V 4 + 2(Rs Pl + Xs Ql ) − E 2 V 2 + (Rs2 + Xs2 )(Q2l + Pl2 ) = 0

(3.31)
Now substituting values of Rs , Xs , Pl , Ql and E in above equation, we get,
V 4 + 2 [0.0784 × 25 + 0.3922 × 50] − 102 V 2 + (0.07842 + 0.39222 )(252 + 502 ) = 0

After simplifying the above, we have the following equation.

V 4 − 56.86V 2 + 500 = 0
Therefore
√
2 56.86 ± 56.86 − 4 × 500
V =
2
= 45.985, 10.875
and V = ±6.78 kV, ±3.297 kV
Since rms value cannot be negative and maximum rms value must be a feasible solution, therefore
V = 6.78 kV.
Now we can compute ∆V using (3.14), as it is given below.
R s Pl + X s Q l Xs Pl − Rs Ql
∆V = +j
V V
0.0784 25 + 0.392 50 0.3922 25 − 0.0784 50
= +j
6.78 6.78
= 3.1814 + j0.8677 kV = 3.2976∠15.25o kV
Now the line current can be found out as following.
Pl − Ql 25 − j50
Il = =
V 6.782
= 3.86 − j7.3746 kA
= 8.242∠ − 63.44o kA
The power factor of load is cos (tan−1 (Ql /Pl )) = 0.4472 lagging. The phasor diagram for this
case is similar to what is shown in Fig. 3.3(b).
(b) Compensator as a voltage regulator
Now it is required to maintain V = E = 10.0 kV at the load bus. For this let their be reac-
tive power Qγ supplied by the compensator at the load bus. Therefore the net reactive power at the
load bus is equal to Qs , which is given below.
Qs = Ql + Qγ
78
Thus from (3.18), we get,
(Rs2 + Xs2 )Q2s + 2V 2 Xs Qs + (V 2 + Rs Pl )2 + Xs2 Pl2 − E 2 V 2 = 0

(0.7842 + 0.39222 )2 Q2s + 2 × 102 × 0.3922 × Qs + (102 + 0.784 × 25)2 + 0.39222 × 252 − 104 = 0

From the above we have,
0.16 Q2s + 78.44 Qs + 491.98 = 0.
Solving the above equation we get,

√
78.442 − 4 × 0.16 × 491.98
−78.44 ±
Qs =
2 × 0.16
= −6.35 or − 484 MVAr.
The feasible solution is Qs = −6.35 MVAr because it requires less rating of the compensator.
Therefore the reactive power of the compensator (Qγ ) is,
Qγ = Qs − Ql = −6.35 − 50 = −56.35 MVAr.
With Qs = −6.35 MVAr, the ∆V is computed by replacing Qs for Ql in (3.14) as given below.
Rs Pl + Xs Qs Xs Pl − Rs Qs
∆V = +j
V V
0.0784 × 25 + 0.39225 × −6.35 0.39225 × 25 − 0.0784 × (−6.35)
= +j
10 10
1.96 − 2.4 9.805 + 0.4978
= +j
10 10
= −0.0532 + j1.030 kV = 1.03137∠92.95o kV
Now, we can find supply voltage E as given below.
E = ∆V + V
= 10 − 0.0532 + j1.030
= 9.9468 + j1.030 = 10∠5.91o kV
The supply current is,

Pl − jQs 25 − j(−6.35)
Is = =
V 10
= 2.5 + j0.635 kA = 2.579∠14.25o kA.
This indicates that power factor is not unity for perfect voltage regulation i.e., E = V . For this
case the compensator current is given below.
−jQγ −j(−56.35)
Iγ = =
V 10
Iγ = j5.635 kA
79
The load current is computed as below.
Pl − jQl 25 − j50
Il = =
V 10
= 2.5 − j5.0 = IlR + jIlX = 5.59∠63.44o kA
The phasor diagram is similar to the one shown in Fig. 3.4(b). The phasor diagram shown has
interesting features. The voltage at the load bus is maintained to 1.0 pu. It is observed that the
reactive power of the compensator Qγ is not equal to load reactive power (Ql ). It exceeds by 6.35
MVAr. As a result of this compensation, the voltage regulation is perfect, however power factor is
not unity. The phase angle between V and I s is cos−1 0.969 = 14.25o as computed above. There-
fore the angle between E and I s is (14.25o − 5.91o = 8.34o ). Thus, source power factor (φs ) is
cos(8.340 ) = 0.9956 leading.
(c) Compensation for unity power factor
To achieve unity power factor at the load bus, the condition Qγ = −Ql must be satisfied, which
further implies that the net reactive power at the load bus is zero. Therefore substituting Ql = 0 in
(3.31), we get the following.
V 4 + 2(Rs Pl − E 2 ) V 2 + (Rs2 + Xs2 )(Pl2 + Q2l ) = 0

V 4 + (2 × 0.0784 × 25 − 102 )V 2 + (0.07842 + 0.39222 ) 252 = 0
From the above,

V 4 + 96.08V 2 + 99.79 = 0
The solution of the above equation is,
96.08 ± 93.97
V2 = = 95.02, 1.052
2
V = ±9.747 kV, ±1.0256 kV.
Since rms value cannot be negative and maximum rms value must be a feasible solution, therefore
V = 9.747 kV. Thus it is seen that for obtaining unity power factor at the load bus does not ensure
desired voltage regulation. Now the other quantities are computed as given below.
Pl − jQ 25 − j50
Il = = = 2.5648 − j5.129 = 5.7345∠−63.43o kA
V 9.747
Since Qγ = −Ql , this implies that Iγ = −jQγ /V = jQl /V = j5.129 kA. The voltage drop across
the feeder is given as following.
Rs Pl + Xs Ql Xs Pl − Rs Ql
∆V = +j
V V
(0.784 × 25 + j0.3922 × 25)
=
9.747
= 0.201 + j1.005 = 1.0249∠5.01o kV
80
The phasor diagram for the above case is shown in Fig. 3.6.
I   j 5.13 kA
E 10 kV
5.77 VX
I lR = 2.56 kA V = 9.75 kV VR

Is
I lX   j 5.13 kA
I l  5.73  63.43 kA
Fig. 3.6 Phasor diagram for system with compensator in voltage regulation mode
The percentage voltage change = (10 − 9.748)/10 × 100 = 2.5. Thus we see that power factor
improves voltage regulation enormously compared with uncompensated case. In many cases, de-
gree of improvement is adequate and the compensator can be designed to provide reactive power
requirement of load rather than as a ideal voltage regulator.
3.3 Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator

In this section, some practical aspects of the compensator in voltage regulation mode will be dis-
cussed. The important parameters of the compensator which play significant role in obtaining
desired voltage regulation are: Knee point (V k ), maximum or rated reactive power Qγmax and the
compensator gain Kγ .
The compensator gain Kγ is defined as the rate of change of compensator reactive power Qγ
with change in the voltage (V ), as given below.
dQr
Kγ = (3.32)
dV
For linear relationship between Qγ and V with incremental change, the above equation be written
as the following.
∆Qγ = ∆V Kγ (3.33)
81
Assuming compensator characteristics to be linear with Qγ ≤ Qγmax limit, the voltage can be
represented as,
Qγ
V = Vk + (3.34)
Kγ
This is re-written as,
Qγ = Kγ (V − Vk ) (3.35)
Flat V-Q characteristics imply that Kγ → ∞. That means the compensator which can absorb or
generate exactly right amount of reactive power to maintain supply voltage constant as the load
varies without any constraint. We shall now see the regulating properties of the compensator,
when compensator has finite gain Kr operating on supply system with a finite short circuit level,
Ssc . The further which are made in the following study are: high Xs /Rs ratio and negligible load
power fluctuations. The net reactive power at the load bus is sum of the load and the compensator
reactive power as given below.
Ql + Qγ = Qs (3.36)
Using earlier voltage and reactive power relationship from equation (3.30), it can be written as the
following.
Qs
V ' E(1 − ) (3.37)
Ssc
The compensator voltage represented by (3.34) and system voltage represented by (3.37) are shown
in Fig. 3.7(a) and (b) respectively.
Q
V V  Vk 
K
Vk E
 Q 
V  E 1- s 
 S SC 
Q Qs
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.7 (a) Voltage characterstics of compensator (b) System voltage characteristics
Differentiating V with respect to Qs , we get, intrinsic sensitivity of the supply voltage with
variation in Qs as given below.
dV E
=− (3.38)
dQs Ssc
82
It is seen from the above equation that high value of short circuit level Ssc reduces the voltage
sensitivity, making voltage variation flat irrespective of Ql . With compensator replacing Qs =
Qγ + Ql in (3.37), we have the following.

Ql + Qγ
V 'E 1− (3.39)
Ssc
Substituting Qγ from (3.35), we get the following equation.

1 + Kγ Vk /Ssc Ql /Ssc
V 'E − (3.40)
1 + E Kγ /Ssc 1 + E Kγ /Ssc
Although approximate, above equation gives the effects of all the major parameters such as load
reactive power, the compensator characteristics Vγ and Kγ and the system characteristics E and
Ssc . As we discussed, V-Q characteristics is flat for high or infinite value Kγ . However the higher
value of the gain Kγ means large rating and quick rate of change of the reactive power with varia-
tion in the system voltage. This makes cost of the compensator high.
The compensator has two effects as seen from (3.40), i.e., it alters the no load supply voltage
(E) and it modifies the sensitivity of supply point voltage to the variation in the load reactive power.
Differentiating (3.40) with respect to Ql , we get,
dV E/Ssc
=− (3.41)
dQl 1 + Kr E/Ssc
which is voltage sensitivity of supply point voltage to the load reactive power. It can be seen that
the voltage sensitivity is reduced as compared to the voltage sensitivity without compensator as
indicated in (3.38).
It is useful to express the slope (−E/Ssc ) by a term in a form similar to Kγ = dQγ /dV , as given
below.
Ssc
Ks = −
E
1 E
Thus, = − (3.42)
Ks Ssc
Substituting V from (3.39) into (3.35), the following is obtained.

Ql + Qγ
Qγ = Kγ E 1 − − Vk (3.43)
Ssc
Collecting the coefficients of Qγ from both sides of the above equation, we get

Kγ Ql
Qγ = E 1− − Vk (3.44)
1 + Kγ (E/Ssc ) Ssc
83
Setting knee voltage Vk of the compensator equal to system voltage E i.e., Vk = E, the above
equation is simplified to,
Kγ (E/Ssc )
Qγ = − Ql
1 + Kγ (E/Ssc )

Kγ /Ks
= − Ql . (3.45)
1 + Kγ /Ks
From the above equation it is observed that, when compensator gain Kγ → ∞, Qγ → −Ql . This
indicates perfect compensation of the load reactive power in order to regulate the load bus voltage.
Example 3.2 Consider a three-phase system with line-line voltage 11 kV and short circuit capacity
of 480 MVA. With compensator gain of 100 pu determine voltage sensitivity with and without
compensator. For each case, if a load reactive power changes by 10 MVArs, find out the change in
load bus voltage assuming linear relationship between V-Q characteristics. Also find relationship
between compensator and load reactive powers.
Solution: The voltage sensitivity can be computed using the following equation.
dV E/Ssc
=−
dQl 1 + Kγ E/Ssc
√
Without compensator Kγ = 0, E = (11/ 3) = 6.35 kV and Ssc = 480/3 = 160 MVA.
Substituting these values in the above equation, the voltage sensitivity is given below.
dV 6.35/160
=− = −0.039
dQl 1 + 0 × 6.35/160
The change in voltage due to variation of reactive power by 10 MVArs, ∆V = −0.039 × 10 =
−0.39 kV.
With compensator, Kγ = 100
dV 6.35/160
=− = −0.0078
dQl 1 + 100 × 6.35/160
The change in voltage due to variation of reactive power by 10 MVArs, ∆V = −0.0078 × 10 =
−0.078 kV.
Thus it is seen that, with finite compensator gain their is quite reduction in the voltage sensitivity,
which means that the load bus is fairly constant for considerable change in the load reactive power.
The compensator reactive power Qγ and load reactive power Ql are related by equation (3.45) and
is given below.
Kγ (E/Ssc ) 100 × (6.35/160)
Qγ = − Ql = − Ql
1 + Kγ (E/Ssc ) 1 + 100 × (6.35/160)
= −0.79 Ql
It can be observed that when compensator gain, (Qγ ) is quite large, then compensator reactive
power Qγ is equal and opposite to that of load reactive power i.e., Qγ = −Ql . It is further observed
84
that due to finite compensator gain i.e., Kγ = 100, reactive power is partially compensated The
compensator reactive power varies from 0 to 7.9 MVAr for 0 to 10 MVAr change in the load
reactive power.
3.4 Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads

So far we have discussed voltage regulation and power factor correction for single phase systems.
In this section we will focus on balancing of three-phase unbalanced loads. In considering unbal-
anced loads, both load and compensator are modeled in terms of their admittances and impedances.
3.4.1 Three-phase Unbalanced Loads
Consider a three-phase three-wire system suppling unbalanced load as shown in Fig. 3.8.
V an
Ia
Za
V bn
I1
Ib
N Zb n
V cn
I2
Ic
Zc
Fig. 3.8 Three-phase unbalanced load
Applying Kirchoff’s voltage law for the two loops shown in the figure, we have the following
equations.
−V an + Za I 1 + Zb (I 1 − I 2 ) + V bn = 0
−V bn + Zb I 2 + Zb (I 2 − I 1 ) + V cn = 0 (3.46)
Rearranging above, we get the following.
V an − V bn = (Za + Zb ) I 1 − Zb I 2
V bn − V cn = (Zb + Zc ) I 2 − Zb I 1 (3.47)
The above can be represented in matrix form as given below.

V an − V bn (Za + Zb ) −Zb I1
= (3.48)
V bn − V cn −Zb (Zb + Zc ) I2
85
Therefore the currents are given as below.
−1
I1 (Za + Zb ) −Zb V an − V bn
=
I2 −Zb (Zb + Zc ) V bn − V cn

1 (Zb + Zc ) Zb V an − V bn
=
∆Z Zb (Za + Zb ) V bn − V cn

I1 1 (Zb + Zc ) Zb V an − V bn
Therefore, = . (3.49)
I2 ∆Z Zb (Za + Zb ) V bn − V cn
Where, ∆Z = (Zb + Zc )(Za + Zb ) − Zb2 = Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za . The current I 1 is given below.
1
I1 = (Zb + Zc )(V an − V bn ) + Zb (V bn − V cn )
∆Z
1
= (Zb + Zc )V an − Zc V bn − Zb V cn (3.50)
∆Z
Similarly,
1
I2 = Zb (V an − V bn ) + (Za + Zb )(V bn − V cn )
∆Z
1
= Zb V an + Za V bn − (Za + Zb )V cn (3.51)
∆Z
Now,
1
Ia = I1 = (Zb + Zc )V an − Zc V bn − Zb V cn
∆Z
Ib = I2 − I1
1
= Zb V an + Za V bn − (Za + Zb )V cn − (Zb + Zc )V an + Zc V bn + Zb V cn

∆
Z
(Zc + Za )V bn − Za V cn − Zc Van
=
∆Z
(Zc + Za )V bn − Zc V an − Za V cn
= (3.52)
∆Z
and
(Za + Zb )V cn − Zb V an − Za V bn
I c = −I 2 = −I b − I a = (3.53)
∆Z
Alternatively phase currents can be expressed as following.
V an − V N n
Ia =
Za
V bn − V N n
Ib = (3.54)
Zb
V cn − V N n
Ic =
Zc
86
Applying Kirchoff’s current law at node N , we get I a + I b + I c = 0. Therefore from the above
equation,
V an − V N n V bn − V N n V cn − V N n
+ + = 0. (3.55)
Za Zb Zc
Which implies that,

V an V bn V cn 1 1 1 Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za
+ + = + + V Nn = V Nn (3.56)
Za Zb Zc Za Zb Zc Za Zb Zc
From the above equation the voltage between the load and system neutral can be found. It is given
below.

Za Zb Zc V an V bn V cn
V Nn = + +
∆Z Za Zb Zc

1 V an V bn V cn
= 1 + + (3.57)
Za
Some interesting points are observed from the above formulation.
impedances are balanced i.e., Za = Zb = Zc = Z, then

1. If both source voltage and load
V N n = 13 V an + V bn + V cn = 0. Thus their will not be any voltage between two neutrals.
2. If supply voltage are balanced and load impedances are unbalanced, then V N n 6=0 and is
given by the above equation.
1

3. If supply voltages are not balanced but load impedances are identical, then V N n = 3
V an + V bn + V cn .
This equivalent to zero sequence voltage V 0 .
It is interesting to note that if the two neutrals are connected together i.e., V N n = 0, then each
phase become independent through neutral. Such configuration is called three-phase four-wire
system. In general, three-phase four-wire system has following properties.
)
V Nn = 0
(3.58)
I a + I b + I c = I N n 6= 0
The current I N n is equivalent to zero sequence current (I 0 ) and it will flow in the neutral wire.
For three-phase three-wire system, the zero sequence current is always zero and therefore following
properties are satisfied.
)
V N n 6= 0
(3.59)
Ia + Ib + Ic = 0
Thus, it is interesting to observe that three-phase three-wire and three-phase four-wire system have
dual properties in regard to neutral voltage and current.
87
c c
Ic Ic
bc
ca Z lc
Yl Yl
Z lb n Z la
Ib Ib
a a
b ab b
Yl
Ia Ia
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.9 (a) An unbalanced delta connected load (b) Its equivalent star connected load
3.4.2 Representation of Three-phase Delta Connected Unbalanced Load

A three-phase delta connected unbalanced and its equivalent star connected load are shown in Fig.
3.9(a) and (b) respectively. The three-phase load is represented by line-line admittances as given
below.

Ylab = Gab
l + jB ab
l 
bc bc bc (3.60)
Yl = Gl + jBl
ca ca

ca 
Yl = Gl + jBl
The delta connected load can be equivalently converted to star connected load using following
expressions.
Zlab Zlca

a
Zl = ab 

Zl + Zlbc + Zlca 



bc ab

b Zl Zl 
Zl = ab (3.61)
Zl + Zlbc + Zlca 

Zlca Zlbc


c 
Zl = ab bc ca


Zl + Zl + Zl
Where Zlab = 1/Ylab , Zlbc = 1/Ylbc and Zlca = 1/Ylca . The above equation can also be written in
admittance form
Ylab Ylbc + Ylbc Ylca + Ylca Ylab 

a
Yl = 
Ylbc




ab bc bc ca

ca ab 
Y Y + Y Y + Y Y
Yl b = l l l l l l
(3.62)
Ylca 


Ylab Ylbc + Ylbc Ylca + Ylca Ylab 

c 
Yl = ab


Yl
Example 3.3 Consider three-phase system supply a delta connected unbalanced load with Zal =
Ra = 10 Ω, Zbl = Rb = 15 Ω and Zcl = Rc = 30 Ω as shown in Fig. 3.8. Determine the voltage
88
between neutrals and find the phase currents. Assume a balance supply voltage with rms value of
230 V. Find out the vector and arithmetic power factor. Comment upon the results.
Solution: The voltage between neutrals V N n is given as following.

Ra Rb Rc V an V bn V cn
VN n = + +
Ra Rb + Rb Rc + Rc Ra Ra Rb Rc
o
V ∠−120o V ∠120o

10 × 15 × 30 V ∠0
= + +
10 × 15 + 15 × 30 + 30 × 10 10 15 30
o o o

4500 3V ∠0 + 2V ∠−120 + V ∠120
=
900 30
" √ ! √ !#
4500 1 1 3 1 3
= V 3+2 − −j + − +j
900 30 2 2 2 2
" √ √ #
V 1 3 3
= 3 − 1 − − j2 × +j
6 2 2 2
" √ #
V 3 3 1 1
= −j =V − j √ = V [0.25 − j0.1443]
6 2 2 4 4 3
V
VN n = √ ∠−30o = 66.39∠−30o Volts
2 3
Knowing this voltage, we can find phase currents as following.

√
V an − V N n V ∠0o − V /(2 3)∠−30o
Ia = =
Ra 10
V [1 − 0.25 + j0.1443]
=
10
= 230 × [0.075 + j0.01443]
= 17.56∠10.89o Amps
Similarly,
√
V bn − V N n V ∠ − 120o − V /(2 3)∠−30o
Ib = =
Rb 15
= 230 × [−0.05 − j0.04811]
= 15.94∠−136.1o Amps
and
√
V cn − V N n V ∠120o − V /(2 3)∠−30o
Ic = =
Zc 30
= 230 × [−0.025 + j0.03367]
= 9.64 ∠126.58o Amps
89
It can been seen that I a + I b + I c = 0. The phase powers are computed as below.
S a = V a (I a )∗ = Pa + jQa = 230 × 17.56∠ − 10.81o = 3976.12 − j757.48 VA

S b = V b (I b )∗ = Pb + jQb = 230 × 15.94∠(−120o + 136.1o = 3522.4 + j1016.69 VA
S c = V c (I c )∗ = Pc + jQc = 230 × 9.64∠(120o − 126.58o ) = 2202.59 − j254.06 VA
From the
above the total
apparent power S V = S a + S b + S c = 9692.11 + j0 VA. Therefore,
SV = S a + S b + S c = 9692.11 VA.

The total arithmetic apparent power SA = S a + S b + S c == 9922.2 VA. Therefore, the
arithmetic and vector apparent power factors are given by,
P 9692.11
p fA = = = 0.9768
SA 9922.2
P 9622.11
p fV = = = 1.00.
SV 9622.11
It is interesting to note that although the load in each phase is resistive but each phase has some
reactive power. This is due to unbalance of the load currents. This apparently increases the rating
of power conductors for given amount of power transfer. It is also to be noted that the net reactive
power Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 leading to the unity vector apparent power factor . However the
arithmetic apparent power factor is less than unity showing the effect of the unbalance loads on the
power factor.
3.4.3 An Alternate Approach to Determine Phase Currents and Powers

In this section, an alternate approach will be discussed to solve phase currents and powers directly
without computing the neutral voltage for the system shown in Fig.3.9(a). First we express three-
phase voltage in the following form.
V a = V ∠0o
V b = V ∠ − 120o = α2 V (3.63)
V c = V ∠1200 = αV
Where, in above equation, α is known as complex operator and value of α and α2 are given below.
√
α = ej2π/3 = 1∠120o = −1/2 + j 3/2
√
α2 = ej4π/3 = 1∠240 = 1∠ − 120 = −1/2 − j 3/2 (3.64)
Also note the following property,
1 + α + α2 = 0. (3.65)
Using the above, the line to line voltages can be expressed as following.
90
V ab = V a − V b = (1 − α2 )V
V bc = V b − V c = (α2 − α)V (3.66)
V ca = V c − V a = (α − 1)V
Therefore, currents in line ab, bc and ca are given as,
I abl = Y ab ab
l V ab = Yl (1 − α )V
2
I bcl = Ylbc V bc = Ylbc (α2 − α)V (3.67)

I cal = Ylca V ca = Ylca (α − 1)V
Hence line currents are given as,
I al = I abl − I cal = [Ylab (1 − α2 ) − Ylca (α − 1)]V

I bl = I bcl − I abl = [Ylbc (α2 − α) − Ylab (1 − α2 )]V (3.68)
I cl = I cal − I bcl = [Ylca (α − 1) − Ylbc (α2 − α)]V
Example 3.4 Compute line currents by using above expressions directly for the problem in Exam-
ple 3.3.
Solution: To compute line currents directly from the above expressions, we need to compute Ylab .
These are given below
1 Zlc
Ylab = =
Zlab Zal Zbl + Zbl Zcl + Zcl Zal
1 Zla
Ylbc = = (3.69)
Zlbc Zal Zbl + Zbl Zcl + Zcl Zal
1 Zlb
Ylca = =
Zlca Zal Zbl + Zbl Zcl + Zcl Zal
Substituting, Zal = Ra = 10 Ω, Zbl = Rb = 15 Ω and Zcl = Rc = 30 Ω into above equation, we get

the following.
1
Ylab = Gab = Ω
30
1
Ylbc = Gbc = Ω
90
1
Ylca = Gca = Ω
60
Substituting above values of the admittances in (3.68) , line currents are computed as below.
91
" ( √ ) ( √ )#
1 1 3 1 1 3
Ia = 1 − (− − j ) − (− + j )−1 V
30 2 2 60 2 2
= V (0.075 + j0.0144)
= 0.07637 V ∠10.89o
= 17.56∠10.89o Amps, for V=230 V
Similarly for Phase-b current,

" ( √ √ ) ( √ )#
1 1 3 1 3 1 1 3
Ib = (− − j ) − (− + j ) − 1 − (− − j ) V
90 2 2 2 2 30 2 2
= V (−0.05 − j0.0481)
= 0.06933 V ∠ − 136.1o
= 15.94∠ − 136.91o Amps, for V=230 V
Similarly for Phase-c current,
" ( √ ) ( √ √ )#
1 1 3 1 1 3 1 3
Ic = (− + j ) − 1) − (− − j ) − (− + j ) V
60 2 2 90 2 2 2 2
= V (−0.025 + j0.0336)
= 0.04194 V ∠126.58o
= 9.64∠126.58o Amps, for V=230 V
Thus it is found that the above values are similar to what have been found in previous Example
3.3. The other quantities such as powers and power factors are same.
3.4.4 An Example of Balancing an Unbalanced Delta Connected Load

An unbalanced delta connected load is shown in Fig. 3.10(a). As can be seen from the figure that
between phase-a and b there is admittance Ylab = Gab l and other two branches are open. This is
an example of extreme unbalanced load. Obviously for this load, line currents will be extremely
unbalanced. Now we aim to make these line currents to be balanced and in phase with their phase
voltages. So, let us assume that we add admittances Yγab , Yγbc and Yγca between phases ab, bc and
ca respectively as shown in Fig. 3.10(b) and (c). Let values of compensator susceptances are given
by,
Yγab = 0
√
Yγbc = jGab
l / 3
√
Yγca = −jGabl / 3
92
c c c
Y
Ic Ic Ic
ca
3
Y
ca
3

l /
0
G ab

Yl
/
G ab
jGl
ca
j
ab
Yl
l
Yl bc
jG l
ca
0
j
Y bc
ab
0
0
Yl bc
bc
/
Y
3
Ib Ib Ib
a a a
b b Yl ab  Glab b Y ab  Glab
Yl  G
ab
l
ab
Ia Ia Yab  0 Ia
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 3.10 (a) An unbalanced three-phase load (b) With compensator (c) Compensated system
Thus total admittances between lines are given by,
Y ab = Ylab + Yγab = Gab

l + 0 = Gl
ab
√ √
Y bc = Ylbc + Yγbc = 0 + jGab ab
l / 3 = jGl / 3
√ √
Y ca = Ylca + Yγca = 0 − jGab ab
l / 3 = −jGl / 3.
Therefore the impedances between load lines are given by,
1 1
Z ab = =
Y ab Gab
l
√
1 −j 3
Z bc = =
Y bc Gab
√l
1 j 3
Z ca = ca
= ab
Y Gl
√ √
Note that Z ab + Z bc + Z ca = 1/Gab ab ab
l − j 3/Gl + j 3/Gl = 1/Gl .
ab
The impedances, Za , Zb and Zc of equivalent star connected load are given as follows.
Z ab × Z ca
Za =
Z ab + Z bc√+ Z ca
1 j 3 1
= ( ab × ab )/( ab )
Gl Gl Gl
√
j 3
=
Gab
l
93
Z bc × Z ab
Zb =
Z ab + Z bc +
√Z
ca
1 −j 3 1
= ( ab × ab
)/( ab )
Gl Gl Gl
√
−j 3
=
Gabl
Z ca × Z bc
Zc =
Z ab √
+ Z bc +√Z ca
−j 3 j 3 1
= ( ab × ab )/( ab )
Gl Gl Gl
3
=
Gab
l
The above impedances seen from the load side are shown in Fig. 3.11(a) below. Using (3.57),
c c
Ic Ic
3 1
Load
Z  ab
l
c
Gl Glab
3
Zlb   j 1
Glab n
Source
Glab N
Ib Ib 1 a
Zla  j
3 a Glab
b Glab b
Ia Ia
Fig. 3.11 Compensated system (a) Load side (b) Source side
the voltage between load and system neutral of delta equivalent star load as shown in Fig. 3.11, is
computed as below.

1 V an V bn V cn
VN n = 1 + +
Za
V ∠0o V ∠ − 120o V ∠120o

1
= √ + √ +
√ 1 1
+ (−j √3/G 3
ab ) + Gab j 3/Gab −j 3/Gab 3/Gab
(j 3/Gab ) l l l
l l l
ab ab

3V Gl G
= ab
− j √l
Gl 3 3
√ !
1 3
= 2V −j
2 2
= 2 V ∠ − 60o
94
Using above value of neutral voltage the line currents are computed as following.
V an − V N n
Ia =
Za
[V ∠0o − 2 V ∠ − 60o ]
= √
j Gab3
l
= Gab
l V = Gab
l Va
V bn − V N n
Ib =
Zb
[V ∠ − 120o − 2 V ∠ − 60o ]
= √
−j Gab3
l
= Gab
l V ∠240 o
= Gab
l Vb
V cn − V N n
Ic =
Zc
[V ∠120o − 2 V ∠ − 60o ]
= 3
Gab
l
= Gab
l V ∠120
o
= Gab
l Vc
From the above example, it is seen that the currents in each phase are balanced and in phase with
their respective voltages. This is equivalently shown in Fig. 3.11(b). It is to be mentioned here that
the two neutrals in Fig. 3.11 are not same. In Fig. 3.11(b), the neutral N is same as the system
neutral as shown in Fig. 3.8, whereas in Fig. 3.11(a), √ V N n = 2 V ∠−60o .√However the reader
may be curious to know why Yγab = 0, Yγbc = jGab l / 3 and γ
ca
= −jGab l / 3 have been chosen
as compensator admittance values. The answer of the question can be found by going following
sections.
3.5 A Generalized Approach for Load Compensation using Symmetrical

Components
In the previous section, we have expressed line currents I a , I b and I c , in terms load admittances
and the voltage V for a delta connected unbalanced load as shown in Fig 3.12(a). For the sake of
completeness, theses are reproduced below.
95
I al = I abl − I cal = [Ylab (1 − α2 ) − Ylca (α − 1)]V
I bl = I bcl − I abl = [Ylbc (α2 − α) − Ylab (1 − α2 )]V (3.70)
I cl = I cal − I bcl = [Ylca (α − 1) − Ylbc (α2 − α)]V
c c
I cl Ic
ca
ca
Ybc bc ca Y
Yl bc Yl
Yl Yl
I bl Ib
Yl ab a Yl ab a
b b ab
I al Ia Y
(a) (b)
Fig. 3.12 (a) An unbalanced delta connested load (b) Compensated system
Since loads are currents are unbalanced, these will have positive and negative currents. The zero
sequence current will be zero as it is three-phase and three-wire system. These symmetrical com-
ponents of the load currents are expressed as following.
    
I 0l 1 1 1 I al
I 1l  = √1 1 a a2   I bl  (3.71)
I 2l 3 1 a2 a I cl
From the above equation, zero sequence current is given below.

√
I 0l = I al + I al + I al / 3
The positive sequence current is as follows.

1
I 1l = √ I al + αI bl + α2 I cl

3
1
= √ [ Ylab (1 − α2 ) − Ylca (α − 1) + α Ylbc (α2 − α) − Ylab (1 − α2 )

3
+α2 Ylca (α − 1) − Ylbc (α − α2 ) ] V

1
= √ [ Ylab − α2 Ylab + Ylca − αYlca + α3 Ylbc − α2 Ylbc − αYlab − α3 Ylab + α3 Ylca − α2 Ylca
3
−α4 Ylbc + α3 Ylbc ] V
√
= Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca V 3
96
Similarly negative sequence component of the current is,
1
I al + α2 I bl + αI cl

I 2l = √
3
1
= √ [Ylab (1 − α2 ) − Ylca (α − 1) + α2 Ylbc (α2 − α) − Ylab (1 − α2 )

3
+α Ylca (α − 1) − Ylbc (α2 − α) ]V̄

1
= √ [ Ylab − α2 Ylab − αYlca + Ylca + α4 Ylbc − α3 Ylbc − α2 Ylab
3
+α4 Ylab + α2 Ylca − αYlca − α3 Ylbc + α2 Ylbc ] V
1
= √ [ −3α2 Ylab − 3Ylbc − 3αYlca ] V
3
√
= −[α2 Ylab + Ylbc + αYlca ] 3V
From the above, it can be written that,
I 0l = 0
√
I 1l = Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca 3V (3.72)
√
I 2l = − α2 Ylab + Ylbc + αYl ca
3V
When compensator is used, three delta branches Yγab , Yγbc and Yγca are added as shown in Fig.
3.12(b). Using above analysis, the sequence components of the compensator currents can be given
as below.
I 0γ = 0
√
I 1γ = Yγab + Yγbc + Yγca 3V (3.73)
√
I 2γ = − α2 Yγab + Yγbc + αYγca 3V
Since, compensator currents are purely reactive, i.e., Gab bc ca
γ = Gγ = Gγ = 0,
Yγab = Gab ab ab
γ + jBγ = jBγ
Yγbc = Gbc bc bc
γ + jBγ = jBγ (3.74)
Yγca = Gca ca ca
γ + jBγ = jBγ .
Using above, the compensated sequence currents can be written as,

I 0γ = 0
√
I 1γ = j Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca 3V (3.75)
√
I 2γ = −j(α2 Bγab + Bγbc + αBγca ) 3 V
Knowing nature of compensator and load currents, we can set compensation objectives as fol-
lowing.
1. All negative sequence component of the load current must be supplied from the compensator
negative current, i.e.,
I 2l = −I 2γ (3.76)
97
The above further implies that,

Re I 2l + j Im I 2l = −Re I 2γ − j Im I 2γ (3.77)
2. The total positive sequence current, which is source current should have desired power factor
from the source, i.e.,
Im (I 1l + I 1γ )
= tan φ = β (3.78)
Re (I 1l + I 1γ )
Where, φ is the desired phase angle between the line currents and the supply voltages. The above
equation thus implies that,
Im (I 1l + I 1γ ) = β Re (I 1l + I 1γ ) (3.79)
Since Re (I 1γ ) = 0, the above equation is rewritten as following.
Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) = −Im (I 1γ ) (3.80)
The equation (3.77) gives two conditions and equation (3.79) gives one condition. There are
three unknown variables, i.e., Bγab , Bγbc and Bγca and three conditions. Therefore the unknown
variables can be solved. This is described in the following section. Using (3.75), the current I 2γ is
expressed as following.
√
I 2γ = −j[α2 Bγab + Bγbc + αBγca ] 3 V
" √ ! √ ! #
1 3 1 3 √
= −j − −j Bγab + Bγbc + − + j Bγca 3V
2 2 2 2
" √ √ ! #
√

3 ab 3 ca 1 ab 1
= − Bγ + Bγ − j − Bγ + Bγbc − Bγca 3V (3.81)
2 2 2 2

= Re I 2γ − j Im I 2γ
Thus the above equation implies that
√ √ !
3 ab 3 ca 1 1
Bγ − Bγ = − √ Re I 2γ = √ Re I 2l (3.82)
2 2 3V 3V
and,

1 1 1 1
− Bγab + Bγbc − Bγca

= − √ Im I 2γ = √ Im I 2l (3.83)
2 2 3V 3V
Or
1
−Bγab + 2 Bγbc − Bγca = √ 2 Im I 2l

(3.84)
3V
98
From (3.75), Im (I 1γ ) can be written as,
√
Im (I 1γ ) = Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca 3 V. (3.85)
Substituting Im (I 1γ ) from above equation into (3.85), we get the following.
1 1
−(Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca ) = − √ Im (I 1γ ) = √

Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) (3.86)
3V 3V
Subtracting (3.86) from (3.84), the following is obtained,
−1
Bγbc = √ [Im (I 1l ) − 2 Im (I 2l ) − β Re (I 1l )]. (3.87)
3 3V̄
Now, from (3.82) we have
1 1 1
− Bγab − Bγca = √ Im (I 2l ) − Bγbc
2 2 3V

1 −1
= √ Im (I 2l ) − √ Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) − 2 Im (I 2l )
3V 3 3V
1
= √ Im (I 2l ) + Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) (3.88)
3 3V
Reconsidering (3.88) and (3.82), we have
1 1 ca 1
− Bγab −

Bγ = √ Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) − β Re (I 1l )
2 2 3 3V
1 ab 1 ca 1 √
B − Bγ = √ [ 3Re (I 2l )]
2 γ 2 3 3V
Adding above equations, we get

−1 √
Bγca = √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3Re (I 2l ) − βRe (I 1l )]. (3.89)
3 3V
Therefore,
2 √
Bγab = Bγca + √ [ 3Re (I 2l )] (3.90)
3 3V
−1 √ √
= √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3Re (I 2l ) − βRe (I 1l ) − 2 3Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
−1 √
= √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) − 3Re (I 2l ) − βRe (I 1l )] (3.91)
3 3V
From the above, the compensator susceptances in terms of real and imaginary parts of the load
99
current can be written as following.
−1 √
Bγab = √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) − 3 Re (I 2l ) − β Re (I 1l )]
3 3V
−1
Bγbc = √ [Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) − 2Im (I 2l − β Re (I 1l )] (3.92)
3 3V
−1 √
Bγca = √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l ) − β Re (I 1l )]
3 3V
In the above equation, the susceptances of the compensator are expressed in terms of real and
imaginary parts of symmetrical components of load currents. It is however advantageous to express
these susceptances in terms of instantaneous values of voltages and currents from implementation
point of view. The first step to achieve this is to express these susceptances in terms of load
currents, i.e., I al , I bl and I cl , which is described below. Using equation (3.71), the sequence
components of the load currents are expressed as,
1
I¯0l = √ I¯al + I¯bl + I¯cl

3
1
I¯1l = √ I¯al + αI¯bl + α2 I¯cl

(3.93)
3
1
I¯2l = √ I¯al + α2 I¯1l + αI¯cl .

3
Substituting these values of sequence components of load currents, in (3.92), we can obtain com-
pensator susceptances in terms of real and inaginary components of the load currents. Let us start
from the Bγbc , as obtained following.
1
Bγbc = − √

Im(I 1l ) − 2Im(I 2l ) − β Re(I 1l )
3 3V
I al + αI bl + α2 I cl I al + α2 I bl + αI cl I al + αI bl + α2 I cl

1
=− √ Im √ − 2 Im √ − β Re √
3 3V 3 3 3
1
Im (−I al + (2 + 3α)I bl + (2 + 3α2 )I cl − β Re (I al + αI bl + α2 I cl )

=−
9V
1
Im −I al + 2I bl + 2I cl + 3αI bl + 3α2 I cl − β Re (I al + αI bl + α2 I cl )

=−
9V
By adding and subracting I bl and I cl in the above equation we get,
1
Bγbc = − Im (−I al − I bl − I cl ) + 3I bl + 3I cl + 3α I bl + α2 I cl − β Re(I al + αI bl + α2 I cl )

9V
We know that I al +I bl +I cl =0, therefore I al + I bl = −I cl .

1 β
Bγbc 2 2

=− −Im I al + Im αI bl + Im α I cl − Re I al + αI bl + α I cl (3.94)
3V 3
100
Similarly, it can be proved that,

1 β
Bγca 2 2

=− Im I al − Im αI bl + Im α I cl − Re I al + αI bl + α I cl (3.95)
3V 3

1 β
Bγab 2
− Re I al + αI bl + α2 I cl

=− Im I al + Im αI bl − Im α I cl (3.96)
3V 3
The above expressions for Bγca and Bγab are proved below. For convenience, the last term associated
with β is not considered. For the sake simplicity in equations (3.95) and (3.96) are proved to those
given in equations (3.92).
−1
Bγca = Im I al − Im αI bl + Im α2 I cl

3V " ( )#
1 I 0l + I 1l + I 2l I 0l + α2 I 1l + αI 2l I 0l + αI 1l + α 2
I 2l
=− Im √ −α √ + α2 √
3V 3 3 3
Since I 0l =0
1
Bγca = − √ Im I 1l − 2α2 I 2l

3 3V " √ ! #
1 1 3
=− √ Im I 1l − 2 − − j I 2l
3 3V 2 2
1 h √ i
=− √ Im I 1l + I 2l + j 3I 2l
3 3V
1 h √ i
=− √ Im I 1l + Im I 2l + 3Re I 2l
3 3V
Note that Im(jI 2l ) = Re(I 2l ). Adding β term, we get the following.
1 h √ i
Bγca = − √

Im(I 1l ) + Im(I 2l ) + 3Re I 2l − βRe(I 1l )
3 3V
Similarly,
1
Bγab = − Im I al + Im αI bl − Im α2 I cl

3V " ( )#
1 I 0l + I 1l + I 2l I 0l + α2 I 1l + αI 2l 2
2 I 0l + αI 1l + α I 2l
=− Im √ +α √ −α √
3V 3 3 3
101
1
Bγab = − √

Im I 1l − 2αI 2l
3 3V " √ ! #
1 1 3
=− √ Im I 1l − 2 − + j I 2l
3 3V 2 2
1 h √ i
=− √ Im I 1l + I 2l − j 3I 2l
3 3V
1 h √ i
=− √ Im I 1l + Im I 2l − 3Re I 2l
3 3V
Thus, Compensator susceptances are expressed as following.

1 β
Bγab=− 2 2
Im(I al ) + Im(αI bl ) − Im(α I cl ) − Re(I al + αI bl + α I cl )
3V 3

bc 1 2 β 2
Bγ = − −Im(I al ) + Im(αI bl ) + Im(α I cl ) − Re(I al + αI bl + α I cl ) (3.97)
3V 3

ca 1 2 β 2
Bγ = − Im(I al ) − Im(αI bl ) + Im(α I cl ) − Re(I al + αI bl + α I cl )
3V 3
An unity power factor is desired from the source. For this cos φl = 1, implying tan φl = 0 hence
β = 0. Thus we have,
1

3V
bc 1
−Im I al + Im αI bl + Im α2 I cl

Bγ = − (3.98)
3V
ca 1
Im I al − Im αI bl + Im α2 I cl

Bγ = −
3V
The above equations are easy to realize in order to find compensator susceptances. As mentioned
above, sampling and averaging techniques will be used to convert above equation into their time
equivalents. These are described below.
3.5.1 Sampling Method
Each current phasor in above equation can be expressed as,
I al = Re(I al ) + jIm(I al )
= Ial,R + jIal,X (3.99)
102
An instantaneous phase current is written as follows.
√
ial (t) = 2 I al Im (ejωt )
√
= 2 Im (I al ejωt )
√
= 2 Im (Ial,R + jIal,X ) ejωt

√
= 2 Im [(Ial,R + jIal,X )(cos ωt + j sin ωt)]
√
= 2 Im [(Ial,R cos ωt − Ial,X sin ωt) + j(Ial,R sin ωt + Ial,X cos ωt)]
√
= 2 [(Ial,R sin ωt + Ial,X cos ωt)] (3.100)
ial (t)
Im (I al ) = I al,X = √ at sin ωt = 0, cos ωt = 1 (3.101)
2
From equation (3.63), the phase voltages can be expressed as below.
√
va (t) = 2 V sin ωt
√
vb (t) = 2 V sin(ωt − 120o ) (3.102)
√
vc (t) = 2 V sin(ωt + 120o )
From above voltage expressions, it is to be noted that, sin ωt = 0, cos ωt = 1 implies that the
phase-a voltage, va (t) is going through a positive zero crossing, hence, va (t) = 0 and dtd va (t) = 0.
Therefore, equation (3.101), can be expressed as following.
ial (t)
I a,l = √ when, va (t) = 0, dva /dt > 0 (3.103)
2
Similarly,
I b,l = Ibl,R + jIbl,X (3.104)

Therefore,
α (I b,l ) = α(Ibl,R + jIbl,X )

√ !
1 3
= − +j (Ibl,R + jIbl,X )
2 2
√ ! √ !
1 3 3 1
= − Ibl,R − Ibl,X + j Ibl,R − Ibl,X
2 2 2 2
(3.105)
From the above,
√
3 1
Im {α (Ibl )} = Ibl,R − Ibl,X (3.106)
2 2
103
Similar to equation, (3.100), we can express phase-b current in terms Im (α I bl ), as given below.
√
ibl (t) = 2 Im (I bl ejωt )
√
= 2 Im (α I bl ejwt α−1 )
√ 0
= 2 Im (αI bl ej(wt−120 ) )
" √ ! #
√ 1 3 0
= 2 Im − +j (I bl,R + jI bl,X ) ej(wt−120 )
2 2
√ ! √ !
√ 1 3 3 1
= 2 Im [ − Ibl,R − Ibl,X + j Ibl,R − Ibl,X
2 2 2 2
(cos(wt − 1200 ) + j sin(wt − 1200 )) ]

(3.107)
" √ √ #
√ 1 3 3 1
= 2 (− I bl,R − I bl,X ) sin(wt − 1200 ) + ( I bl,R − I bl,X ) cos(wt − 1200 )
2 2 2 2
From the above equation, we get the following.
ibl (t)
Im (αI bl ) = √ when, vb (t) = 0, dvb /dt > 0 (3.108)
2
Similarly for Phase-c, it can proved that,
icl (t)
Im (α2 I cl ) = √ when, vc (t) = 0, dvc /dt > 0 (3.109)
2
Substituting Im (I al ) , Im (αI bl ) and Im (α2 I cl ) from (3.103), (3.108) and (3.109) respectively, in
(3.98), we get the following.
1 h i
Brab = − √ ia |(va =0, dva >0) + ib |(v dvb − ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)
b =0, dt >0)
3 2V dt dt
1 h i
Brbc = − √ −ia |(va =0, dva >0) + ib |(v + ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)
dvb (3.110)
b =0, dt >0)
3 2V dt dt
1 h i
Brca = − √ ia |(va =0, dva >0) − ib |(v =0, dvb >0) + ic |(vc =0, dvc >0)
3 2V dt b dt dt
Thus the desired compensating susceptances are expressed in terms of the three line currents sam-
pled at instants defined by positive-going zero crossings of the line-neutral voltages va , vb , vc . An
artificial neutral at ground potential may be created measuring voltages va , vb and vc to implement
above algorithm.
3.5.2 Averaging Method

In this method, we express the compensator susceptances in terms of real and reactive power terms
and finally expressed them in time domain through averaging process. The method is described
104
below.
From equation (3.98), susceptance, Bγab , can be re-written as following.
1

3V
1
= − 2 V Im I al + V Im αI bl − V Im α2 I cl

3V
1
= − 2 Im V I al + Im V αI bl − Im V α2 I cl

(3.111)
3V
Note the following property of phasors and applying it for the simplification of the above expres-
sion.
∗ ∗

Im V I = −Im V I (3.112)
Using above equation (3.111) can be written as,
1
Bγab = Im (V I al )∗ + Im (αV a I bl )∗ − Im (α2 V I cl )∗

3V 2
1 h ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ 2 ∗ ∗ ∗
i
= Im (V a I al ) + Im (α V a I bl ) − Im ((α ) V a I cl )
3V 2
1 h ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗ ∗
i
= Im (V a I al ) + Im (α2 V a I bl ) − Im (αV a I cl )
3V 2
∗ ∗ ∗
Since V a = V ∠0o is a reference phasor, therefore V a = V a = V , α2 V a = V b and α V a = V c .
Using this, the above equation can be written as following.
1 h ∗ ∗ ∗
i
Bγab
= Im (V a I al ) + Im (V b I bl ) − Im (V c I cl )
3V 2
1 h ∗ ∗ ∗
i
Similarly, Bγbc = −Im (V a I al ) + Im (V b I bl ) + Im (V c I cl ) (3.113)
3V 2
1 h ∗ ∗ ∗
i
Bγca = Im (V a I al ) − Im (V b I bl ) + Im (V c I cl )
3V 2
It can be further proved that,
1 T
Z
∗
Im (V a I a)= va (t)∠(−π/2) ial (t) dt
T 0
1 T
Z
∗
Im (V b I b ) = vb (t)∠(−π/2) ibl (t) dt (3.114)
T 0
1 T
Z
∗
Im (V c I c ) = vc (t)∠(−π/2) icl (t) dt
T 0
105
Since,
√
va (t)∠(−π/2) = vbc (t)/ 3
√
vb (t)∠(−π/2) = vca (t)/ 3
√
vc (t)∠(−π/2) = vca (t)/ 3
Equation (3.115) can be written as,
Z T
∗ 1
Im (V a I a) =√ vbc (t) ial (t) dt
3T 0
Z T
∗ 1
Im (V b I b ) = √ vca (t) ibl (t) dt (3.115)
3T 0
Z T
∗ 1
Im (V c I c ) = √ vab (t) icl (t) dt
3T 0
∗ ∗ ∗
Substituting above values of Im (V a I a ), Im (V b I b ) and Im (V c I c ) into (3.113), we get the fol-
lowing.
1 T
Z
1
Bγab = √ (vbc ial + vca ibl − vab icl ) dt
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
1 T
Z
1
Bγbc = √ (−vbc ial + vca ibl + vab icl ) dt (3.116)
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
1 T
Z
1
Bγca = √ (vbc ial − vca ibl + vab icl ) dt
(3 3V 2 ) T 0
The above equations can directly be used to know the the compensator susceptances by performing
the
R T averaging
R t1 +T on line the product of the line to line voltages and phase load currents. The term
0
= t1 can be implemented using moving average of one cycle. This improves transient
response by computing average value at each instant. But in this case the controller response
which changes the susceptance value, should match to that of the above computing algorithm.
3.6 Compensator Admittance Represented as Positive and Negative Sequence

Admittance Network
Recalling the following relations from equation (3.92) for unity power factor operation i.e. β = 0,
we get the following.
−1 √
Bγab = √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) − 3 Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
−1
Bγbc = √ [Im (I 1l ) − β Re (I 1l ) − 2Im (I 2l )] (3.117)
3 3V
−1 √
Bγca = √ [Im (I 1l ) + Im (I 2l ) + 3 Re (I 2l )]
3 3V
106
From these equations, it is evident the the first terms form the positive sequence suceptance as they
involve I 1l terms. Similarly, the second and third terms in above equation form negative sequence
susceptance of the compensator, as these involve I 2l terms. Thus, we can write,
Bγab = Bγ1
ab ab
+ Bγ2
ab
Bγab = Bγ1 ab
+ Bγ2 (3.118)
Bγab = ab
Bγ1 + ab
Bγ2
Therefore,
1
ab bc ca
Im(I¯1l )

Bγ1 = Bγ1 = Bγ1 =− √ (3.119)
3 3V
And,
ab 1 √
Bγ2 = − √ Im(I 2l ) − 3Re(I 2l )
3 3V
bc 1
Bγ2 = − √ −2 Im(I 2l ) (3.120)
3 3V
ca 1 √
Bγ2 = − √ Im(I 2l ) + 3Re(I 2l )
3 3V
Earlier in equation, (3.121), it was established that,
I 0l = 0
√
I 1l = Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca 3V
√
I 2l = − α2 Ylab + Ylbc + αYlca 3V
Noting that,
Ylab = Gab
l + jBl
ab
Ylbc = Gbc bc
l + jBl
Ylca = Gca
l + jBl
ca
Therefore,
√
Im (I 1l ) = Im ((Ylab + Ylbc + Ylca ) 3V )
√
= (Blab + Blbc + Blca ) 3V (3.121)
Thus equation (3.119) is re-written as following.
ab bc ca 1
Blab + Blab + Blca

Bγ1 = Bγ1 = Bγ1 =− (3.122)
3
107
ab bc ca
Now we shall compute Bγ2 , Bγ2 and Bγ2 using equations (3.120) as following. Knowing that,
√
I¯2l = − α2 Ylab + Ylbc + αYlca 3V
" √ ! √ ! #
−1 j 3 −1 j 3 √
Gab ab bc bc ca ca

=− − l + jB l + G l + jB l + + (G l + jB l ) 3V
2 2 2 2
" √ √ √ √ !#
Gab
l 3 ab bc Gcal 3 ca 3 ab Blab bc 3 ca Blca √
=− − + Bl + Gl − − Bl − j Gl + − Bl − Gl + 3V
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
" √ √ √ √ !#
Gab
l 3 G ca
l 3 3 Bl
ab
3 B ca
l
√
= − Blab − Gbc l + + Blca + j Gab
l + − Blbc − Gca
l + 3V
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
(3.123)
√ √ !
3 ab Blab 3 B ca
l
√
Im (I 2l ) = Gl + − Blbc − Gca
l + 3V
2 2 2 2
√ √ !
√ 3 ab 3 ab √ bc 3 ca 3 ca √
− 3 Re(I 2l ) = − G + Bl + 3Gl − G − Bl 3V
2 l 2 2 l 2
ab
Thus, Bγ2 can be given as,
ab 1 h ab √ √ ca i √
Bγ2 =− √ 2Bl − Blbc − Blca + 3 Gbc l − 3 Gl 3V
3 3V
1h √ i
= − 2Blab − Blbc − Blca + 3 Gbc l − Gca
l
3
1 1
= √ Gca bc
Blbc + Blca − 2Blab

l − Gl + (3.124)
3 3
Similarly,
1 h √ i
ca
Bγ2 =− √ Im(I¯2l ) + 3 Re(I¯2l )
3 3V "
√ √ √ √ #
1 3 ab Bl ab
3 ca Bl ca
3 ab 3 ab √ 3 ca 3 ca √
=− √ Gl + − Blbc − Gl + + Gl − Bl − 3Gbc
l + G + Bl 3V
3 3V 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 l 2
1 h√ ab √ bc i
=− 3Gl − 3Gl − Blab − Blbc + 2Blca
3
1 1
= √ Gbc ab
Blab + Blbc − 2Blca

l − Gl + (3.125)
3 3
bc
And, Bγ2 is computed as below.
108
1
bc
−2Im(I¯2l )

Bγ2 =− √
3 3V
√ √ !
2 3 ab Blab 3 Bl
ca √
= √ Gl + − Blbc − Gca
l + V 3
3 3V 2 2 2 2
1 1
= √ Gab ca
Blab + Blca − 2Blbc

l − Gl + (3.126)
3 3
Using (3.119), (3.124)-(3.126), We therefore can find the overall compensator susceptances as
following.
Bγab = Bγ1
ab ab
+ Bγ2
1 1 1
= − Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca + √ Gca bc
Blca + Blbc − 2Blab

l − Gl +
3 3 3
1
= −Blab + √ Gca bc

l − Gl
3
Similarly,
Bγbc = Bγ1
bc bc
+ Bγ2
1 1 1
= − Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca + √ Gab ca ab ca bc

l − Gl + B + B − 2B
3 3 3 l l l
1
= −Blbc + √ Gab ca

l − Gl
3
And,
Bγca = Bγ1
ca ca
+ Bγ2
1 1 1
= − Bγab + Bγbc + Bγca + √ Gbc ab
Blbc + Blab − 2Blca

l − Gl +
3 3 3
1
= −Blca + √ Gbc ab

l − Gl
3
Thus, the compensator susceptances in terms of load parameters are given as in the following.
1
Bγab = −Blab + √ Gca bc

l − Gl
3
1
Bγbc = −Blbc + √ Gab ca

l − Gl (3.127)
3
1
ca ca
Bγ = −Bl + √ Gbc ab

l − Gl
3
109
It is interesting to observe above equations. The first parts of the equation nullifies the effect of the
load susceptances and the second parts of the equations correspond to the unbalance in resistive
load. The two terms together make source current balanced and in phase with the supply voltages.
The compensator’s positive and negative sequence networks are shown in Fig. 3.13 .
What happens if we just use the following values of the compensator susceptances as given below?
Bγab = −Blab
Bγbc = −Blbc (3.128)
Bγca = −Blca
In above case, load suceptance parts of the admittance are fully compensated. However the source
currents after compensation remain unbalanced due to unbalance conductance parts of the load.
isa ila
isb ilb
Source
Load
isc ilc
I  1,abc I  2,abc
Bab1 Bab2
Bbc1 Bbc2
Bca1 Bca2
Bab , Bbc , Bca
Fig. 3.13 Sequence networks of the compensator
Example 3.5 For a delta connected load shown in 3.14 , the load admittances are given as follow-
ing,
Ylab = Gab ab
l + jBl
Ylbc = Gbc bc
l + jBl
Ylca = Gca
l + jBl
ca
Given the load parameters:
Zlab = 1/Ylab = 5 + j12 Ω

Zlbc = 1/Ylbc = 3 + j4 Ω
Zlca = 1/Ylca = 9 − j12 Ω
Determine compensator susceptances (Bγab , Bγbc , Bγca ) so that the supply sees the load as balanced
and unity power factor. Also find the line currents and source active and reactive powers before
and after compensation.
110
va a
ia
ca ab
vc B B
N ic ca ab
Y Y
vb
bc
ib Y
c b
bc
B
Fig. 3.14 A delta connected load
Solution:
Zlab = 5 + j12 Ω ⇒ Ylab = 0.03 − j0.0710 f

Zlbc = 3 + j4 Ω ⇒ Ylbc = 0.12 − j0.16 f
Zlca = 9 − j13 Ω ⇒ Ylca = 0.04 + j0.0533 f
Once we know the admittances we know,
Gab ab
l = 0.03, Bl = −0.0710
Gbc bc
l = 0.12, Bl = −0.16
Gca ca
l = 0.04, Bl = 0.0533
1
Bγab = −Blab + √ (Gca bc
l − Gl ) = 0.0248 f
3
1
Bγbc = −Blbc + √ (Gab ca
l − Gl ) = 0.1540 f
3
1
Bγca = −Blca + √ (Gbc ab
l − Gl ) = −0.0011 f
3
Total admittances are:
Y ab = Ylab + Yγab = 0.03 − j0.0462 f

Y bc = Ylbc + Yγbc = 0.12 − j0.006 f
Y ca = Ylca + Yγca = 0.04 + j0.0522 f
Knowing these total admittances, we can find line currents using following expressions.
Current Before Compensation
111
I a = I abl − I cal = (1 − α2 )Ylab − (α − 1)Ylca V = 0.2150 V ∠−9.51o A

I b = I bcl − I abl = (α2 − α)Ylbc − (1 − α2 )Ylab V = 0.4035 V ∠−161.66o A

I c = I cal − I bcl = (α − 1)Ylca − (α2 − α)Ylbc V = 0.2358 V ∠43.54o A

Powers Before Compensation
Sa = V a (I al )∗ = Pa + jQa = V (0.2121 + j0.0355)

Sb = V b (I bl )∗ = Pb + jQb = V (0.3014 + j0.2682)
Sc = V c (I cl )∗ = Pc + jQc = V (0.0552 + j0.2293)
Total real power, P = Pa + Pb + Pc = V 0.5688 W
Total reactive power, Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = V 0.5330 VAr
Power factor in phase-a, pfa = cos φa = cos(9.51o ) = 0.9863 lag
Power factor in phase-b, pfb = cos φb = cos(41.63o ) = 0.7471 lag
Power factor in phase-c, pfc = cos φc = cos(76.45o ) = 0.2334 lag
Thus we observe that the phases draw reactive power from the lines and currents are unbalanced
in magnitude and phase angles.
After Compensation
I a = I ab − I ca = (1 − α2 )Y ab − (α − 1)Y ca V = 0.1896 V ∠0o A

I b = I bc − I ab = (α2 − α)Y bc − (1 − α2 )Y ab V = 0.1896 V ∠−120o A

I a = I ca − I bc = (α − 1)Ylca − (α2 − α)Y bc V = 0.1896 V ∠120o A

Powers After Compensation
Sa = V a (I al )∗ = Pa + jQa = V (0.1986 + j0.0)

Sb = V b (I bl )∗ = Pb + jQb = V (0.1986 + j0.0)
Sc = V c (I cl )∗ = Pc + jQc = V (0.1986 + j0.0)
Total real power, P = Pa + Pb + Pc = (V × 0.5688 )W
Total reactive power, Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr
Power factor in phase-a, pfa = cos φa = cos(0o ) = 1.0
Power factor in phase-b, pfb = cos φb = cos(0o ) = 1.0
Power factor in phase-c, pfc = cos φc = cos(0o ) = 1.0
From above results we observe that after placing compensator of suitable values as calculated
above, the line currents become balanced and have unity power factor relationship with their volt-
ages.
112
Example 3.6 Consider the following 3-phase, 3-wire system. The 3-phase voltages are balanced
sinusoids with RMS value of 230 V at 50 Hz. The load impedances are Za = 3 + j 4 Ω, Zb =
5 + j 12 Ω, Zc = 12 − j 5 Ω. Compute the following.
1. The line currents I la , I lb , I lc .
2. The active (P ) and reactive (Q) powers of each phase.
3. The compensator susceptance ( Bγab , Bγbc , Bγca ), so that the supply sees the load balanced and
unity power factor.
4. For case (3), compute the source, load, compensator active and reactive powers (after com-
pensation).
Vsa I la
Vsc I lc a
N
Vsb I lb
c Zb
Fig. 3.15 An unbalanced three-phase three-wire star connected load
Solution:
Given that Za = 3 + j 4 Ω, Zb = 5 + j 12 Ω, Zc = 12 − j 5 Ω.
1. Line currents I la , I lb , andI lc are found by first computing neutral voltage as given below.
1 Va Vb Vc
V nN = 1 ( + + )
( Z1a + 1
Zb
+ Zc
) Za Zb Zc
Za Zb Zc Va Vb Vc
= ( )( + + )
Za Zb + Zb Zc + Zc Za Za Zb Zc
Zabc V a V b V c
= ( + + )
∆Z Za Zb Zc
50∠97.82o
= o
(24.12∠−99.55o )
252.41∠55.5
= 43.79 − j 67.04 V
= 80.75∠−57.15o V
Now the line currents are computed as below.
113
V a − V nN
I la =
Za
230∠0o − 80.75∠−57.15o
=
3+j4
= 33.2 − j 21.65
= 39.63∠−33.11o A
V b − V nN
I lb =
Zb
230∠−120o − 80.75∠−57.15o
=
5 + j 12
= 15.85∠152.21o A
V c − V nN
I lc =
Zc
230∠120o − 80.75∠−57.15o
=
12 − j 5
= 23.89∠143.35o A
2. Active and Reactive Powers
For phase a
Pa = Va Ia cos φa = 230 × 39.63 × cos(33.11o ) = 7635.9 W
Qa = Va Ia sin φa = 230 × 39.63 × sin(33.11o ) = 4980 VAr
For phase b
Pb = Vb Ib cos φb = 230 × 15.85 × cos(−152.21o − 120o ) = 140.92 W
Qb = Vb Ib sin φb = 230 × 15.85 × sin(−152.21o − 120o ) = 3643.2 VAr
For phase c
Pc = Vc Ic cos φc = 230 × 23.89 × cos(−143.35o + 120o ) = 5046.7 W
114
Qc = Vc Ic sin φc = 230 × 23.89 × sin(−143.35o + 120o ) = −2179.3 VAr
Total three phase powers
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 12823 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 6443.8 VAr
3. Compensator Susceptance
First we convert star connected load to a delta load as given below.
Za Zb +Zb Zc +Zc Za
Zlab = Zc
= 4 + j 19 = 19.42∠77.11o Ω
∆Z
Zlbc = Za
= 50.44 + j 2.08 = 50.42∠2.36o Ω
∆Z
Zlca = Zb
= 19.0 − j 4.0 = 19.42∠ − 11.89o Ω
Ylab = 1/Zlab = Gab ab

l + j Bl = 0.0106 − j0.050 f
Ylbc = 1/Zlbc = Gbc bc

l + j Bl = 0.0198 − j0.0008 f
Ylca = 1/Zlca = Gca ca

l + j Bl = 0.0504 + j0.0106 f
From the above, the compensator susceptances are computed as following.
(Gca −Gbc
l )
Bγab = −Blab + l √
3
= 0.0681 f
(Gab −Gca
l )
Bγbc = −Blbc + l √
3
= −0.0222 f
(Gbc −Gab
l )
Bγca = −Blca + l √
3
= −0.0053 f
Zγab = −j 14.69 Ω (capacitance)
Zγbc = j 45.13 Ω (inductance)
Zγca = j 188.36 Ω (inductance)
115
4. After Compensation
0
Zlab = Zlab || Zγab = 24.97 − j 41.59 = 48.52∠ − 59.01o Ω
0
Zlbc = Zlbc || Zγbc = 21.52 − j 24.98 = 32.97∠49.25o Ω
0
Zlca = Zlca || Zγca = 24.97 − j 41.59 = 19.7332∠ − 6.0o Ω
Let us convert delta connected impedances to star connected.

Zab0 × Zca0
Za =
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
= 9.0947 − j 10.55
= 13.93∠ − 49.25o Ω
Zbc0 × Zab0
Zb =
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
= 23.15 + j 2.43
= 23.28∠6.06o Ω
Zca0 × Zbc0
Zc =
Zab0 + Zbc0 + Zca0
= 4.8755 + j 8.12
= 9.47∠59.01o Ω
The new voltage between the load and system neutral after compensation is given by,
0 1 Va Vb Vc
V nN = 1 ( + + )
( Z1a
+ + 1
Zb Zc
) Za Zb Zc
o
= 205.42∠−57.15 V
Based on the above, the line currents are computed as following.
0
V a − V nN
Ia =
Za
= 18.58∠0o A
0
V b − V nN
Ib =
Zb
= 18.58∠ − 120o A
0
V c − V nN
Ic =
Zc
= 18.58∠120o A
116
Thus, it is seen that after compensation, the source currents are balanced and have unity power
factor with respective supply voltages.
Source powers after compensation
Pa = Pb = Pc = 230 × 18.58 = 4272.14 W
P = 3Pa = 12820.2 W
Qa = Qb = Qc = 0
Q = 0 VAr
Compensator powers
ab ab ∗
Sγ = V ab (I γ )
∗ ∗
= V ab (V ab .Yγab )
2 ∗
= V ab Yγab
√
= (230 × 3)2 × (−j 0.0068)
= −j 10802 VA
bc ∗
Sγ = Vbc2 Yγbc
√
= (230 × 3)2 × (j 0.0222)
= j 3516 VA
ca
Sγ = Vca2 Yγca ∗
√
= (230 × 3)2 × (j 0.0053)
= j 842 VA
References
[1] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, Power quality enhancement using custom power devices. Kluwer
Academic Pub, 2002, vol. 701.
[2] T. J. E. Miller, Reactive power control in electric systems. Wiley, 1982.
[3] L. Gyugyi, “Reactive power generation and control by thyristor circuits,” IEEE Transactions
on Industry Applications, no. 5, pp. 521–532, 1979.
117
[4] R. Otto, T. Putman, and L. Gyugyi, “Principles and applications of static, thyristor-controlled
shunt compensators,” IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, no. 5, pp. 1935–
1945, 1978.
[5] N. Hingorani and L. Gyugyi, Understanding FACTS: Concepts and Technology of Flexible AC
Transmission Systems, 2000. Wiley-IEEE Press, 1999.
118
Chapter 4
CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD

COMPENSATION
(Lectures 25-35)
4.1 Introduction
In the previous chapter, we studied the methods of load compensation. These methods can elimi-
nate only the fundamental reactive power and unbalance in the steady state. These kinds of com-
pensators can be realized using passive LC filters and thyristor controlled devices. However, when
harmonics are present in the system, these methods fails to provide correct compensation. To cor-
rect load with unbalance and harmonics, instantaneous load compensation methods are used. The
two important theories in this context are Instantaneous Theory of load compensation often known
as pq theory [1] and Instantaneous Symmetrical Component Theory for load compensation [2].
These theories will be discussed in this chapter. Their merits and demerits and applications will be
explored in detail.
To begin with pq theory, we shall first recall the αβ0 transformation, which was discussed in
Chapter 2. For three-phase system shown in Fig. 4.1, the αβ0 transformations for voltages and
currents are given below.
a a
b b
c c
Fig. 4.1 A three phase system
119
 
v0 r  √1 √1 √1
 
va
2 2 2 2
1 1  
vα  = 1 −√2
−√2 vb (4.1)
vβ 3 3 3 v
0 2
−2 c
 
i0 r  √1 √1 √1
 
ia
2 2 2
1
2
1  
iα  = 1 −
√2
−√2
ib (4.2)
iβ 3 3 3 ic
0 2
−2
The instantaneous active, p(t) and reactive, q(t) powers were defined in Chapter 2 through equa-
tions (2.14)-(2.15) respectively. For the sake of completeness these are given below.
p3φ (t) = va ia + vb ib + vc ic
= vα iα + vβ vβ + v0 i0
= pα + pβ + p0
= pαβ + p0 (4.3)
Where, pαβ = pα + pβ = vα iα + vβ iβ and p0 = v0 i0 .
In the instantaneous reactive power theory, as discussed in Chapter 2, the instantaneous reactive
power, q(t) was defined as,
q(t) = qαβ = vα × iβ + vβ × iα
= vα iβ − vβ iα
1
= − √ [vbc ia + vca ib + vab ic ] (4.4)
3
Therefore, powers po , pαβ and qαβ can be expressed in matrix form as given below.
    
p0 v0 0 0 i0
pαβ  =  0 vα vβ  iα  (4.5)
qαβ 0 −vβ vα iβ
From the above equation, the currents, i0 , iα and iβ are computed as given below.
   −1    2  
i0 v0 0 0 p0 vα + vβ2 0 0 p0
1
iα  =  0 vα vβ  pαβ  =
2 + v2 )
 0 v0 vα −v0 vβ  pαβ  (4.6)
iβ 0 −vβ vα qαβ v0 (vα β 0 v0 vβ v0 vα qαβ
p0 (vα2 + vβ2 ) p0 v0 i0
i0 = = = = i0 (4.7)
v0 (vα 2 + vβ 2 ) v0 v0
vα −vβ
iα = p + 2
2 αβ
(qαβ )
vα2
+ vβ vα + vβ 2
= iαp + iαq (4.8)
120
vβ vα
iβ = p + 2
2 αβ
qαβ
vα2
+ vβ vα + vβ 2
= iβp + iβq (4.9)
where
i0 = zero sequence instantaneous current
vα
iαp = α-phase instantaneous active current = 2 +v 2 p
vα β
vβ
iβp = β-phase instantaneous active current = v2 +v 2p
α β
vβ
iαq = α-phase instantaneous reactive current = − v2 +v 2q
α β
iβq = β-phase instantaneous reactive current = v2v+vα
2q
α β
Using above definitions of various components of currents, the three phase instantaneous power
can be expressed as,
p3φ = v0 i0 + vα iα + vβ iβ
= v0 i0 + vα (iαp + iαq ) + vβ (iβp + iβq )
" # " #
vα −vβ vβ vα
= v0 i0 + vα 2 pαβ + 2 qαβ + vβ 2 pαβ + 2 qαβ
vα + vβ2 vα + vβ2 vα + vβ2 vα + vβ2
= v0 i0 + vα iαp + vα iαq + vβ iβp + vβ iβq
= v0 i0 + (pαp + pαq ) + (pβp + pβq )
= v0 i0 + (pαp + pβp ) (4.10)
pαq + pβq = vα iαq + vβ iβq = 0 (4.11)
If referred to compensator (or filter), the equation (4.6) can be written as,
   2  
if 0 vα + vβ2 0 0 pf 0
1
if α  =
2 2
 0 v0 vα −v0 vβ  pf αβ  (4.12)
if β v 0 (v α + vβ ) 0 v0 vβ v0 vα qf αβ
Since the compensator does not supply any instantaneous real power, therefore,
pf 3φ = pf 0 + pf αβ = 0 (4.13)
The instantaneous zero sequence power exchanges between the load and the compensator and
compensator reactive power must be equal to load reactive power. Therefore we have,
pf o = plo = vo ilo (4.14)
pf αβ = −plo = −vo ilo (4.15)
qf αβ = ql = vα ilβ − vβ ilα (4.16)
121
Since over all real power from the compensator is equal to zero, therefore the following should be
satisfied.
pf o + pf αβ = 0 (4.17)
The power flow description is shown in Fig. 4.2.
 pl

o
plo
P
p l  p lo
ql
Fig. 4.2 Power flow description of three-phase 4-wire compensated system
Also the zero sequence current should be circulated through the compensator, therefore,
if o = ilo (4.18)
Using the conditions of compensator powers as given in the above, the α and β components of
compensator currents can be given as following.
vα −vβ
if α = p
2 f αβ
+ 2 qf αβ
vα2
+ vβ vα + vβ2
1
= 2 [vα (−vo ilo ) − vβ (vα ilβ − vβ ilα )]
vα + vβ2
1
= 2 [−vα vo ilo − vβ vα ilβ + vβ2 ilα )] (4.19)
vα + vβ2
Similarly,
1
if β = [vβ ( pf αβ ) + vα ( qf αβ )]
+ vβ2
vα2
1
= 2 [vβ (−vo ilo ) + vα (vα ilβ − vβ ilα )]
vα + vβ2
1
= 2 [−vo vβ ilo − vα vβ ilα + vα2 ilβ ] (4.20)
vα + vβ2
122
The above equations are derived based on assumption that in general vlo 6= 0 If vo = 0 ,then
if 0 = ilo
1
if α = [v 2 ilα − vα vβ ilβ ] (4.21)
+ vβ2 β
vα2
1
if β = 2 2
[−vα vβ ilα + vα2 ilβ ]
vα + vβ
Once the compensator currents, if o , if α and if β are known, they are transformed back to the abc
frame in order to implement in real time. This transformation is given below.
1  
∗ 
if a r √
2
1 0 if o
√
 i∗f b  = 2  √1 1 3 
 2 − 2 2√  ifα
 (4.22)
∗
if c 3 1 1 3 if β
√
2
−2 − 2
These reference currents are shown in Fig. 4.3. Once reference compensator currents are known,
these are tracked using voltage source inverter (VSI). The other details of the scheme can be as
following.
Thus, compensator powers can be expressed in terms of load powers as following.
v sa i sa ila
LOAD
v sb ilb
N i sb
LOAD n
v sc i sc i lc
LOAD
i*fa i*fc
i*fb
n'
Fig. 4.3 A three-phase four-wire compensated system with ideal compensator
pf o = plo
pf αβ = (pl − plavg ) − plo = pel
pf = pf o + pf αβ = pel
123
The power components and various components of currents are related as following.

pα vα iα
=
pβ vβ iβ

vα (iαp + iαq )
=
vβ (iβp + iβq )

vα iαp vα iαq
= +
vβ iβp vβ iβq

pαp p
= + αq (4.23)
pβp pβq
The following quantities are defined.
α - axis instantaneous active power = pαp = vα iαp
α - axis instantaneous reactive power = pαq = vα iαq
β - axis instantaneous active power = pβp = vβ iβp
β - axis instantaneous reactive power = pβq = vβ iβq
It is seen that,
(vα )(vα ) (vβ )(vβ ) vα2 + vβ2

pαp + pβp = vα iαp + vβ iβp = 2 p+ 2 p=( 2 )p = p (4.24)
vα + vβ2 vα + vβ2 vα + vβ2
and
(−vβ )(vα ) (vβ )(vα )

pαq + pβq = vα iαq + vβ iβq = p+ p=0 (4.25)
vα2 + vβ 2 vα2 + vβ 2
Thus, it can be observed that the sum of pαp and pβp is equal to total instantaneous real power p(t)
and the sum of pαq and pβq is equal to zero. Therefore,
p3φ = p + po
= p α + pβ + po
= pαp + pβp + po (4.26)
For an ideal compensator,
pf o = plo = vo ilo = po
pf αβ = −plo (4.27)
qf αβ = ql
For practical compensator, the switching and ohmic losses should be considered. These losses
should be met from the source in order to maintain the dc link voltage constant. Let these losses
are denoted by Ploss , then the following formulation is used to include this term. Let the average
124
power that must be supplied to the compensator be ∆p, then ∆p is given as following.
∆p = po + Ploss (4.28)
Thus, the compensator powers can be expressed as,
pf 0 = pel0
pf αβ = pel − ∆p (4.29)
qf αβ = ql
Once these compensator powers are obtained, the compensator currents if 0 , if α and if β are com-
puted using (4.18), (4.19) and (4.20). Knowing these currents, we can obtain compensator currents
in abc frame using equation (4.22). These currents are realized using voltage source inverter (VSI).
One of the common VSI topology is illustrated in Fig. 4.4. This VSI topology is known as neutral
clamped inverter.
vsa isa PCC ila

LOAD
N vsb isb ilb

LOAD n
vsc isc ilc
LOAD
i1 i fa i fb i fc
Rf Rf
Cdc1 S1 S3 S5
Vdc1 io
Lf Lf
a
n b c
S4 S6 S2
Vdc2
Cdc2
i2
Fig. 4.4 Voltage Source Inverter
While realizing compensator using voltage source inverter, there are switching and other losses
in the inverter circuit. Therefore, a fraction of total power is required to maintain dc capacitor
voltage to a reference value by generating Ploss term. Once reference filter currents (if 0 , if α , if β )
are obtained, the filter currents in abc system are obtained as below.
1  
∗ 
if a r √
2
1 0 if o
√
 i∗f b  = 2  √1 1 3 
 2 −2 2√  if α

∗
if c 3 if β
√1
2
− 21 − 23
As discussed above, the compensator powers are substituted in equation (4.29), the compensator
currents are expressed as below.
125
   2  
if o vα + vβ2 0 0 plo
1
if α  =
2 2
 0 vo vα −v0 vβ  p̃l + p̃0 − ploss 
if β v0 (vα + v β ) 0 v0 vβ v0 vα q lαβ
   2  
if o vα + vβ2 0 0 plo
1
if α  =
2 2
 0 vo vα −v0 vβ  pl + p0 − ploss 
if β v0 (vα + v β ) 0 v0 vβ v0 vα q lαβ
Now once we know i∗f a , i∗f b , i∗f c signals, these have to be synthesized using voltage source
inverter. A typical voltage source inverter (VSI) along with a three-phase compensated system as
shown in Fig. 4.5.
isa ila
vsa L
isb
O
Source vsb isc A
v sc D
isn  0
i fa i fc
Vdc ref Vdc
Voltage source
Voltage regulator
inverter il n
Ploss
S1 S6
ila
ifa i fa
Dymanic i fc
ilb Active filter
controller hysteresis current
ilc
ifc control
vsa vsb vsc
Fig. 4.5 Control algorithm for three-phase compensated system
4.1.1 State Space Modeling of the Compensator

There are different VSI topologies to realize [3]. The most commonly used is neutral clamped
inverter topology as shown in Fig. 4.4. Since this is a three phase four-wire system each phase can
be considered independently. Therefore, to analyze above circuit, only one phase is considered,
which is shown in Fig. 4.6. The other phases work similarly. In Fig. 4.6(a), for switch S1 is closed
and switch S4 is open, the KVL can be written as below.
dif a
Lf + Rf if a + vsa − Vdc1 = 0 (4.30)
dt
From the above equation,
dif a Rf vsa Vdc1
= − if a − + (4.31)
dt Lf Lf Lf
126
Cdc1 + Cdc1 + S1 (OFF)
S1 (ON)
Vdc1 Lf  vsa  Vdc1 Rf Lf  vsa 
Rf i fa i fa
- -
+ +
Vdc2 S4 (OFF) Vdc2 S4 (ON)
Cdc 2 - Cdc 2 -
(a) (b)
Fig. 4.6 Equivalent circuit (a) S1 (ON), S4 (OFF) (b) S1 (OFF), S4 (ON)
Similarly, when S1 is open and S4 is closed as shown in Fig. 4.6 (b),
dif a Rf vsa Vdc2

= − if a − − . (4.32)
dt Lf Lf Lf
The above two equations can be combined into one by using switching signals Sa , S a , as given
below.
dif a Rf Vdc1 Vdc2 vsa

= − if a + Sa − Sa − (4.33)
dt Lf Lf Lf Lf
Similarly, for phases b and c, the first order derivative of filter currents can be written as following.
dif b Rf Vdc1 Vdc2 vsb
= − if b + Sb − Sb − (4.34)
dt Lf Lf Lf Lf
dif c Rf Vdc1 Vdc2 vsc
= − i f c + Sc − Sc − (4.35)
dt Lf Lf Lf Lf
where, Sa = 0 and S a = 1 implies that the top switch is open and bottom switch is closed and,
Sa = 1 and S a = 0 implies that the top switch is closed and bottom switch is open. The two logic
signals Sa and S a are complementary to each other. This logic also holds for the other two phases.
The inverter currents i1 and i2 as shown in Fig. 4.4, can be expressed in terms of filter currents
and switching signals. These are given below.
i1 = Sa if a + Sb if b + Sc if c
i2 = S a if a + S b if b + S c if c (4.36)
The relationship between DC capacitor voltages Vdc1 , Vdc2 and inverter currents i1 and i2 is given
as below.
dVdc1
Cdc1 = −i1
dt
dVdc2
Cdc2 = i2 (4.37)
dt
127
Considering Cdc1 = Cdc2 = Cdc and substituting i1 and i2 from (4.36), the above equations can be
written as,
dVdc1 Sa Sb Sc
= − if a − if b − if c (4.38)
dt Cdc Cdc Cdc
dVdc2 Sa Sb Sc
= if a + if b + if c (4.39)
dt Cdc Cdc Cdc
The equations (4.33), (4.34), (4.35), (4.38) and (4.39) can be represented in state space form as
given below.
 Rf 
Sa
− Lf 0 0 − LS fa    1 
− Lf 0 0
 
if a Lf i fa
R Sb Sb 
− L1f

− Lff − Lf 
 
 if b   0 0 0 0 
  if b    vsa
  
d    Lf
 if c  =  0 R
− Lff LSfc − LSfc   if c  +  0 0 − L1f   vsb  (4.40)
 
dt    0   
Vdc1   Sa  Vdc1    0 0 0  vsc

 − C − SCb − SCc 0 0 
Vdc2 Sa Sb Sc
Vdc2 0 0 0
C C C
0 0
The above equation is in the form,
ẋ = A x + B u. (4.41)
Where, x is a state vector, A is system matrix, B is input matrix and u is input vector. This state
space equation can be solved using MATLAB to implement the compensator for simulation study.
4.1.2 Switching Control of the VSI

In the equation (4.40), the switching signals Sa , S a , Sb , S b , Sc , and S c are generated using a hys-
teresis band current control. This is described as following. The upper and lower bands of the
reference filter current (say phase-a) are formed using hysteresis h i.e., i∗f a + h and i∗f a − h. Then,
following logic is used to generate switching signals.
If if a ≥ (i∗f a + h)
Sa = 0 and S a = 1
else if if a ≤ (i∗f a − h)
Sa = 1 and S a = 0
else if (i∗f a − h) < if a < (i∗f a + h)
Retain the current status of the switches.
end
The first order derivative of state variables can be easily solved using ‘c2d’ (continuous to dis-
crete) command in MATLAB. It is given below.
[Ad Bd ] = c2d(A, B, td ) (4.42)
128
The value of the state vector is updated using the following equation.
x[(k + 1)T ] = Ad x[kT ] + Bd u[kT ] (4.43)
Where x(k + 1) refers the value of the state vector at (k + 1)th sample. The Ad and Bd computed
by ‘c2d0 function as described above can be expressed as below.
The solution of state equation given by (4.41) is given as following [Nagrath].
Zt
x(t) = eA(t−t0 ) x(t0 ) + eA(t−τ ) B u(τ )dτ (4.44)
to
Where to represents initial time and t represents final time. The above equation can be re-written
as following.
Zt
x(t) = φ(t − to ) x(to ) + φ(t − τ ) B u(τ ) dτ (4.45)
to
Writing above equation for small time interval, kT ≤ t ≤ (k +1)T with to = kT and t = (k +1)T ,
(k+1)T
Z
x[(k + 1)T ] = eAT x[kT ] + eA {(k+1)T −τ } B u[kT ] dτ
kT
(k+1)T
Z
= eAT x[kT ] + eA {(k+1)T −τ } B dτ

u[kT ] (4.46)
kT
Comparing (4.43) and (4.46), the discrete matrices Ad and Bd computed by ‘c2d0 MATLAB func-
tion can be written as following.
Ad = eA T
(k+1)T
Z
Bd = eA {(k+1)T −τ } B dτ (4.47)
kT
4.1.3 Generation of Ploss to maintain dc capacitor voltage

The next step is to determine Ploss in order to maintain the dc link voltage close to its reference
value. In compensation, what could be an indication of Ploss to account losses in the inverter. The
average voltage variation of dc link may be an indicator of Ploss in the inverter. If losses are more
than supplied by the inverter, the dc link voltage, i.e., Vdc = Vdc1 + Vdc2 , will decline towards zero
and vice versa. For proper operation of compensator, we need to maintain dc capacitor voltage
to two times of the reference value of each capacitor voltage i.e., Vdc1 + Vdc2 = Vdc = 2 Vdcref .
Thus, we have to replenish losses in inverter and sustain dc capacitor voltage to 2Vdcref with each
129
capacitor voltage to Vdcref . This is achieved with the help of proportional integral (PI) controller
described below [4]. Lets define an error signal as following.
eV dc = 2 Vdcref − (Vdc1 + Vdc2 ) = 2 Vdcref − Vdc
Then, the term Ploss is computed as following.

Z Td
Ploss = Kp eV dc + Ki eV dc dt
0
This control loop need not be very fast and may be updated once in a voltage cycle, preferably at
the positive of phase-a voltage and generate Ploss term at these points. The above controller can be
implemented using digital domain as following.
k
X
Ploss (k) = Kp eV dc (k) + Ki eV dc (j) Td . (4.48)
j=0
In the above equation, k represents the k th sample of error, eV dc . For k = 1, the above equation can
be written as,
1
X
Ploss (1) = Kp eV dc (1) + Ki eV dc (j) Td .
j=0
= Kp eV dc (1) + Ki [eV dc(0) + eV dc(0) ]Td . (4.49)
Similarly for k = 2, we can write,
Ploss (2) = Kp eV dc (1) + Ki [eV dc (0) + eV dc (1) + eV dc (2)] Td . (4.50)
Replacing Ki [eV dc(0) + eV dc(0) ] from (4.49), we get,
Ki [eV dc (0) + eV dc (1)] Td = Ploss (1) − Kp eV dc (1) (4.51)
Substituting above value in (4.50),we obtain the following.
Ploss (2) = Kp eV dc (2) + Ploss (1) − Kp eV dc (1) + Ki eV dc (2) Td
= Ploss (1) + Kp [eV dc (2) − eV dc (1)] + Ki eV dc (2) Td (4.52)
In general, for k th sample of Ploss ,
Ploss (k) = Ploss (k − 1) + Kp [eV dc (k) − eV dc (k − 1)] + Ki eV dc (k) Td . (4.53)
The algorithm can be used to implement PI controler to generate Ploss . The control action can be
updated at every positive zero crossing of phase-a voltage for example.
4.1.4 Computation of load average power (Plavg )

In reference current expressions, the average load power (Plavg ) is required to be computed. Al-
though low pass filter can be used to find this, however the dynamic response is quite slow. The
130
dynamic performance of computation of Plavg plays significant role in compensation. For this
reason, a moving average algorithm can be used, which is described below.
hpl i = Plavg = hva ila + vb ilb + vc ilc i

1 T
Z
= (va ila + vb ilb + vc ilc ) dt (4.54)
T 0
The above equation can be written with integration from t1 to t1 + T as given in the following.
Z t1+T
1
Plavg = (va ila + vb ilb + vc ilc ) dt (4.55)
T t1
This is known as moving average filter (MAF). Any change in variables instantly reflected with
settling time of one cycle.
4.2 Some Misconception in Reactive Power Theory
The instantaneous reactive power theory, that has evolved from Fortesque, Park and Clarke Trans-
formations of voltage and current specified in phases-a, b and c coordinates [5]. In general, for
3-phase, 4-wire system,
 
vo r  √1 √1 √1
 
va
2 2 2 2
1 1  
vα  = 1 −√2
−√2 vb (4.56)
vβ 3 3 3 v
0 2
−2 c
Similarly, for currents, the αβ0 components are given as following.

 
io r  √1 √1 √1
 
ia
2 2 2 2
1 1  
iα  = 1 −√2
−√2
ib (4.57)
iβ 3 3 3 ic
0 2
−2
√
For balanced system v0 = (va +vb +vc )/ 3 = 0. For three-phase, three-wire system, ia +ib +ic =
0, which implies that i0 = 0. Using these details, the above transformations in equations (4.56)
and (4.57) result to the following.
 
1 va
r 1
vα 2 1 − √2
−√2  
= vb (4.58)
vβ 3 0 2 − 23 v
3
c
 
1 ia
r 1
iα 2 1 −
√2
−√2  
= ib (4.59)
iβ 3 0 2 − 23 i
3
c
131
From equation (4.58), and using va + vb + vc = 0, we get the following.
r
2 vb + vc
vα = va −
3 2
r h
2 vb vc i
= va − −
3 2 2
r h
2 vb va vb i
= va − − − −
3 2 2 2
√
3
= va (4.60)
2
r "√ √ #
2 3 3
vβ = vb − vc
3 2 2
r "√ √ #
2 3 3
= vb − (−va − vb )
3 2 2
r "√ √ √ #
2 3 3 3
= vb + va + vb
3 2 2 2
1 √
= √ va + 2vb (4.61)
2
Writing equations (4.60) and (4.61) in matrix form we get,
"√ #
3

vα
= 2 √0 va
(4.62)
vβ √1 2 vb
2
Similary, using ia + ib + ic = 0 the following can be written.

"√ #
3

iα 2 √0 ia
= 1 (4.63)
iβ √
2
2 ib
According to the pq theory, the abc components of voltages and currents are transformed to the α
and β coordinates and the instantaneous powers p and q of the load can be expressed as following.
p = vα iα + vβ iβ (4.64)
q = vα iβ − vβ iα (4.65)
The above equations representing instantaneous active and reactive powers can be expressed in
matrix form as following [1].

p vα vβ iα
= (4.66)
q −vβ vα iβ
132
Therefore from above equation (4.66), the α β components of currents can be expressed as follow-
ing.
−1
iα vα vβ p
=
iβ −vβ vα q
−1
vα vβ
The matrix, is given as following.
−vβ vα
−1
vα vβ 1 vα −vβ
= 2 (4.67)
−vβ vα vα + vβ2 vβ vα
vα vβ
iα = 2
p− 2 q (4.68)
+ vβ vα + vβ2
vα2
vβ vα
iβ = 2 2
p+ 2 q (4.69)
vα + vβ vα + vβ2
Which can further be written as,
iα = iαp + iαq (4.70)
iβ = iβp + iβq (4.71)
vα
iαp = p (4.72)
+ vβ2
vα2
vβ
iαq = − 2 q (4.73)
vα + vβ2
vβ
iβp = 2 p (4.74)
vα + vβ2
vα
iβp = 2 q (4.75)
vα + vβ2
The instantaneous active and reactive components of currents in supplying line can be calculated
from the α and β components of the current as given in the following.
"√ #−1 " q #
3 2

ia 2 √0 iα 3
0 iαp + iαq
= √1
=
ib 2
2 i β − √1 √1 iβp + iβq
6 2
"q # "q #
2 2
3
0 iαp 3
0 iαq
= +
− √6 √2 iβp
1 1
− √6 √2 iβq
1 1
"q #
2

iap 3
0 iαp
= (4.76)
ibp − √16 √1 iβp
2
133
and,
"q #
2

iaq 3
0 iαq
= (4.77)
ibq 1
− 6
√ √1 iβq
2
The active and reactive components of the line currents must be consistent to the basic defini-
tions. However, these components of currents have little in common with the reactive power of the
load as defined in [5]. This is shown in the following illustrations.
Example 4.1 Assume a resistive load connected as shown in the√4.7 below. It is supplied from
a symmetrical source of a sinusoidal balanced voltage with va = 2V sin ωt, with V = 230 Volts.
Express the voltage and currents for primary and secondary side of the transformer. Express the
active and reactive component of the currents, powers and discuss them.
VA  2300 V
Ia Va
IA
VB Vb
Ib
IB
VC Vc
IC Ic
n
Fig. 4.7 An unbalanced resistive load supplied by three-phase delta-star connected transformer
Solution: With he above given values, the primary side phase voltages with respect to virtual
ground could be expressed as the following.
√ √
vA = 2 V sin ωt = 230 2 sin ωt
√ √
vB = 2 V sin(ωt − 120o ) = 230 2 sin(ωt − 120o ) (4.78)
√ √
vC = 2 V sin(ωt + 120o ) = 230 2 sin(ωt + 120o )
In phasor form,
VA = 230∠0◦ V
VB = 230∠−120◦ V
VC = 230∠120◦ V
Therefor the primary side line-to-line voltage are expressed as following.
√ √
vAB = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 30o )
√ √
vBC = 2 3 V sin(ωt − 90o ) (4.79)
√ √
vCA = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 150o )
134
In phasor form,
V AB = 398.37∠30◦ V
V BC = 398.37∠−90◦ V
V CA = 398.37∠150◦ V
These voltages are transformed to the secondaries and are expressed below.
√ √ √
va = 2 3 V sin ωt = 398.37 2 sin(ωt + 30◦ )
√ √ √
vb = 2 3 V sin(ωt − 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(ωt − 90◦ ) (4.80)
√ √ √
vc = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(ωt + 150◦ )
In phasor form,
Va = 398.37∠30◦ V
Vb = 398.37∠−90◦ V
Vc = 398.37∠150◦ V
Therefore the currents on the secondary side are given below.
√ √
2 3V
ia = cos ωt
R
ib = 0 (4.81)
ic = 0
Taking V = 230 V and R = 4 Ω, the currents on the secondary side of the transformer are given as
following.
√ √
va 2 3V √ √
ia = = sin ωt = 99.56 2 sin(ωt + 30◦ ) = 2I sin(ωt + 30◦ ) (4.82)
R 4
ib = 0
ic = 0
In phasor form, the above can be expressed as,
I a = 99.59∠30◦ A (4.83)
Ib = 0 A (4.84)
Ic = 0 A (4.85)
This phase-a current ia in the secondary side of transformer is transformed to the primary of the
delta connected winding, therefore the currents on the secondary side of transformer are given as
following.
√
iA = 2I sin(ωt + 30◦ ) (4.86)
√
iB = −iA = − 2I sin(ωt + 30◦ )
iC = 0
135
The above can be written in phasor form as given below.
I A = 99.59∠30o = I∠30o A
I B = −I A = 1 ∠−180o × 99.59∠30o
= 99.59∠ − 150o = I∠ − 150o A (4.87)
IC = 0 A
After, knowing the voltages and currents of the primary side of the transformer, their α and β
components are expressed as below.
"q 3 #
vα 0 vA
= 12 √ (4.88)
vβ √ 2 vB
2
Substituting vA and vB from (4.102) in the above equation, we get the following.
"q 3 # √ √
vα 2
0 √ 2 V sin ωt √ 3 V sin ωt
= 1 √ = (4.89)
vβ √ 2 2 V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) − 3 V cos(ωt)
2
And,
"q 3 # "q # √
3 ◦

iα 2
0 iA 2
0 √ 2 I sin(ωt + 30 )
= 1 √ = √
iβ √ 2 iB √1 2 − 2 I sin(ωt + 30◦ )
2
√ 2
3 I sin(ωt + 30◦ )
= (4.90)
−I sin(ωt + 30◦ )
Based on the above the active and reactive powers are computed as below.
p(t) = vα iα + vβ iβ
√ √ √
= 3V sin(ωt) 3I sin(ωt + 30◦ ) − 3V cos(ωt)(−I) sin(ωt + 30◦ ))
"√ #
√ 3 1
= 2 3V I sin(ωt + 30◦ ) sin(ωt) + cos(ωt)
2 2
√
= 3V I [2 sin(ωt + 30) sin(ωt + 30)]
√
3V I 2 sin2 (ωt + 30◦ )

=
√
= 3V I [1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )] (4.91)
√ √ √
= 3V sin(ωt) {−I sin(ωt + 30◦ )} − (− 3V cos(ωt)) 3I sin(ωt + 30◦ )
" √ #
√ 1 3
= − 3V I 2 sin(ωt + 30◦ ) sin ωt − cos ωt
2 2
√
= − 3V I 2 sin(ωt + 30◦ )(− cos(ωt + 30◦ ))
√
= 3V I sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) (4.92)
136
Based on above values of p and q powers, the α and β components of active and reactive compo-
nents are given below.

iα iαp + iαq
=
iβ iβp + iβq
Where,
vα
iαp = p
vα2 + vβ2
√
3V sin(ωt)
= √ √ p
( 3V sin(ωt))2 + (− 3V cos(ωt))2
1 √
= √ sin(ωt) 3V I(1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ ))
3V
= I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )} (4.93)
Similarly,
vβ
iβp = p
vα2 + vβ2
√
− 3V cos(ωt)
= √ √ p
( 3V I sin(ωt))2 + (− 3V cos(ωt))2
√
− 3V cos(ωt) √
= 3V I(1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ ))
3V 2
= −I cos ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )} (4.94)
−vβ
iαq = q
+ vβ2
vα2
√
−(− 3V cos ωt) √
= 3V I sin 2(ωt + 30◦ )
3V 2
= I cos ωt sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) (4.95)
vα
iβq = q
vα2 + vβ2
√
3V sin ωt √
= 3V I sin 2(ωt + 30◦ )
3V 2
= I sin ωt sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) (4.96)
Thus knowing iαp , iαq , iβp and iβq we can determine active and reactive components of currents on
the source side as giben below.

iap −1 iαp
= C
ibp iβp
137
Where,
"q #−1 "q #
3 2
0 0
[C]−1 = 2
√ = −1
3
√1 2 √ √1
2 6 2
Using above equation, we can find out the active and reactive components of the current, as given
below.
"q #
2
I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}

iap 3
0
=
ibp −1
√ √1 −I cos ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
6 2
From the above,
r
2
iap = I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
3
r
2I
= {2 sin ωt − 2 sin ωt cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
32
I
= √ {2 sin ωt − sin(3ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(−ωt − 60◦ )}
6
I
= √ {2 sin ωt + sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(3ωt + 60◦ )}
6
1 1
ibp = − √ iαp + √ iβp
6 2
1 1
= − √ I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )} + √ (−I cos ωt) {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
6 2

◦ sin ωt cos ωt
= −I {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30 )} √ + √
6 2
" √ #
2I 1 3
= − √ {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )} sin ωt + cos ωt
6 2 2
2I
= − √ {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )} sin(ωt + 60◦ )
6
2I
= − √ {sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(ωt + 60◦ ) cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
6
( √ )
2I 1 3 1 1
= −√ sin(ωt) + cos(ωt) + sin(ωt) − sin(3ωt + 120◦ )
6 2 2 2 2
I
= − √ {sin(ωt) + 2 sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(3ωt + 120◦ )}
6
138
r
2
iaq = iαq
3
r
2I
= {2 sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) cos ωt}
32
I
= √ {sin(ωt + 60◦ ) + sin(3ωt + 60◦ )}
6
1 1
ibq = − √ iαq + √ iβq
6 2
1 1
= − √ I cos ωt {sin 2(ωt + 30◦ )} + √ (I sin ωt) {sin 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
6 2
( √ )
I 1 3
= − √ 2 sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) − cos ωt + sin ωt)
6 2 2
I
= √ 2 sin 2(ωt + 30◦ ) sin(ωt − 30◦ )
6
I
= √ {cos(ωt + 90◦ ) − cos(3ωt + 30◦ )}
6
I
= √ {− sin(ωt) − cos(3ωt + 30◦ )}
6
Thus we have,
I
iap = √ {2 sin ωt + sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(3ωt + 60◦ )} (4.97)
6
I
ibp = − √ {sin(ωt) + 2 sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(3ωt + 120◦ )} (4.98)
6
I
iaq = √ {sin(ωt + 60◦ ) + sin(3ωt + 60◦ )} (4.99)
6
I
ibq = √ {− sin(ωt) − cos(3ωt + 30◦ )} . (4.100)
6
From the above equations, the names instantaneous active current and instantaneous reactive cur-
rent given in the pq theory do not have commonality with the notion of active and reactive currents
used in electrical engineering. Also, the reactive current iq occurs in supply lines of load in spite
of the absence of the reactive element of the in the load. Furthermore, the nature of load is linear
and harmonics are absent, still resolutions of active and reactive components of the current based
on pq theory gives harmonics. For example, in the above discussion,
I
iap = √ {2 sin ωt + sin(ωt + 60◦ ) − sin(3ωt + 60◦ )} (4.101)
6
is the active current component in the line ‘a’ and it contains the third order harmonic. This
contradicts the basic notion of the active current that was introduced to electrical engineering by
139
Fryze [5]. Thus, it seems a major misconception of electrical phenomenon in three phase circuits
with balanced sinusoidal voltages for linear load that do not have harmonics. Moreover, the active
current ip that results from pq theory is not the current that should remain in the supply lines after
the load is compensated to unity power factor as defined by Fryze. Therefore it can not be a com-
pensation goal.
Also, it is evident that the instantaneous reactive power q(t) as defined by pq theory does not
really identify the power properties of load instantaneously. For example for the above discussion,
the active and reactive power are given as following.
√
p(t) = 3V I {1 − cos 2(ωt + 30◦ )}
√
q(t) = 3V I sin 2(ωt + 30◦ )
The following points are noted.
1. The active components of currents (iap , ibp , icp ) and reactive components of currents, (iaq , ibq , icq )
contain third harmonic, which is not possible for a linear load as discussed above.
2. The sum of reactive components of currents, iaq and ibq is not equal to zero, i.e., iaq +ibq 6= 0),
even though no overall reactive power is required from the load.
3. The instantaneous reactive power q(t) defined by pq theory does not identify the power prop-
erties of the load instantaneously. Both powers p(t) and q(t) are time varying quantities, so
that a pair of their values at any single point of time does not identify the power properties
of load. The possibility of instantaneous identification of active and reactive power p(t) and
q(t) does not mean that power properties of load are identified instantaneously. For example,
√
◦ ◦ p(t) = 2 3V I
At (ωτ + 30 ) = 90 ,
q(t) = 0
The above implies that as if it is resistive load.

◦ ◦ p(t) = 0
Similarly at (ωτ + 30 ) = 0 ,
q(t) = 0
Which implies as there is no load.

( √ q )
p(t) = 3V I (1 + 32 )
And when (ωτ + 30◦ ) = 105◦ , √
q(t) = − 3 V I( 21 )
implies as it is capacitive load.
( √ q
3
)
p(t) = 3V I (1 + )
Similarly when (ωτ + 30◦ ) = 75◦ , √ 2
q(t) = 3 V I( 12 )
implies as if the load is inductive.
140
We therefore conclude that power properties cannot be identified without monitoring of the of
p(t) and q(t) powers over the entire cycle period. For example in above case, the instantaneous
reactive power q(t) has occurred is not because of load reactive power Q but because of voltage
unbalance. This unbalance nature of load can not be identified by instantaneous reactive power
q(t) values. Therefore, pq theory gives no advantage with respect to the time interval needed to
identify the nature of load and its property over the the over power theories based on time domain
or frequency domain approach that required the system to be monitored over one period.
Thus, we have seen that each phase has some reactive power. But there is no reactive element.
This reactive power appear because of unbalance in the system and not because of reactive compo-
nent. So this is an additional information what is required. From this illustration, it is evident that
the instantaneous reactive power current has commonality with the load reactive power Q. It also
appears that the instantaneous active current in pq theory (iap , ibp , icp ) have no commonality with
the load active power P .
Powers computation
The secondary side powers are given as following.

∗
S a = Pa + jQa = V a I a = 398.37∠30◦ 99.59∠ − 30◦ = 39675 VA
Thus, Pa = 39675 W, Qa = 0 VAr
∗
S b = Pb + jQb = V b I b = 398.37∠ − 90◦ × 0 = 0 VA
Pb = 0 W, Qb = 0 VAr
∗
S c = Pc + jQc = V c I c = 398.37∠150◦ × 0 = 0 VA
Pc = 0 W, Qc = 0 VAr
The total active and reactive powers on the secondary side are given as following.
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 39675 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr
Svect = Sarith = P = 39675 VA
pfvect = pfarith = P/S = 1.0
The primary side powers are given as following.
∗
S A = PA + jQA = V a I a = 230∠0◦ 99.59∠ − 30◦ = 19837.50 − j11453.16 VA
Thus, PA = 19837.50 W, QA = −11453.160 VAr
∗
S B = PB + jQB = V b I b = 230∠ − 120◦ (−99.59∠30◦ )∗ =
PB = 19837.50 W, QB = −11453.160 VAr
∗
S C = PC + jQC = V C I C = 230∠120◦ × 0
PC = 0 W, QC = 0 VAr
141
The total active and reactive powers on the primary side are given as following.
P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 39675 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr

Svect = S A + S B + S C = P = 39675 VA

Sarith = S A + S B + S C = 22906 + 22906 + 0 = 45813 VA
pfvect = P/Svect = 1.0
pfarith = P/S = 39675/45813 = 0.866
Example 4.2: Assume an Inductive load connected as shown in the √ 4.7 below. It is supplied from
a symmetrical source of a sinusoidal balanced voltage with va = 2V sin ωt, with V = 230 Volts.
Express the voltage and currents for primary and secondary side of the transformer. Express the
active and reactive component of the currents, powers and discuss them.
VA  2300 V
Ia Va
IA
VB Vb
IB Ib
VC Vc
IC Ic
n X
Fig. 4.8 An unbalanced reactive load supplied by three-phase delta-star connected transformer
Solution: With the above given values, the primary side phase voltages with respect to virtual
ground could be expressed as the following.
√ √
vA = 2 V sin ωt = 230 2 sin ωt
√ √
vB = 2 V sin(ωt − 120o ) = 230 2 sin(ωt − 120o )
√ √
vC = 2 V sin(ωt + 120o ) = 230 2 sin(ωt + 120o )
Therefore, the primary side line-to-line voltage are expressed as following.
√ √
vAB = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 30◦ )
√ √
vBC = 2 3 V sin(ωt − 90◦ )
√ √
vCA = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 150◦ )
These voltages are transformed to the secondaries and are expressed below.
√ √ √
va = 2 3 V sin ωt = 398.37 2 sin(ωt + 30◦ )
√ √ √
vb = 2 3 V sin(ωt − 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(ωt − 90◦ )
√ √ √
vc = 2 3 V sin(ωt + 120o ) = 398.37 2 sin(ωt + 150◦ )
142
In phasor form, the above voltages are expressed as below.
√
Va = 3 V ∠30◦
√
Vb = 3 V ∠ − 90◦
√
Vc = 3 V ∠150◦
Therefore, the currents on the secondary side are given below.
√ √
2 3V √
ia = sin(ωt − 60◦ ) = 99.59 2 sin(ωt − 60◦ )
X
ib = 0
ic = 0
I a = 99.59∠ − 60◦ A.
The above phase-a current (ia ) is transformed to the primary of the delta connected winding. Since
the currents should have 90◦ phase shift with respect to the voltages across the windings as given
by (4.102), therefore the currents on the secondary side of transformer are given as following.
√
iA = = iAB = ia = 2I sin(ωt − 60o )
√
iB = −iA = − 2I sin(ωt − 60◦ )
iC = 0
I A = I∠ − 60◦ = 99.59∠ − 60◦ A
I B = −I∠ − 60◦ = 99.59∠ − 60◦ A
I C = 0 A.
After, knowing the voltages and currents of the primary side of the transformer, their α and β
components are expressed as below.
"q 3 #
vα 0 vA
= 12 √
vβ √ 2 vB
2
Substituting vA and vB from (4.102) in the above equation, we get the following.
"q 3 # √ √
vα 2
0 √ 2 V sin ωt √ 3 V sin ωt
= 1 √ = (4.102)
vβ √ 2 2 V sin(ωt − 120◦ ) − 3 V cos(ωt)
2
And,
"q 3 # "q # √
3 ◦

iα 2
0 iA 2
0 √ 2 I sin(ωt − 60 )
= 1 √ = √
iβ √ 2 iB √1 2 − 2 I sin(ωt − 60◦ )
2
√ 2
3 I sin(ωt − 60◦ )
= (4.103)
−I sin(ωt − 60◦ )
143
Based on the above, the active and reactive powers are computed as below.
p(t) = pαβ = vα iα + vβ iβ
√ √ √
= 3V sin(ωt) 3I sin(ωt − 60◦ ) + (− 3V cos ωt)(−I sin(ωt − 60◦ ))
"√ #
√ 3 1
= 2 3V I sin(ωt − 60◦ ) sin ωt + cos ωt
2 2
√
= 3V I [2 sin(ωt − 60◦ ) cos(ωt − 60◦ )]
√
= 3V I sin 2(ωt − 60◦ ) (4.104)
√ √ √
= 3V sin ωt {−I sin(ωt − 60◦ )} − (− 3V cos ωt) 3I sin(ωt − 60◦ )
" √ #
√ 1 3
= − 3V I 2 sin(ωt − 60◦ ) sin ωt − cos ωt
2 2
√
= − 3V I 2 sin(ωt − 60◦ )(sin(ωt − 60◦ ))
√
= − 3V I 2 sin2 (ωt − 60◦ )
√
= − 3V I {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )} (4.105)
Based on above values of p and q powers, the α and β components of active and reactive compo-
nents are given below.

iα iαp + iαq
=
iβ iβp + iβq
Where,
vα
iαp = p
vα2 + vβ2
√
3V sin ωt
= √ √ p
( 3V sin ωt)2 + (− 3V cos ωt)2
1 √
= √ sin ωt 3V I(sin 2(ωt − 60◦ ))
3V
= I sin ωt sin 2(ωt − 60◦ ) (4.106)
Similarly,
144
vβ
iβp = p
vα2 + vβ2
√
− 3V cos ωt
= √ √ p
( 3V I sin ωt)2 + (− 3V cos ωt)2
√
− 3V cos ωt √
= 3V I sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )
3V 2
= −I cos ωt sin 2(ωt − 60◦ ) (4.107)
−vβ
iαq = q
+ vβ2
vα2
√
−(− 3V cos ωt) h √ ◦
i
= − 3V I {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60 )}
3V 2
= −I cos ωt(1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )) (4.108)
vα
iβq = q
vα2 + vβ2
√
3V sin ωt h √ ◦
i
= − 3V I {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60 )}
3V 2
= −I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )} (4.109)
Thus, knowing iαp , iαq , iβp and iβq , we can determine active and reactive components of currents
on the source side as given below.

iap −1 iαp
= C
ibp iβp
Where,
"q #−1 "q #
3 2
0 0
[C]−1 = 2
√ = −13 (4.110)
√1 2 √ √1
2 6 2
Using above equation, we can find out the active and reactive components of the current, as given
below.
"q #
2
I sin ωt sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )

iap 3
0
=
ibp −1
√ √1 −I cos ωt sin2(ωt − 60◦ )
6 2
From the above,
145
r
2
iap = I sin ωt sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )
3
r
2I
= {2 sin ωt sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )}
32
I
= √ {cos(ωt − 2ωt + 120◦ ) − cos(3ωt − 120◦ )}
6
I
= √ {cos(ωt − 120◦ ) − cos(3ωt − 120◦ )} (4.111)
6
1 1
ibp = − √ iαp + √ iβp
6 2
1 1
= − √ I sin ωt {sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )} + √ (−I cos ωt) {sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )}
6 2
" √ #
I 1 3
= − √ {2 sin 2(ωt − 60◦ )} sin ωt + cos ωt
6 2 2
I
= − √ {2 sin 2(ωt − 60◦ ) sin(ωt + 60◦ )}
6
I
= − √ {cos(ωt − 180◦ ) − cos(3ωt − 60◦ )}
6
I
= √ {cos ωt + cos(3ωt − 60◦ )}
6
r
2
iaq = iαq
3
r
2
= − I {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )} cos ωt
3
I
= − √ {2 cos ωt − 2 cos ωt cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )}
6
I
= − √ {2 cos ωt − cos(3ωt − 120◦ ) − cos(ωt − 120◦ )}
6
I
= √ {−2 cos ωt + cos(ωt − 120◦ ) + cos(3ωt − 120◦ )} (4.112)
6
146
1 1
ibq = − √ iαq + √ iβq
6 2
1 1
= − √ [−I cos ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )}] + √ [−I sin ωt {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )}]
6 2
( √ )
I 1 3
= − √ 2 {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )} − cos ωt − sin ωt)
6 2 2
( √ )
I 1 3
= √ 2 {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )} cos ωt + sin ωt)
6 2 2
I
= √ 2 {1 − cos 2(ωt − 60◦ } cos(ωt − 60◦ )
6
I
= √ {2 cos(ωt − 60◦ ) − 2 cos(ωt − 60◦ ) cos 2(ωt − 60◦ )}
6
I
= √ {2 cos(ωt − 60◦ ) + cos 3 ωt − cos(ωt − 60◦ )} (4.113)
6
Thus we have,
I
iap = √ {cos(ωt − 120◦ ) − cos(3ωt − 120◦ )}
6
I
ibp = √ {cos(ωt) + cos(3ωt − 60◦ )}
6
I
iaq = √ {−2 cos ωt + cos(ωt − 120◦ ) + cos(3ωt − 120◦ )}
6
I
ibq = √ {2 cos(ωt − 60◦ ) + cos 3 ωt − cos(ωt − 60◦ )} .
6
From above equations, it is clear that there exist active components of current which also have third
harmonic component. Also, the reactive components too have third harmonics. This again does
not match with definitions of active and reactive components of currents proposed by Fryze [5].
Powers computation
The secondary side powers are given as following.
∗
S a = Pa + jQa = V a I a = 398.37∠30◦ 99.59∠60◦ = 39673.8361∠90◦ VA
Thus, Pa = 0 W, Qa = 39673.8361 VAr
∗
S b = Pb + jQb = V b I b = 398.37∠ − 90◦ × 0 = 0 VA
Pb = 0 W, Qb = 0 VAr
∗
S c = Pc + jQc = V c I c = 398.37∠150◦ × 0 = 0 VA
147
The total active and reactive powers on the secondary side are given as following.
P = P a + Pb + Pc = 0 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 39673.83 VAr
Svect = Sarith = Q = 39673.83 VA
pfvect = pfarith = P/S = 0
The primary side powers are given as following.
∗
S A = PA + jQA = V a I a = 230∠0◦ 99.59∠60◦ = 11452.85 + j19836.91 VA
Thus, PA = 11452.85 W, QA = 19836.91 VAr
∗
S B = PB + jQB = V b I b = 230∠ − 120◦ (−99.59∠ − 120◦ )∗ =
PB = −11452.85 W, QB = 19836.91 VAr
∗
S C = PC + jQC = V C I C = 230∠120◦ × 0
The total active and reactive powers on the primary side are given as following.
P = P a + Pb + Pc = 0 W
Q = Qa + Qb + Qc = 39673.82 VAr

Svect = S A + S B + S C = 39673.82 VA

Sarith = S A + S B + S C = 22906 + 22906 + 0 = 45811.4 VA
pfvect = P/Svect = 0
pfarith = P/S = 0
Example 4.3: Consider the star-delta connected ideal transformer with 1:1 turn ratio as shown in
Fig. 2. The secondary side of transformer, a load of 2 ohms is connected between the phase-a and
b. Compute the following.
(a) Time domain expressions of currents in each phase on both primary and secondary side.
(b) Does the load require reactive power from the source? If any, find its value. Also compute
the reactive power on each phase of either side of transformer.
(c) Also determine active powers on each phase and overall active power on either side of the
transformer.
(d) If you have similar arrangement with balanced load and same output power, comment upon
the rating of line conductors and transformers.
Solution In this example, we have three phase star-delta connected transformer of turns ratio 1:1
with star side connected to three phase balanced voltage source and neutral connected to ground.
148
Thus, in this three phase star delta connected transformer, delta side phase voltages equal the star
side line voltages. The primary side instantaneous phase voltages are given by,
√
vA = 230 2 sin(ωt) = 325.27 sin(ωt)
√
vB = 230 2 sin(ωt − 120◦ ) = 325.27 sin(ωt − 120◦ ).
√ ◦
vC = 230 2 sin(ωt + 120 ) = 325.27 sin(ωt + 120◦ )
Therefore, instantaneous line to line voltages at delta side (secondary) are given by,
√
vab = 230 2 sin(ωt) = 325.27 sin(ωt)
√
vbc = 230 2 sin(ωt − 120◦ ) = 325.27 sin(ωt − 120◦ )
√
vca = 230 2 sin(ωt + 120◦ ) = 325.27 sin(ωt + 120◦ ).
Therefore, instantaneous phase voltages with respect to ground are given as follows.
√ √
va = √ 2
230
3
sin(ωt − 30◦ ) = 132.79 2 sin(ωt − 30◦ )
√ √
vb = 230
√ 2
3
sin(ωt − 150◦ ) = 132.79 2 sin(ωt − 150◦ )
√ √
vc = 230
√ 2
3
sin(ωt + 90◦ ) = 132.79 2 sin(ωt + 90◦ )
(a) On delta side, we have a resistive load of R = 3 Ω connected between terminals a and b. Thus,
expression for instantaneous currents flowing out of terminals a, b and c of the transformer are
given by,
√
vab 230 2 √
ia = = sin ωt = 76.67 2 sin ωt
R 3 √
vab 230 2 √
ib = −ia = − =− sin ωt = −76.67 2 sin ωt
R 3
ic = 0
Therefore, the winding currents on the secondary side are given as below.
√
iab = 76.67 2 sin ωt = 108.41 sin ωt
ibc = 0
ica = 0
These currents are transformed to the primary windings. Thus, the time domain expressions of
these currents are given as below.
149
√
iA = 76.67 2 sin ωt
iB = 0
iC = 0
(b) Load does not require any reactive power from the source because it is a purely resistive load.
This fact can also be verified by the looking at the expressions for instantaneous phase voltages
and currents on star side.
(c) Similarly, no current (and hence power) is drawn by the load from phases-B and C. Thus,
various powers on the primary side are as follows.
For phase-A,
∗
SA = PA + jQA = V A I A = 230∠0◦ × 76.67∠0◦ = 17634.1 VA
PA = 17634.1 W, QA = 0 VAr
For phase-B,
∗
SB = PB + jQB = V B I B = 230∠ − 120◦ × 0 = 0 VA
PB = 0 W, QB = 0 VAr
For phase-C,
∗
SC = PC + jQC = V C I C = 230∠120◦ × 0 = 0 VA
Thus, various powers on the secondary side are as follows.
For phase-a,
∗
Sa = Pa + jQa = V a I a = 132.79∠ − 30◦ × 76.67∠0◦ = 8817.05 − j5090.53 VA
Pa = 8817.05 W, Qa = −5090.53 VAr
For phase-b,
∗
Sb = Pb + jQb = V b I b = 132.79∠ − 150◦ × (−76.67∠0◦ ) = 8817.05 + j5090.53 VA
Pb = 8817.05 W, Qb = 5090.53 VAr
For phase-c,
∗
Sc = Pc + jQc = V c I c = 132.79∠90◦ × 0 = 0 VA
For the above analysis, it is observed that the total active power, P = PA + PB + PC = Pa +
Pb + Pc = 17634.1 W and total reactive power Q = QA + QB + QC = Qa + Qb + Qc = 0 VAr.
However, due to unbalanced load, on delta side of the transformer phase-b and phase-c experience
reactive power as calculated above. This creates some power factor in each phase.
(d) Because, the load which is currently getting power from one phase on delta side will be shared
150
by all the three phases phase voltages being the same. Thus, required current rating of the line
conductors and transformers will be reduced.
Example 4.4
Consider the a three-phase balanced system shown in Fig. 4.9. The supply voltages are: V a =
220∠0◦ , V b = 220∠ − 120◦ , V c = 220∠120◦ with balance load resistance of 1.32 Ω. The output
power Po is 100 kW and the losses in the feeder are 5% of te output power. The reactance of feeder
is not considered in the study.
(a) Determine voltages at the load points, phase currents and feeder resistance.
(b) Now let us say that the load is unbalanced by connecting a resistive load between phases-a and
b with same power output. With this configuration, compute active, reactive, various apparent
powers and power factor based on them. Compute losses in the system and comment upon the
result.
(c) Now, with same losses and power output, find an equivalent three-phase balanced circuit and
repeat (b). Comment on the result.
Va '  2300o
r Ia Va Ra
Vb ' r Ic Vb Rb
N
Vc ' r Ib Vc Rc
Fig. 4.9 Study on three-phase unbalanced system
Solution:
(a) For the given system the phase voltages are V a = 220∠0◦ , V b = 220∠−120◦ , V c = 220∠120◦ .
The load active power is 100 kW with 5% losses in the feeder, i.e., ∆Ps = 5 kW. Using above
parameters the RMS value of the phase voltage is computed as following.
V2
Po = 100 × 1000 = 3 ×
1.32
From the above equation, value of V is given as following.
r
100000 × 1.32
V = = 209.76 V
3
Thus, the rms value of phase currents is given by,

V 209.76
I= = = 159.9 A
R 1.32
151
The voltage drop across the feeder is found using following equation.
∆V = 230 − 209.76 = 20.23 V
For 5% losses in the feeder, the value of feeder resistance can be computed as below.
3 × (158.9)2 × r = 0.05 × 100 × 1000
which implies, r = 0.066 Ω
Since the load is balanced, the various apparent powers (arithmetic, vector and effective) are same.
These are computed below.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc
= Va Ia + Vb Ib + Vc Ic
= 3 Va Ia
= 3 × 209.5 × 158.9
= 100 kVA
Now we compute the vector apparent power (Sv ) as given below.
p
Sv = P 2 + Q2
p
= (Va Ia cos φa + Vb Ib cos φb + Vc Ic cos φc )2 + (Va Ia sin φa + Vb Ib sin φb + Vc Ic sin φc )2
p
= (3 Va Ia cos φa )2 + (3 Va Ia sin φa )2
= 3 Va Ia
= 100 kVA
Similarly, the effective apparent power can be computed as below.
Se = 3 Ve Ie = 3Va Ia = 100 kVA
The power factors based on above apparent powers are given below.
pfA = pfv = pfe = 1.0
Now an unbalanced circuit with same power output is considered. This is achieved by placing a
resistance of 1.17 Ω between any two phases (say between phases a and b). This is shown in Fig.
4.10.
For this circuit, the line currents are computed as below. Let I be the RMS value of the line
current, then following equation must be satisfied.
I 2 × R = 100 × 1000
(4.114)
From the above equation, I is given as below.
r
100000
I = = 292.35 A
1.17
152
a' a
r Ia
Va R
' b
r Ib
Vb c
c'
r Ic
Vc
'
n
r n
In
Fig. 4.10 Three-phase unbalanved circuit
Thus, phase currents are as following.

I a = 292.35∠30◦ A
I b = −I a = −292.35∠30◦ A
Ic = 0 A
Knowing the currents in the circuit we can compute the voltages V a , V b and V c as following.
Va = 220∠0◦ − 292.25∠30◦ × 0.066
= 220 − (16.67 + j9.9296)
= 223.33 − j9.6296
= 203.55∠ − 2.70◦ V
Similarly, voltages V b and V c can be computed which are given below.
V b = 220∠ − 120◦ − (−292.25∠30◦ ) × 0.066

= 203.55∠ − 117.29◦ V
V c = 220∠120◦ − 0 × 0.066 = 220∠120◦

Thus, Va = Vb = 203.55 V and Vc = 0 V. Knowing three-phase voltages and currents, the active
and reactive powers are computed as following.
∗
Sa = V a I a = 203.55∠ − 2.70◦ × 292.35∠ − 30◦
= 50088.79 − j 32156.42
= P + jQa
pa
Thus, Sa = Pa2 + Q2a = 59522.46 VA
∗
S b = V b I b = 203.55∠ − 117.3◦ × 292.35∠150◦
= 50088.79 + j 32156.42
= Pb + jQb
q
Thus, Sb = Pb2 + Q2b = 59522.46 VA
153
∗
Sc = V c I c = 220∠120◦ × 0
= 0+j0
= Pc + jQc
p
Thus, Sc = Pc2 + Q2c = 0 VA
Based on the computations of active and reactive powers in the above, we shall compute arithmetic,
vector and effective apparent powers and corresponding power factors.
SA = Sa + Sb + Sc = 59522.46 + 59522.46 + 0 = 119094.92 VA

Sv = |S v | = |S a + S b + S c | = 100177.58 VA
The effective apparent power is computed as following.
Se = 3 × Ve × Ie
r r
Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2
= 3× ×
q 3 q 3
= Va2 + Vb2 + Vc2 ×
Ia2 + Ib2 + Ic2
√ √
= 203.62 + 203.62 + 2202 × 292.352 + 292.352 + 02
= 149816.05 VA
Based on above apparent powers, the power factor are as following.
pfA = 100000/119044.92 = 0.84

pfv = 1000000/100000 = 1.0
pfe = 100000/149816.05 = 0.667
The power loss in the feeders is computed as below.
Ploss = Ia2 r + Ib2 r + Ic2 r

= 292.352 × 0.066 + 292.352 × 0.066 + 0
= 11260 = 11.26 kW
Thus it is observed that when the energy is delivered to the unbalanced load, the power loss in
the supply increases from 5 to 11.26 kW. It means that currents on the lines have increased and this
implies that an unbalanced purely resistive load cannot be considered as unity power factor load.
The calculation of the power factor using the vector apparent power leads to a value which is equal
to unity. This disqualifies, the vector apparent power Sv as an acceptable definition of the apparent
power in the presence of the load unbalance.
Since the value of the apparent power of balanced load is independent of this power definition,
we could ask the question: what is apparent power of a balanced load with the active power P =
100 kW , that causes same power loss of 11.26 kW, as the unbalanced load discussed earlier. For
154
power loss of 11.26 kW the following equation holds true.
3 × I 2 × r = 11260
r
11260
Therefore, I = = 283.01 A
3 × 0.066
Now we use the condition of output power as below.
P0 = 100000 = 3 × I 2 × R
r
100000
Implying that, R = = 0.59 Ω
3 × 238.015
The total input power must be equal to output power + losses. Therefore,
Pi = 11260 = 3 × 220 × I × cos φ
112600
Implying cos φ =
220 × 238.05
= 0.7078 =⇒ φ = 44.94◦
X
tan φ = tan 44.94◦ = 0.9978 =
R+r
Therefore, X = 0.9978 × (0.59 + 0.0659) = 0.65 Ω.
Therefore, load impedance (Z) is given as below.
Z = 0.59 + j0.65 Ω
(4.115)
Knowing above parameters the voltages at the load points can be computed which are given below.
Va = 220∠0◦ − 238.015∠44.94◦ × 0.0659
= 220 − 11.1 − j11.07 = 208.89 − j 11.07
= 209.18∠ − 3.03◦ V
Similarly, Vb = 209.18∠ − 123.03◦ V
Vc = 209.18∠116.97◦ V
The phase currents are as following.
I a = 238.015∠ − 44.94◦ A
I b = 238.015∠ − 164.94◦ A
I c = 238.015∠ − 75.06◦ A
For this equivalent balanced circuit (with same output power and power loss), the three apparent
powers i.e., arithmetic, vector and effective are same and these are as following.
SA = Sv = Se = 3 × Va × Ia = 3 × 209.18 × 238.015 = 149.363 kVA
and P = Pa + Pb + Pc = 100 kW
Thus the power factor based on the above apparent powers will also be same. Therefore,
pfa = pfv = pfe = 100/149.363 = 0.67
155
4.3 Theory of Instantaneous Symmetrical Components
The theory of instantaneous symmetrical components can be used for the purpose of load balanc-
ing, harmonic suppression, and power factor correction [2], [4]. The control algorithms based on
instantaneous symmetrical component theory can practically compensate any kind of unbalance
and harmonics in the load, provided we have a high band width current source to track the filter
reference currents. These algorithms have been derived in this section. For any set of three-phase
instantaneous currents or voltages, the instantaneous symmetrical components are defined by,
    
ia0 1 1 1 ia
ia+  = 1 1 a a2   ib  (4.116)
3 1 a2 a ic
ia−
Similarly for three-phase instantaneous voltages, we have,
    
v a0 1 1 1 va
v a+  = 1 1 a a2   vb  (4.117)
v 3 1 a2 a v
a− c
In the above equations, a is a complex operator and it is given by a = ej 2π/3 and a2 = ej 4π/3 .
It is to be noted that the instantaneous components of currents, ia+ and ia− are complex time
varying quantities also they are complex conjugate of each other. This same is true for v a+ and
v a− quantities. The terms ia0 and v a0 are real quantities, however (-) has been used as upper script
for the sake of uniformity of notation. These instantaneous symmetrical components are used to
formulate equations for load compensation. First a three-phase, four-wire system supplying star
connected load is considered.
4.3.1 Compensating Star Connected Load

A three-phase four wire compensated system is shown in Fig. 4.11. In the figure, three-phase load
currents (ila , ilb and ilc ), can be unbalanced and nonlinear load. The objective in either three or
four-wire system compensation is to provide balanced supply current such that its zero sequence
component is zero. We therefore have,
v sa i sa ila
LOAD
N
v sb
i sb i lb
LOAD n
v sc
i sc i lc
LOAD
Ideal
compensator
i*fa i*fb i*fc
Fig. 4.11 A three-phase four-wire compensated system
156
isa + isb + isc = 0 (4.118)
Using equations (4.116)-(4.117), instantaneous positive sequence voltage (v a+ ) and current (ia+ )
are computed from instantaneous values of vsa , vsb , vsc and isa , isb , isc respectively. To have a
predefined power factor from the source, the relationship between the angle of v a+ and ia+ is given
as following.
∠v a+ = ∠ia+ + φ+ (4.119)
Where φ+ is desired phase angle between v a+ and ia+ . The above equation is rewritten as
follows.

1 2 1 2
∠ [vsa + a vsb + a vsc ] = ∠ [isa + a isb + a isc ] + φ+
3 3
L.H.S = R.H.S
L.H.S of the above equation is expressed as below

" ( √ ! √ ! )#
1 1 3 1 3
L.H.S = ∠ vsa + − + j vsb + − − j vsc
3 2 2 2 2
" ( √ )#
1 vsb vsc 3
= ∠ vsa − − +j (vsb − vsc )
3 2 2 2
√
−1 ( 3/2) (vsb − vsc )
= tan
(vsa − vsb /2 − vsc /2)
K 1
= tan−1 (4.120)
K2
√
Where, K1 = ( 3/2) (vsb − vsc ) and K2 = (vsa − vsb /2 − vsc /2). Similarly R.H.S of the equa-
tion is expanded as below.
" ( √ ! √ ! )#
1 1 3 1 3
R.H.S = ∠ isa + − + j isb + − − j isc + φ+
3 2 2 2 2
" ( √ )#
1 isb isc 3
= ∠ isa − − +j (isb − isc ) + φ+
3 2 2 2
√
−1 ( 3/2) (isb − isc )
= tan + φ+
(isa − isb /2 − isc /2)
K3
= tan−1 + φ+ (4.121)
K4
157
√
Where, K3 = ( 3/2) (isb − isc ) and K4 = (isa − isb /2 − isc /2). Equating (4.120) and (4.121),
we get the following.
K1 K3
tan−1 = tan−1 + φ+
K2 K4
Taking tangent on both sides, the following is obtained.

−1 K1 −1 K3
tan tan = tan tan + φ+
K2 K4
K1 (K3 /K4 ) + tan φ+
Therefore, =
K2 1 − (K3 /K4 ) × tan φ+
K1 K3 + K4 tan φ+
=
K2 K4 − K3 × tan φ+
The above equation implies that,
K1 K4 − K1 K3 tan φ+ − K2 K3 − K2 K4 tan φ+ = 0
Substituting the values of K1 , K2 , K3 , K4 in the above equation, the following expression is ob-
tained.
√
3 isb isc 3
(vsb − vsc ) isa − − − (vsb − vsc ) (isb − isc ) tan φ+
2 2 2 4
√
3 vsb vsc vsb vsc isb isc
− vsa − − (isb − isc ) − vsa − − isa − − tan φ+ = 0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Above equation can be arranged with terms associated with isa , isb and isc . This is given below.
(√ )
3 tan φ+
(vsb − vsc ) + (vsb + vsc − 2 vsa ) isa
2 2
(√ )
3 tan φ+
+ (vsc − vsa ) + (vsc + vsa − 2 vsb ) isb
2 2
(√ )
3 tan φ+
+ (vsa − vsb ) + (vsa + vsb − 2 vsc ) isc = 0
2 2
√
Dividing above equation by 23 , it can be written as follows.

tan φ+
(vsb − vsc ) + √ (vsb + vsc − 2 vsa ) isa
3

tan φ+
+ (vsc − vsa ) + √ (vsc + vsa − 2 vsb ) isb
3

tan φ+
+ (vsa − vsb ) + √ (vsa + vsb − 2 vsc ) isc = 0
3
158
√
Assume β = tan φ+ / 3, the above equation is further simplified to,
{(vsb − vsc ) + β (vsb + vsc − 2 vsa )} isa
+ {(vsc − vsa ) + β (vsc + vsa − 2 vsb )} isb
+ {(vsa − vsb ) + β (vsa + vsb − 2 vsc )} isc = 0. (4.122)
Adding and subtracting vsa , vsb and vsc in β terms and expressing vs0 = 3(vsa + vsb + vsc ) in above
equation, we get the following.
{(vsb − vsc ) − 3β (vsa − vs0 )} isa
+ {(vsc − vsa ) − 3β (vsb − vs0 )} isb
+ {(vsa − vsb ) − 3β (vsc + vs0 )} isc = 0. (4.123)
The third objective of compensation is that the power supplied from the source (ps ) must be equal
to average load power (Plavg ). Therefore the following holds true.
ps = vsa isa + vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg (4.124)
The above equation has important implications. For example when supply voltage are balanced,
the above equation is satisfied for balanced source currents. However if supply voltage are unbal-
anced and distorted, above equation gives set of currents which are also not balanced and sinusoidal
in order to supply constant power.
Equations (4.118), (4.124) and (4.123), can be written in matrix form as given below.
 
1 1 1
(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa ) (vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb ) (vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc )
vsa vsb vsc
   
isa 0
 isb  =  0 
isc Plavg
Which can be further written as,

A isabc = Plavg (4.125)
Therefore,
 T  
a ac12 ac13 0
1  c11
isabc = A−1 Plavg =

ac21 ac22 ac23   0 
∆A a ac32 ac33 Plavg
c31
  
a ac21 ac31 0
1  c11
= ac12 ac22 ac32   0 
∆A a ac23 ac33 Plavg
c13
Where acij is the cofactor of ith row and j th column of A matrix in (4.125) and ∆A is the deter-
minant of matrix A. Due to the presence of zero elements in first two rows of column vector with
159
power elements, the cofactors in first two columns need not to be computed. These are indicated
by dots in the following matrix.
      
i sa · · a c31 0 a c31
1  1 
isabc =  isb  = · · ac32   0  = ac32  Plavg
isc ∆ A · · ac33 Plavg ∆ A ac33
The determinant of matrix A is computed as below.
∆A = [(vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb )]vsc − [(vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc )]vsb
−[(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )]vsc + [(vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc )]vsa
+[(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )]vsb − [(vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb )]vsa
2 2 2
= β[vsc + vsa vsc − 2vsb vsc − vsa vsb − vsb + 2vsb vsc − vsb vsc − vsc + 2vsa vsc
2 2 2
+vsa + vsb vsa − 2vsc vsa + vsb + vsc vsb − 2vsa vsb − vsc vsa − vsa + 2vsb vsa ]
+(vsc − vsa )vsc − (vsa − vsb )vsb − (vsb − vsc )vsc
+(vsa − vsb )vsa + (vsb − vsc )vsb − (vsc − vsa )vsa
The above equation can be further simplified to,

2 2 2 2
∆A = β · 0 + vsc − vsa vsc − vsb vsa + vsb − vsb vsc + vsc + vsa
2 2
−vsa vsb + vsb − vsc vsb − vsa vsc + vsa
2 2 2
= 2vsa + 2vsb + 2vsc − 2vsa vsb − 2vsb vsc − 2vsc vsa
2 2 2 2 2 2
= vsa + vsb − 2vsa vsb + vsb + vsc − 2vsb vsc + vsc + vsa − 2vsc vsa
2 2 2
= (vsa − vsb ) + (vsb − vsc ) + (vsc − vsa )
2 2 2
= (vsab + vsbc + vsca )
2 2 2
Further adding and subtracting, vsa + vsb + vsc in above equation, we get the following.
2 2 2 2 2 2
∆A = 3(vsa + vsb + vsc ) − (vsa + vsb + vsc + 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa ) (4.126)
Further,
(vsa + vsb + vsc )2 = vsa
2 2
+ vsb 2
+ vsc + 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa (4.127)
Using equations (4.126) and (4.127), we obtain the following.
2
∆A = 3(vsa + v 2 + vsc
2
) − (vsa + vsb + vsc )2
X sb
2 2
= 3 vsj − 9vso
j=a,b,c
" #
X
2 2
= 3 vsj − 3vso (4.128)
j=a,b,c
160
In above equation, the term vso is the instantaneous zero sequence component of the source voltage
and it is given as following.
(vsa + vsb + vsc )
vso = (4.129)
3
The determinant of matrix A, using (4.128), can also be expressed as,

2 2 2 (vsa + vsb + vsc )
∆A = 3 vsa + vsb + vsc − 3 vso
3
2 2 2 2 2

= 3 vsa + vsb + vsc + 3vso − 2 × 3vso
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 3[vsa + vsb + vsc + vso + vso + vso − 2vso (vsa + vsb + vsc )]
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 3[(vsa + vso − 2vsa vso ) + (vsb + vso − 2vsb vso ) + (vsc + vso − 2vsc vso )]
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 3[(vsa − vso ) + (vsb − vso ) + (vsc − vso )]
The cofactors ac31 , ac32 , and ac33 are computed as below.
ac31 = [−(vsc − vsa ) − β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb ) + (vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc )]
= vsa − vsb − vsc + vsa + β(−vsc − vsa + 2vsb + vsa + vsb − 2vsc )
= (2vsa − vsb − vsc ) + 3β(vsb − vsc )
= (2vsa + vsa − vsa − vsb − vsc ) + 3β(vsb − vsc )
= 3 (vsa − vs0 ) + 3 β(vsb − vsc )
Similarly,
ac32 = [−(vsa − vsb ) − β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc ) + (vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )]
= (−vsa + vsb + vsb − vsc ) + β(−vsa − vsb + 2vsc + vsb + vsc − 2vsa )
= (2vsb − vsc − vsa ) + 3β(vsc − vsa )
= 3(vsb − vso ) + 3β(vsc − vsa )
And,
ac33 = [(vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb ) − (vsb − vsc ) − β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )]
= (2vsc − vsa − vsb ) + 3β(vsa − vsb )
= 3(vsc − vso ) + 3β(vsa − vsb )
Knowing the value of cofactors, we now have,

   
isa 3(vsa − vs0 ) + 3β(vsb − vsc )
1
 isb  = hP i 3(vsb − vs0 ) + 3β(vsc − vsa ) Plavg
2 2
isc 3 j=a,b,c vsj − 3vso 3(vsc − vs0 ) + 3β(vsa − vsb )
 
(vsa − vso ) + β(vsb − vsc )
1
= hP i (vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa ) Plavg (4.130)
2 2
j=a,b,c vsj − 3vso (vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )
161
From the above equation, the desired source currents can be written as following.
isa = P 2 2
Plavg (4.131)
j=a,b,c vsj − 3 vso
(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa )
isb = P 2 2
Plavg (4.132)
(vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )
isc = P 2 2
Plavg (4.133)
Applying Kirchoff’s current law at the point of common coupling (PCC), we have,
i∗f a = ila − isa (4.134)
i∗f b = ilb − isb (4.135)
i∗f c = ilc − isc (4.136)
Replacing isa , isb and isc from equations (4.131)-(4.133), we obtain the reference filter currents as
given in the following.
i∗f a = ila − isa = ila − P 2 2
Plavg (4.137)
(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa )
i∗f b = ilb − isb = ilb − P 2 2
Plavg (4.138)
(vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )
i∗f c = ilc − isc = ilc − P 2 2
Plavg (4.139)
4.3.2 Compensating Delta Connected Load

The balancing of an unbalanced ∆-connected load is a generic problem and the theory of instan-
taneous symmetrical components can be used to balance the load. The schematic diagram of this
compensated scheme is shown in Fig. 4.12. This compensator is connected between the phasors of
vsa isa
i*fab i*fca
vsb isb ilab
Lo
da
ad
Lo
vsc isc ilbc ilca

Load
i*fbc
Fig. 4.12 A compensation for delta connected load
this scheme. The aim is to generate the three reference current waveforms denoted by i∗f ab , i∗f bc , i∗f ca
162
respectively based on the measurement of system voltages and load currents such that the supply
sees balanced load. As was in previous case, the requirements for compensating source currents
are same. Therefore the following equations are valid.
isa + isb + isc = 0 (4.140)
Applying Kirchoff’s current law at nodes, we can express isa , isb and isc respectively as following.
isa = (ilab − i∗f ab ) − (ilca − i∗f ca )
isb = (ilbc − i∗f bc ) − (ilab − i∗f cb ) (4.141)
isc = (ilca − i∗f ca ) − (ilbc − i∗f bc )
As can be seen from above equations, equation (4.140) is satisfied. Since in ∆ connected load,
zero sequence current cannot flow, therefore
(ilab − i∗f ab ) + (ilbc − i∗f bc ) + (ilca − i∗f ca ) = 0 (4.142)
The source supplies the average load power, Plavg and following equation is satisfied.
vsa isa + vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg (4.143)
From equation (4.123), the power factor between the source voltages and currents should be met.
Thus we have,
{(vsb − vsc ) − 3β (vsa − vs0 )} isa
+ {(vsc − vsa ) − 3β (vsb − vs0 )} isb
+ {(vsa − vsb ) − 3β (vsc + vs0 )} isc = 0. (4.144)
Replacing isa , isb and isc from (4.141), above equation can be simplified to the following.
(vsb − vsc ) − 3β(vsa − vs0 ) [(ilab − i∗f ab ) − (ilca − i∗f ca )]

+(vsc − vsa ) − 3β(vsb − vsa ) [(ilbc − i∗f bc ) − (ilab − i∗f ab )]
+(vsa − vsb ) − 3β(vsb − vsa ) [(ilca − i∗f ca ) − (ilbc − i∗f bc )] = 0 (4.145)
Simplifying above expression we get
[{(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )} − {(vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb )}] (ilab − i∗f ab )
| {z }
I
+ [{(vsc − vsa ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb )} − {(vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa − vsb − 2vsc )}] (ilbc − i∗f bc )
| {z }
II
+ [{(vsa − vsb ) + β(vsa − vsb − 2vsc )} − {(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa )}] (ilca − i∗f ca )
| {z }
III
(4.146)
The first term I is as follows:
I = {(vsb − vsc − vsc + vsa ) + β(vsb + vsc − 2vsa − vsc − vsa + 2vsb )} (ilab − i∗f ab )
= {(vsa + vsb − 2vsc ) − 3β(vsa − vsb )} (ilab − i∗f ab )
= −3 {(vsc − vs0 ) + β (vsa − vsb )} (ilab − i∗f ab ) (4.147)
163
Similarly, the second and third terms are given as below.
II = {(vsc − vsa − vsa + vsb ) + β(vsc + vsa − 2vsb − vsa − vsb + 2vsc )} (ilbc − i∗f bc )
= {(vsb + vsc − 2vsa ) − 3β(vsb − vsc )} (ilbc − i∗f bc )
= −3 {(vsa − vs0 ) + β (vsb − vsc )} (ilbc − i∗f bc ) (4.148)
III = {(vsa − vsb − vsb + vsc ) + β(vsa + vsb − 2vsc − vsb − vsc + 2vsa )} (ilca − i∗f ca )
= {(vsc + vsa − 2vsb ) − 3β(vsc − vsa )} (ilca − i∗f ca )
= −3 {(vsb − vs0 ) + β (vsc − vsa )} (ilca − i∗f ca ) (4.149)
Summing above three terms and simplifying we get,
{(vsc − vs0 ) + β(vsa − vsb )} (ilab − i∗f ab )
+ {(vsa − vs0 ) + β(vsb − vsc )} (ilbc − i∗f bc )
+ {(vsb − vs0 ) + β(vsc − vsa )} (ilca − i∗f ca ) = 0 (4.150)
The third condition for load compensation ensures that the average load power should be supplied
from the sources. Therefore,
vsa isa + +vsb isb + vsc isc = Plavg (4.151)
The terms isa , isb and isc are substituted from (4.141) in the above equation and the modified
equation is given below.
vsa (ilab − i∗f ab ) − (ilca − i∗f ca ) + vsb (ilbc − i∗f bc ) − (ilab − i∗f ab )

+vsc (ilca − i∗f ca ) − (ilbc − i∗f bc ) = 0

(4.152)
(4.153)
The above is simplified to,
(vsa − vsb )(ilab − i∗f ab ) + (vsb − vsc )(ilbc − i∗f bc ) + (vsc − vsa )(ilca − i∗f ca ) = 0 (4.154)
Equations (4.142), (4.150), (4.154) can be written in the matrix form as given below.
ilab − i∗f ab
  
1 1 1
(vsc − vs0 ) + β(vsa − vsb ) (vsa − vs0 ) + β(vsb − vsc ) (vsb − vs0 ) + β(vsc − vsa )  ilbc − i∗f bc 
vsa − vsb vsb − vsc vsc − vsa ilca − i∗f ca
 
0
= 0  (4.155)
Plavg
The above equation can be written in the following form.
ilab − i∗f ab
   
0
[A∆ ]  ilbc − i∗f bc  =  0  (4.156)
ilca − i∗f ca Plavg
164
Therefore,
ilab − i∗f ab
   
0
 ilbc − i∗f bc  = [A∆ ]−1  0  (4.157)
ilca − i∗f ca Plavg
The above equation is solved by finding the determinate of A∆ and the cofactors transpose as given
below.
T 
ilab − i∗f ab
   
ac11 ac12 ac13 0
 ilbc − i∗f bc  = 1 
ac21 ac22 ac23   0 
∗
ilca − if ca |A ∆| a
c31 ac32 ac33 Plavg
  
ac11 ac21 ac31 0
1 
= ac12 ac22 ac32   0  (4.158)
|A∆ | a a a P
c13 c23 c33 lavg
The determinant |A∆ | and cofactors in above equation are calculated below.
|A∆ | = [(vsa − vso ) + β(vsb − vsc )](vsc − vsa ) − [(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa )](vsb − vsc )
−[(vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )](vsc − vsa ) + [(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa )](vsa − vsb )
+[(vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )](vsb − vsc ) − [(vsa − vso ) + β(vsb − vsc )](vsa − vsb )
Separating all the terms containing β and rearranging the above equation, we get,
|A∆ | = (vsa − vso )(vsc − vsa ) − (vsb − vso )(vsb − vsc ) − (vsc − vso )(vsc − vsa )
+(vsb − vso )(vsa − vsb ) + (vsc − vso )(vsb − vsc ) − (vsa − vso )(vsa − vsb )
+β [(vsb − vsc )(vsc − vsa ) − (vsc − vsa )(vsb − vsc ) − (vsa − vsb )(vsc − vsa )
+(vsc − vsa )(vsa − vsb ) + (vsa − vsb )(vsb − vsc ) − (vsb − vsc )(vsa − vsb )]
It is seen that the terms containing β cancel each other and give zero. Thus, above equation
becomes,
|A∆ | = (vsa − vso )(vsc − vsa − vsa + vsb ) + (vsb − vso )(−vsb + vsc + vsa − vsb )(4.159)
+(vsc − vso )(−vsc + vsa + vsb − vsc ) + β × 0
In the above, using (vsa + vsb + vsc ) = 3vs0 ,
vsc − vsa − vsa + vsb = vsa + vsb + vsc − 3vsa = −3(vsa − vso )
−vsb + vsc + vsa − vsb = vsa + vsb + vsc − 3vsb = −3(vsb − vso )
−vsc + vsa + vsb − vsc = vsa + vsb + vsc − 3vsc = −3(vsc − vso ).
Replacing above term in (4.159), we get the following.
A∆ = −3 [(vsa − vs0 )(vsa − vs0 ) + (vsb − vs0 )(vsb − vs0 ) + (vsc − vs0 )(vsc − vs0 )]
= −3[(vsa − vs0 )2 + (vsb − vs0 )2 + (vsc − vs0 )2 ]
X
= −3 (vsj − vs0 )2 (4.160)
j=a,b,c
165
The above equation can also be written as,
2 2 2 2
|A∆ | = −3 [vsa + vsb + vsc + 3 vs0 − 2 vs0 (vsa + vsb + vsc )]
2 2 2 2 2
= −3 [vsa + vsb + vsc + 3 vs0 − 6 vs0 ]
2 2 2 2
= −3 [vsa + vsb + vsc − 3vs0 ]
!
X
2 2
= −3 vsj − 3vs0 (4.161)
j=a,b,c
Calculation of cofactors of A∆
We need to calculate ac31 , ac32 and ac33 . These are computed as following.
ac31 = [(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa ) − (vsa − vso ) + β(vsb − vsc )]

= [(vsb − vsa ) − β(vsa + vsb − 2 vsc )]
= [(vsb − vsa ) − β(vsa + vsb + vsc − 3 vsc )]
= [(vsb − vsa ) − β(3 vs0 − 3 vsc )]
= − [vsab − 3 β(vsc − vs0 )]
Similarly,
ac32 = −[(vsb − vso ) + β(vsc − vsa ) − (vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )]

= −[(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsc + vsb − 2 vsa )]
= −[(vsb − vsc ) + β(vsa + vsb + vsc − 3 vsa )]
= −[(vsb − vsc ) + β(3 vs0 − 3 vsa )]
= − [vsbc − 3β(vsa − vs0 )]
and
ac33 = [(vsa − vso ) + β(vsb − vsc ) − (vsc − vso ) + β(vsa − vsb )]

= [(vsa − vsc ) − β(vsa + vsc − 2 vsb )]
= [(vsa − vsc ) − β(vsa + vsb + vsc − 3 vsb )]
= [(vsa − vsc ) − β(3 vs0 − 3 vsb )]
= − [vsca − 3β(vsb − vs0 )]
Therefore, the solution of the equation is given by,

T 
ilab − i∗f ab
   
ac11 ac12 ac13 0
 ilbc − i∗f bc  = 1 ac21 ac22 ac23   0 
ilca − i∗f ca A∆ ac31 ac32 ac33 Plavg
   
a ac21 ac31 0
1  c11
= ac12 ac22 ac32   0  (4.162)
A∆ a ac23 ac33 Plavg
c13
166
From the above equation and substituting the values of cofactors obtained above, we get the fol-
lowing.
ac31
ilab − i∗f ab = Plavg
|A∆ |
− [vsab − 3β(vsc − vs0 )]
= hP i Plavg
2 2
−3 v
j=a,b,c sj − 3 vs0
[vsab /3 − β(vsc − vs0 )]

= P 2 2
Plavg
j=a,b,c vsj − 3 vs0
From the above equation, the reference compensator current (i∗f ab ) can be given as follows.
vsab /3 − β(vsc − vs0 )

i∗f ab = ilab − P 2 2
Plavg (4.163)
Similarly,
vsbc /3 − β(vsa − vs0 )
i∗f bc = ilbc − P 2 2
Plavg (4.164)
and
vsca /3 − β(vsb − vs0 )
i∗f ca = ilca − P 2 2
Plavg (4.165)
When the source power factor is unity, β = 0, for balanced source voltages (fundamental) vs0 = 0.
Substituting these values in above equations, we get,
vsab
i∗f ab = ilab − P 2
Plavg
3 j=a,b,c vsj
vsbc
i∗f bc = ilbc − P 2
Plavg (4.166)
3 j=a,b,c vsj
vsca
i∗f ca = ilca − P 2
Plavg
3 j=a,b,c vsj
Further it can be seen that,
2 2 2
vsab + vsbc + vsca = (vsa − vsb )2 + (vsb − vsc )2 + (vsc − vsa )2
2 2 2 2 2 2
= vsa + vsb − 2vsa vsb + vsb + vsc − 2vsb vsc + vsc + vsa − 2vsc vsa
2 2 2
= 2(vsa + vsb + vsc ) − (2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa )
2 2 2 2 2 2
= 3(vsa + vsb + vsc ) − (vsa + vsb + vsc + 2vsa vsb + 2vsb vsc + 2vsc vsa )
= 3(vsa + vsb + vsc ) − (vsa + vsb + vsc )2
2 2 2
2 2 2 2
= 3[(vsa + vsb + vsc ) − 3 vs0 ]
" #
X
2 2
= 3 vsj − 3 vs0 (4.167)
j=a,b,c
167
hP i
2 2
Replacing 3 v
j=a,b,c sj − 3 v s0 in equations (4.163), (4.164) and (4.165), we get the following.
vsab − 3β (vsc − vs0 )

i∗f ab = ilab − 2 2
P
2 ) lavg
3(vsab + vsbc + vsca
vsbc − 3β (vsa − vs0 )
i∗f bc = ilbc − 2 2
P
2 ) lavg
(4.168)
vsca − 3β (vsb − vs0 )
i∗f ca = ilca − 2 2
P
2 ) lavg
For unity power factor and balanced source voltages (fundamental), the reference compensator
currents are given as following.
vsab
i∗f ab = ilab − Plavg
27 V 2
vsbc
i∗f bc = ilbc − Plavg (4.169)
27 V 2
vsca
i∗f ca = ilca − Plavg
27 V 2
Where V is the rms value of phase voltages.
References
[1] H. Akagi, Y. Kanazawa, and A. Nabae, “Instantaneous reactive power compensators compris-
ing switching devices without energy storage components,” IEEE Transactions on Industry
Applications, no. 3, pp. 625–630, 1984.
[2] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, “Load compensating DSTATCOM in weak ac systems,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 18, no. 4, pp. 1302–1309, Oct. 2003.
[3] V. George and Mahesh K. Mishra, “DSTATCOM topologies for three-phase high power appli-
cations,” International Journal of Power Electronics, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 107–124, 2010.
[4] A. Ghosh and A. Joshi, “A new approach to load balancing and power factor correction in
power distribution system,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 15, no. 1, pp. 417–
422, 2000.
[5] L. S. Czarnecki, “Budeanu and Fryze: Two frameworks for interpreting power properties of
circuits with nonsinusoidal voltages and currents,” Electrical Engineering (Archiv fur Elek-
trotechnik), vol. 80, no. 6, pp. 359–367, 1997.
168
Chapter 5
SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE

COMPENSATION USING DVR
(Lectures 36-44)
5.1 Introduction
Power system should ensure good quality of electric power supply, which means voltage and cur-
rent waveforms should be balanced and sinusoidal. Furthermore, the voltage levels on the system
should be within reasonable limits, generally within 100 ± 5% of their rated value. If the voltage is
more or less than this pre-specified value, performance of equipments is sacrificed. In case of low
voltages, picture on television starts rolling, the torque of induction motor reduces to the square of
voltage and therefore there is need for voltage compensation.
5.2 Conventional Methods to Regulate Voltage

In order to keep load bus voltage constant, many conventional compensating devices such as listed
below can be used. In general, these can be referred as VAR compensator.
1. Shunt Capacitors
2. Series Capacitors
3. Synchronous Capacitor
4. Tap Changing Transformer
5. Booster Transformer
6. Static Synchronous Series Capacitor
7. Dynamic Voltage Restorer
169
The first six methods are employed at transmission level while the last method is by employing
Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR), is mostly employed in power distribution network to protect any
voltage variation at the load bus connected to the sensitive and critical electrical units. The DVR
is a series connected custom power device used to mitigate the voltage unbalance, sags, swells,
harmonics and any abrupt changes due to abnormal conditions in the system. In the following
section, dynamic voltage restorer will be described in detail.
5.3 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)

A dynamic voltage restorer (DVR) is a solid state inverter based on injection of voltage in series
with a power distribution system [1], [2]. The DC side of DVR is connected to an energy source or
an energy storage device, while its ac side is connected to the distribution feeder by a three-phase
interfacing transformer. A single line diagram of a DVR connected power distribution system is
shown in the figure below. In this figure, vs (t) represents supply voltage, vt (t) represents terminal
voltage and vl (t) represents the load voltage. Since DVR is a series connected device, the source
current, is (t) is same as load current, il (t). Also note in the figure, vf (t) is DVR injected voltage
in series with line such that the load voltage is maintained at sinusoidal nominal value.
vs (t ) Rs  jX s vt (t ) vl (t )
is  il
v f (t )
L
O
A
D
Fig. 5.1 A single-line diagram of DVR compensated system
The three-phase DVR compensated system is shown in Fig. 5.2 below. It is assumed that the
transmission line has same impedance in all three phases. A DVR unit which is represented in Fig.
5.1, have following components [3]- [5].
1. Voltage Source Inverter

2. Filter capacitors and inductors
3. Injection transformer
4. DC storage system
These components are shown in Fig. 5.3. Some other important issues i.e., how much voltage
should be injected in series using appropriate algorithm, choice of suitable power converter topol-
ogy to synthesize voltage and design of filter capacitor and inductor components have to be ad-
dressed while designing the DVR unit.
170
vsa v fa vla
Rs  jX s
A
isa
vsb v fb vlb
Rs  jX s
N B n
isb
vs c v fc vlc
Rs  jX s
C
isc
Fig. 5.2 A single-line diagram of DVR compensated system
PCC vl
vt
- vf +
Rs Ls
Injecion Load
transformer
vs
VSI
Cdc Energy
Vdc storage
Fig. 5.3 Schematic diagram of a DVR based compensation in a distribution system
5.4 Operating Principle of DVR
Consider a DVR compensated single phase system as shown in Fig. 5.4. Let us assume that source
voltage is 1.0 pu and we want to regulate the load voltage to 1.0 pu. Let us denote the phase angle
between V s and V l as δ. In this analysis, harmonics are not considered. Further we assume that
during DVR operation, real power is not required except some losses in the inverter and the non
ideal filter components. These losses for the time being are considered to be zero. This condition
implies that the phase difference between V f and I s should be 90o . Let us first consider a general
case to understand the concept.
For the circuit shown in Fig. 5.4, applying Kirchoff’s voltage law,
V s + V f = I s (Rs + jXs ) + V l
= I s Zs + V l . (5.1)
171
Vs Rs  jX s Vt Vl
Is
Vf
L
O
A
D
Fig. 5.4 Schematic diagram of a DVR based compensation in a distribution system
Note that in above curcuit I s = I l = I. The load voltage V l can be written in terms of load current
and load impedance as given below.
V s + V f = I (Zs + Zl ) (5.2)
Therefore equation (5.1) can be written as following.
V s + V f = I (Rs + jXs ) + V l
= I Zs + V l (5.3)
Above equation can be re-written as following.
V s = V l + I Rs − (V f − jI Xs ) (5.4)
With the help of above equation, the relationship between load voltage and the source and DVR
voltages can be expressed as below.

Vs+Vf
Vl = Zl (5.5)
Zs + Zl
Example 5.1 Let us apply condition to maintain load voltage same as source voltage i.e., V l = V s
or Vl = Vs . Discuss the feasibility of injected voltage in series with the line as shown in Fig. 5.4,
to obtain load voltage same as source voltage. Consider the following cases.
a. Line resistance is negligible with Zs = j0.25 pu and Zl = 0.5 + j0.25 pu.
b. When the load is purely resistive with Zs = 0.45 + j0.25 pu and Zl = 0.5 pu.
Solution:
(a) When line resistance is negligible
172
The above condition implies that, Xs = 0. Without DVR, the load terminal voltage V l can be
given as following.
Vs 1.0∠0o
Il = = = 1.0 − j1.0 = 1.4142∠ − 45o pu
Zl + jZs 0.5 + j0.5
Therefore the load voltage is given as following. V l = Zl I l = 0.5590∠26.56o × 1.4142∠45o =

0.7906∠ − 18.43o pu. This is illustrated in Fig. 5.5(a). Thus the load voltage has reduced by 21%.
Now it is desired to maintain load voltage same as supply voltage in magnitude and phase angle.
Thus, substituting V s = V l in equation (5.3), we get,
V s + V f = I (Rs + jXs ) + V l
⇒ V f = I (Rs + jXs )
jXs
Vf = V l , since Rs = 0 and I = V l /Zl
Zl
Neglecting resistance part of the feeder impedance, Zs = j0.25, the DVR voltage can be computed
as above.
j0.25
Vf = 1.0∠0o for V l = 1.0∠0o
0.5 + j0.25
= 0.4472∠63.4349o pu.
From the above the, line current is computed as following.
Vl 1.0∠0o
Is = = = 1.7889∠ − 26.56o pu.
Zl 0.5590∠26.56o
It is to be noted that, although V s = V l = 1.0∠0o pu, it does not imply that no power flows from
‘
source to load. In fact the total effective source voltage is V s = V s + V f = 1.2649∠18.8◦ pu.
Therefore it implies that the effective source voltage is leading the load voltage by an angle of
18.43o . This ensures the power flow from the source to load. This is illustrated by drawing phasor
diagram in the Fig. 5.5(b). below.
(b) When load is purely resistive
For this case Xl = 0, therefore Zl = Rl = 0.5 pu. Substituting V s = V l in (5.1), we get the
following.
V f = (Rs + jXs )I
Substituting I = V l /Rl , we get,

Rs + jXs Vl Vl
Vf = V l = Rs + jXs = Rs I s + jXs I s .
Rl Rl Rl
173
jX s I
I
s
Vs =1.00 o
Vs
jX
18.8
o

 jX s I 26.56o Vl =1.00o
45o
f
V
Vl
I I
(a) (b)
Fig. 5.5 Terminal voltage (a) Without DVR (b) With DVR
From this above equation, it is indicated that DVR voltage has two components, the one is in phase
with I s and the other is in phase quadrature with I s . This implies that for purely resistive load, it
is not possible to maintain V l = V s without active power supplied from the DVR to the load. This
is due to the presence of in phase component of the DVR voltage in the above equation. This is
illustrated in the phasor diagram given in Fig. 5.6 below.
Vs
jX s I
I Vl I Rs
Fig. 5.6 When load is purely resistive
Although it is not possible to maintain V l = V s without injection of active power from the
DVR, however it is possible to maintain the magnitudes of load voltage and source voltages to the
same value i.e., Vs = Vl . However, this may be true for a limited range of the load resistance.
5.4.1 General Case

In general, it is desired to maintain the magnitude of the load voltage equal to the source voltage
i.e., 1.0 pu. The voltage equation in general relating the source, load and DVR has been expressed
in (5.4) and is given below.
V s = V l + I Rs − (V f − jI Xs )
The above equation is illustrated using phasor diagram description in Fig. 5.7 given below. Three
cases of voltage compensation are discussed below.
Case 1: When Rs I < CD
For this case, it is always possible to maintain load voltage same as source voltage i.e., Vl = Vs .
The DVR is expected to supply enough range reactive power to meet this condition. When Rs Is
174
Vl 1
I Rs
l Vs
jX s I
I
V f  jX s I
1
Vs
Fig. 5.7 Compensation using DVR: General case
is quite smaller than CD, the above condition can be met by suppling less reactive power from the
DVR. For this condition there are two solutions. Graphically, these solutions are represented by
points A an B in the Fig. 5.7.
Case 2: When Rs I > CD
For this condition, it is not possible to meet Vl = Vs . This is shown by lines passing through
points D and D1 . This may take place due to the higher feeder resistance or high current, thus
making product of I Rs relatively large.
Case 3: When Rs I = CD
This is limiting case of compensation to obtain Vs = Vl . This condition is now satisfied at only
one point when CD=Rs I. This is indicated by point D in the Fig. 5.7.
Now let us set the following objective for the load compensation.
Vl = Vs = V = 1.0 pu (5.6)
From Fig. 5.7, OA = V cos φl = cos φl .

Therefore, CD = OD − OC = V (1 − cos φl ) = (1 − cos φl ) pu. In order to meet the condition
175
given by (5.6), the following must be satisfied.
Rs I ≤ V (1 − cos φl ) (5.7)
The above implies that
V (1 − cos φl )
Rs ≤ (5.8)
I
V (1 − cos φl )
or I≤ (5.9)
Rs
Thus it is observed that for a given power factor, the DVR characteristics can be obtained by
varying Rs and keeping I constant or vice versa. This is described below. Let us consider three
conditions Rs = 0.04 pu, Rs = 0.1 pu and Rs = 0.4 pu. For these values of feeder resistance, the
line currents are expressed as following using (5.9).
I = 25 (1 − cos φl ) pu for Rs = 0.04 pu
I = 10 (1 − cos φl ) pu for Rs = 0.1 pu
I = 2.5 (1 − cos φl ) pu for Rs = 0.4 pu.
The above currents are plotted as function of load power factor and are shown in Fig. 5.8. Since
Rs I = Vl (1 − cosφl ), when Rs increases, I has to decrease to make Vl (1 − cosφl ) to be a constant
for a given power factor. Thus if the load requires more current than the permissible value, the
DVR will not be able to regulate the load voltage at the nominal value, i.e., 1.0 pu. However
we can regulate bus voltage less than 1.0 pu. For regulating the load voltage less than 1.0 pu the
current drawing capacity of the load increases.
18
16
14
12
10
8
-600 -300 00 300 600
6
0
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60
Fig. 5.8 DVR characteristics for different load power factor and feeder resistance
176
5.5 Mathematical Description to Compute DVR Voltage
The previous section explains DVR characteristics and describes the feasibility of realizing DVR
voltage graphically under different operating conditions. In this section, a feasible solution for
the DVR voltage is presented with a mathematical description. This plays significant role while
implementing DVR on real time basis. Reproducing equation (5.3) for sake of completeness,
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I. (5.10)
Denoting, (Rs + jXs ) I = a2 + jb2 and V f = Vf ∠V f = Vf (a1 + jb1 ), the above equation can be
written as following.
V s = V l + (a2 + jb2 ) − V f
= V l + (a2 + jb2 ) − Vf (a1 + jb1 )
= 1.0∠0o + (a2 + jb2 ) − Vf (a1 + jb1 ) (5.11)
Since, source voltage and load voltage have to be maintained at nominal value i.e., 1.0 pu, therefore
V s = Vs ∠δ = 1.0∠δ. Substituting this value of V s in above equation, we get,
V s = 1.0∠δ = cos δ + j sin δ = {(1 + a2 ) − Vf a1 } + j(b2 − Vf b1 ) (5.12)
Squaring and adding the real and imaginary parts from both the sides of the above equation, we
get,
(1 + a2 )2 + Vf2 a21 − 2(1 + a2 ) a1 Vf + b22 + Vf2 b21 − 2 b1 b2 Vf − 1.0 = 0 (5.13)
Since a21 + b21 = 1, therefore summation of underlines terms, Vf2 (a21 + b21 ). = Vf2 . Using this and
rearranging above equation in the power of Vf , we get the following.
Vf2 − 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 − 1.0 = 0 (5.14)
The above equation gives two solutions for Vf . These are equivalent to two points A and B shown
in the Fig. 5.7. However, the feasible value of the voltage is chosen on the basis of the rating of
the DVR.
Example 5.2 Consider a system with supply voltage 230 V = 1.0 pu, 50 Hz as shown in the Fig.
5.9. Consider feeder impedance as Zs = 0.05 + j0.3 pu and load impedance Zl = 0.5 + j0.3 pu.
1. Compute the load voltage without DVR.
2. Compute the current and DVR voltage such that Vl = Vs .
3. Compute the effective source voltage including DVR. Explain the power flow in the circuit.
4. Compute the terminal voltage with DVR compensation.
177
vs (t ) Rs  jX s vt (t ) vl (t )
v f (t )
Rl  jX l
is  il
Fig. 5.9 A DVR compensated system
Solution: 1. When DVR is not connected.
The system parameters are given as following. The supply voltage Vs = 1.0∠0o pu, Zs = Rs +
j Xs = 0.05 + j0.3 and Zl = Rl + j Xl = 0.5 + j0.3 pu. The current in the circuit is given by,
Vs 1.0∠0
Is = I = Il = =
Zs + Zl 0.55 + j0.6
= 0.83 − j0.91 = 1.2286∠ − 47.49o pu
The load voltage is therefore given by,
V l = Zs I s = 1.2286∠ − 47.490 × 0.5 + j0.3

= 0.7164∠ − 16.53o pu
Thus we observe that the load voltage is 71% of the rated value. Due to reduction in the load
voltage, the load may not perform to the expected level.
2. When DVR is connected
It is desired to maintain Vl = Vs by connecting the DVR. Taking V l as reference phasor i.e.,

V l = 1.0∠0o , The line current is computed as below.
1.0∠0
I = = 1.47 − j0.88 = 1.715∠ − 30.96o pu
0.5 + j0.3
Writing KVL for the circuit shown in (5.9),
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I.
The DVR voltage V f can be expressed as following.
V f = Vf ∠(∠I s + 90o )
178
The angle of V f is taken as (∠I s + 90o ) so that DVR do not exchange any active power with the
system.
V f = Vf ∠(∠I s + 90o )
= Vf ∠(−30.96o + 90o )
= Vf ∠59.04o = Vf (0.51 + j0.86) = Vf (a1 + jb1 ) pu
The above equation implies that a1 = 0.51, b1 = 0.86.
Let us now compute (Rs + jXs ) I.
(Rs + jXs ) I = (0.05 + j0.3) (1.46 − j0.86)
= 0.3041∠80.54o × 1.715∠ − 30.96o
= 0.5199∠49.58o
= 0.3370 + j0.3958 pu
The above implies that a2 = 0.337 and b2 = 0.3958. As discussed in previous section, the equation
V s + V f = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I can be written in following form.
Vf2 − 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 − 1.0 = 0.
Substituting a1 , b1 , a2 , b2 in the above equation, we get the following quadratic equation for the
DVR.
Vf2 − 2.0463 Vf + 0.9442 = 0
Solving the above equation, we get Vf = 0.7028, 1.3434 pu as two values of the DVR voltage.
These two values correspond to the points A and B respectively in Fig. 5.7. However, the feasible
solution is Vf = 0.7028 pu, as it ensures less rating of the DVR.
Therefore,
V f = 0.7028∠59.04o
= 0.3614 + j0.6028 pu.
The source voltage can be computed using the following equation.
V s = V l + (Rs + jXs ) I − V f .
= 1.0∠0o + (0.05 + j0.3) 1.715∠ − 30.96o − 0.7028∠59.04o
= 0.9767 − j0.2056 = 1.0∠ − 11.89o pu
3. Effective source voltage
It is seen that the magnitude of V s is 1.0 pu which is satisfying the condition Vs = Vl . How-
ever the angle of V s is ∠ − 11.89o which implies that power is flowing from load to the source.
‘
This is not true because the effective source voltage is now V s = V s +V f . This is computed below.
‘
V s + V f = V s = 0.9767 − j0.2056 + 0.3614 + j0.6028
= 1.3382 + j0.397
= 1.3958∠16.52o pu
179
From above it is evident that the effective source voltage has magnitude of 1.3958 pu and an
angle of ∠16.52◦ which ensures that power flows from source to the load. For this the equivalent
circuit is shown in the Fig. 5.10 below.
Vs'  Vs  V f
 1.3916.52o Rs  jX s Vl  1.00o
Rl  jX l
I s  Il
4. Terminal voltage with DVR compensation
The terminal voltage can also be computed as following.
V t = V s − Zs I = V l − V f
= 1.0∠0o − 0.6983∠59.06o
= 0.8796∠ − 43.28o pu
This indicates that for rated current flowing in the load, the terminal voltage is less than the 1.0 pu
and needs compensation. After compensation the load voltage is 1.0 pu as shown in the Fig. 5.10.
The details of voltages are depicted in the following figure.
5.6 Transient Operation of the DVR

In the previous section the operation of the DVR in the steady state was discussed with assumption
that full system information is available. While implementing the DVR compensation scheme, the
above discussed method should be implemented on the real time basis. For the single phase DVR
operation, following steps are required.
1. Define a reference quantity such as the terminal voltage Vl (t) and other quantities are syn-
chronized to it.
2. To compute phase angle of the DVR voltage, a fundamental of line current is extracted with
respect to reference quantity.
3. Then DVR voltage is computed using Equation (5.14), which is reproduced below.
Vf2 − 2 {(1 + a2 ) a1 + b1 b2 } Vf + (1 + a2 )2 + b22 − 1.0 = 0
180
4. DVR voltage Vf is then synthesized using magnitude Vf from the above equation and phase
angle that leads the fundamental of the line current by 90o .
The above method can be refereed as Type 1 control [1]. The method assumes that all circuit
parameters are known along with the information of the source impedance. This however may not
be feasible in all circumstances. To solve this problem Type 2 control is suggested. In Type 2
control only local quantities are required to compute the DVR voltage. The method is described
below.
The terminal voltage, which is local quantity to the DVR as shown in Fig. 5.1 can be expressed as
following.
Vt = Vl−Vf
= Vl ∠0o − Vf (a1 + jb1 )
= (Vl − a1 Vf ) − jb1 Vf (5.15)
Since, V t = Vt ∠δt = Vt cos δt + jVt sin δt , the above equation is written as following.
Vt cos δt + jVt sin δt = (Vl − a1 Vf ) − jb1 Vf (5.16)
Squaring adding both sides we get,
Vt2 = (Vl − a1 Vf )2 + b21 Vf2

= Vl2 + a21 Vf2 + b21 Vf2 − 2a1 Vl Vf
= Vl2 + Vf2 − 2a1 Vl Vf (since a21 + b21 = 1). (5.17)
The above equation can be arranged in the powers of the DVR voltage as given below.
Vf2 − 2a1 Vl Vf + Vl2 − Vt2 = 0 (5.18)
To implement DVR for unbalanced three-phase system without harmonics, the positive sequence
+ + +
currents (I a , I b and I c ) of line currents are extracted using Fourier transform. Based on these
values of currents the angles of DVR voltages are found by shifting current angles by 90o i.e.,
+
∠V f a = ∠I a + 90o
+
∠V f b = ∠I b + 90o (5.19)
+
∠V f c = ∠I c + 90o
The magnitude of DVR voltage can be found using equations (5.14) and (5.18) for Type 1 and
Type 2 control respectively.
Based on above the DVR voltages vf a , vf b , vf c can be expressed in time domain as given below.
√
vf a = 2 Vf a sin(ω t + ∠V f a )
√
vf b = 2 Vf b sin(ω t − 120o + ∠V f b ) (5.20)
√ o
vf c = 2 Vf c sin(ω t + 120 + ∠V f c )
181
5.6.1 Operation of the DVR With Unbalance and Harmonics
In the previous analysis, it was assumed that the supply voltages are unbalanced without harmonics.
In this section the operation of the DVR with harmonics will be discussed. The terminal voltages
(vta , vtb and vtc ) are resolved into their fundamental positive sequence voltages and the rest part, as
given below.
+
vta = vta1 + vta rest
+
vtb = vtb1 + vtb rest (5.21)
+
vtc = vtc1 + vtc rest
The angles of fundamental DVR voltages (∠V f a1 , ∠V f b1 and ∠V f c1 ) can be extracted as explained
above. The magnitudes of the fundamental DVR voltages (Vf a1 , Vf b1 and Vf c1 ) can be computed
using equations (5.14) and (5.18) for Type 1 and Type 2 control respectively. For example, using
Type 2 control the fundamental phase-a DVR voltage is computed as per following equation.
2
Vf2a1 − 2 aa1 Vl Vf a1 + Vl2 − Vta1
+
=0 (5.22)
+
In above equation aa1 + jba1 = ∠V f a1 and Vta1 is fundamental positive sequence phase-a terminal
voltage as given above in (5.21). Similar expression can be written for phase-b and phase-c. This
equation gives solution only for fundamental component of the DVR voltage. The rest of the DVR
voltages which consist of harmonics and unbalance must be equal and opposite to that of the rest
part of the terminal voltages i.e., vta rest , vtb rest and vtc rest . Therefore these can be given using
following equations.
vf a rest = −vta rest
vf b rest = −vtb rest (5.23)
vf c rest = −vtc rest
Thus, the total DVR voltage to be injected can be given as following.
vf a = vf a1 + vf a rest
vf a = vf b1 + vf b rest (5.24)
vf a = vf c1 + vf c rest
In above equation, vf a1 , vf b1 , vf c1 are constructed using equation (5.20). Once vf a , vf b and vf c are
known, these voltages are synthesized using suitable power electronic circuit. It will be discussed
in the following section.
5.7 Realization of DVR voltage using Voltage Source Inverter

In the previous section, a reference voltage of DVR was extracted using discussed control algo-
rithms. This DVR voltage however should be realized in practice. This is achieved with the help
of power electronic converter which is also known as voltage source inverter. Various components
of the DVR were listed in the beginning of chapter. They are shown in detail in the Fig. 5.11.
182
The transformer injects the required voltage in series with the line to maintain the load bus voltage
at the nominal value. The transformer not only reduces the voltage requirement but also provides
isolation between the inverters. The filter components of the DVR such as external inductance (Lt )
which also includes the leakage of the transformer on the primary side and ac filter capacitor on
the secondary side play significant role in the performance of the DVR [Sasitharan Thesis].
vf
+
Rs Ls vt vl il
Cf
Load bus
vs
Load
vp
Lt
S1 S3 iinv
D1 Rt
D3
+
Vdc vinv
Cdc
S4 D4 S2 D2
To other
phases
Fig. 5.11 The DVR circuit details
The same DC link can be extended to other phases as shown in Fig. 5.11. The single phase
equivalent of the DVR is shown in the Fig. 5.12.
Cf i fac
vt vl
vinv Xt Rt
Fig. 5.12 Equivalent circuit of the DVR
In Figs. 5.11 and 5.12, vinv denotes the switched voltage generated at the inverter output termi-
nals, the inductance, Lt represents the total inductance and resistance including leakage inductance
and resistance of transformer. The resistance, Rt models the switching losses of the inverter and
the copper loss of the connected transformer. The voltage source inverter (VSI) is operated in a
switching band voltage control mode to track the reference voltages generated using control logic
as discussed below.
Let Vf∗ be the reference voltage of a phase that DVR needs to inject in series with the line with help
183
of the VSI explained above. We form a voltage hysteresis band of ±h over this reference value.
Thus, the upper and lower limits within which the DVR has to track the voltage can be given as
following.
vf up = vf∗ + h
vf dn = vf∗ − h (5.25)
The following switching logic is used to synthesize the reference DVR voltage.
If vf ≥ vf up
S1 − S2 OFF and S3 − S4 ON (‘-1’ state)
else if vf ≤ vf dn
S1 − S2 ON and S3 − S4 OFF (‘+1’ state)
else if vf dn ≥ vf ≤ vf up
retain the current switching status of switches
end.
It is to be noted that switches status S1 − S2 ON and S3 − S4 OFF is denoted by ‘+1’ state

and it gives vinv = +Vdc . The switches status S1 − S2 OFF and S3 − S4 ON corresponds to ‘-1’
state providing vinv = −Vdc as shown in Fig. 5.11. The above switching logic is very basic and
has scope to be refined. For example ‘0’ state of the switches of the VSI as shown in Fig. 5.11, can
also be used to have smooth switching and to minimize switching losses. In the zero state, vinv = 0
and refers switches status as S3 D1 or S4 D2 for positive inverter current (iinv > 0). Similarly, for
negative inverter current (iinv < 0), ‘0’ state is obtained through S1 D3 or S2 D4 . With the addition
of ‘0’ state, the switching logic becomes as follows.
If vf∗ > 0
if vf ≥ vf up
‘0’ state
‘+1’ state
end
else if vf∗ < 0
if vf ≥ vf up
‘-1’ state
‘0’ state
end
end.
In order to improve the switching performance one more term is added in the above equation
184
based on the feedback of filter capacitor current.
vf up = vf∗ + h + α if ac
vf dn = vf∗ − h + α if ac (5.26)
Where α is a proportional gain given to smoothen and stabilize the switching performance of the
VSI [2]. The dimension of α is Ω and is thus is equivalent to virtual resistance, whose effect to
damp out and smoothen the DVR voltage trajectory resulted from the switching of the inverter
[4]. The value of hysteresis band (h) should be chosen in such a way that it limits switching
frequency within the prescribed maximum value. This kind of voltage control using VSI is called as
switching band control. The actual DVR voltage is compared with these upper and lower bands of
the voltage (Vf up , Vf dn ) and accordingly switching commands to the power switch are generated.
The switching control logic is described in the Table 5.1. To minimize switching frequency of
the VSI, three level logic has been used. For this an additional check of polarity of the reference
voltage has been taken into consideration. Based on this switching status, the inverter supplies
+Vdc , 0 and −Vdc levels of voltage corresponding to the 1, 0 and -1 given in the table, in order to
synthesis the reference DVR voltage.
Table 5.1 Three level switching logic for the VSI
Conditions Switching value

Vf∗ ≥0 Vf > Vup 0
Vf∗ ≥0 Vf < Vdn 1
Vf∗ <0 Vf > Vup -1
Vf∗ <0 Vf < Vdn 0
In addition to switching band control, an additional loop is required to correct the voltage in
the dc storage capacitor against losses in the inverter and transformer. During transients, the dc
capacitor voltage may rise or fall from the reference value due to real power flow for a short
duration. To correct this voltage deviation, a small amount of real power must be drawn from the
source to replenish the losses. To accomplish this, a simple proportional-plus-integral controller
(PI) is used. The signal uc is generated from this PI controller as given below.
Z
uc = Kp e V dc + Ki e V dc dt (5.27)
Where, e V dc = Vdc ref − Vdc . This control loop need not to be too fast. It may be updated once
in a cycle preferably synchronized to positive zero crossing of phase-a voltage. Based on this
information the variable uc will be included in generation of the fundamental of DVR voltage as
given below.
V f 1 = Vf 1 ∠(∠I s + 90o − uc ) = Vf 1 (ã1 + j b̃1 ) (5.28)
Then the equation (5.18), is modified to the following.
Vf21 − 2 ã1 Vl Vf 1 + Vl2 − Vt12 = 0 (5.29)
The above equation is used to find the DVR voltage. It can be found that the phase difference
between line current and DVR voltage differs slightly from 90o in order to account the losses in
the inverter.
185
5.8 Maximum Compensation Capacity of the DVR Without Real Power
Support from the DC Link
There is direct relationship between the terminal voltage, power factor of the load and the maxi-
mum possible achievable load voltage, with assumption that no real power is required from the dc
bus. Referring to quadratic equation in (5.29), for given value of Vt1 and a target load bus voltage
Vl , The equation gives two real values of Vf 1 for feasible solution. In case solution is not feasible,
the equation gives two complex conjugate roots. This concludes that the maximum voltage that
DVR can compensate corresponds to the single solution of the above equation, which is given
below. This solution corresponds to point ‘D’ in Fig. 5.7.
p
(2 ã1 Vl )2 − 4 (Vl2 − Vt12 )
2 ã1 Vl ±
Vf 1 = (5.30)
2
Since, voltage should not be complex number, the value of the terms within square root must not
be negative. Therefore
(2 ã1 Vl )2 ≥ 4 (Vl2 − Vt12 ) (5.31)
The above equation implies that
Vt1
Vl = p . (5.32)
1 − ã21
And therefore, the DVR voltage is given by the following equation.
Vf 1 = ã1 Vl (5.33)
With no losses in the VSI, uc = 0,
Vt1 V
Vl = p = p t1 (5.34)
1 − ã21 1 − a21
Since, ã1 + j b̃1 = 1∠(90o + φl ) p
= cos(90o +pφl ) + j sin(90o + φl ) = − sin φl + j cos φl . This
implies ã1 = − sin φl , therefore 1 − ã21 = 1 − (− sin φl )2 = cos φl . using this relation, the
above equation can be written as following.
Vt1
Vl = (5.35)
cos φl
Example 5.3 A DVR is shown in Fig. 5.13. The feeder impedance of the line 0.1 + j0.5 pu.
Assume ih to be load current represented by square waveform approximated by the following
expression.
ih = 1. sin(ω t − 30o ) + 0.3 sin(3 ω t − 90o ) pu
1. Find the load voltage v(t) without DVR compensation i.e., vf = 0.
2. Is it possible to maintain load voltage, Vl to be 1.0 pu sinusoidal waveform? If yes what is the
DVR voltage, vf (t)?
3. If no, how much maximum voltage can be maintained at load terminal with the DVR without
taking any real power from the dc bus?
186
T T t f l
Solution:
1. When Vf = 0
X
vt = vs − Zsh ih
h=1,3
The impedance at the fundamental frequency, Zs1 = 0.1 + j0.5 = 0.51∠78.7o pu.
The impedance at third harmonic, Zs3 = 0.1 + j1.5 = 1.50∠86.18o pu.
Therefore the voltage drop due to fundamental component of the current,
Vzs1 = (0.1 + j0.5) × 0.707∠−30o

= 0.51∠78.69o × 0.707∠−30o
= 0.36∠48.69 pu.
The voltage drop due to third harmonic component of the current,
Vzs3 = (0.1 + j1.5) × 0.21∠−90o

= 0.31∠−3.820 pu.
The load voltage thus can be given by
vt = vs − (is1 Zs1 + is3 Zs3 )

= 1.0 sin ωt − 0.51 sin(ωt + 48.69o ) −0.45 sin(3 ωt − 3.82o )
| {z }
= 0.7947 sin(ωt − 28.81 ) − 0.45 sin(3 ωt − 3.82o ) pu
o
= vt1 (t) + vth (t).
Implying that,
0.7947
V t1 = √ ∠−28.81o = 0.5619∠−28.81o pu
2
2. With DVR
187
From the above equation, Vt1 = 0.5619. With load voltage vl = 1.0 sin (ωt − φl ), the DVR
voltage Vf 1 can be solved using quadratic equation as mentioned in Type 2 control. Further,
V f 1 = Vf 1 ∠(∠I s1 + 90o ) = Vf 1 ∠(−30o + 90o ) = Vf 1 ∠60o
= Vf 1 (cos 60o + j sin 60o ) = Vf 1 (0.5 + j0.8666) = Vf 1 (a1 + jb1 ) pu.
The above implies a1 = 0.5, b1 = 0.866.. Knowing this, we can solve Vf 1 using following
quadratic equation.
Vf21 − 2 a1 Vl Vf 1 + Vl2 − Vt12 = 0
From the above,
q
Vf 1 = a1 Vl ± a21 Vl2 − (Vl2 − Vt12 )
v
u 2 ( 2 )
1 u 1 1
= 0.5 × √ ± t(0.5)2 × √ − √ − (0.5619)2
2 2 2
√
= 0.35 ± 0.125 − 0.1842
The above solution is complex quantity, which implies that it is not possible to maintain load volt-
age at 1.0 sin (ωt − φl ).
3. Maximum possible load voltage
The maximum load voltage that can be obtained with the DVR, without any real power from
the dc bus can be given as following.
Vt1 0.5619
Vl = p = √ = 0.6488 pu.
1 − a21 1 − 0.52
√
In the time domain the load voltage vl = vl1 = 2 × 0.6488 sin(ωt − φl ) = 0.9175 sin(ωt − φl ).
For this load voltage the DVR voltage is given as following.
Vf 1 = a1 Vl = 0.5 × 0.6488 = 0.3244 pu.
This implies
V f 1 = 0.3244∠60o pu.
The time domain repression for the fundamental DVR voltage is given as,
√
vf 1 (t) = 2 × 0.3244 sin(ωt + 60o ) = 0.4587 sin(ωt + 60o ) pu.
The harmonic voltage that DVR compensates is as following.
vf h (t) = −vth = 0.45 sin (3 ωt − 3.82o ) pu.
The total DVR voltage is given as below.
vf (t) = vf 1 (t) + vth (t)
= 0.4587 sin(ωt + 60o ) + 0.45 sin (3 ωt − 3.82o ) pu
188
References
[1] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, “Compensation of distribution system voltage using dvr,” IEEE
Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 17, no. 4, pp. 1030–1036, Oct. 2002.
[2] A. Ghosh and G. Ledwich, “Structures and control of a dynamic voltage regulator (dvr),” in
IEEE Power Engineering Society Winter Meeting, vol. 3. IEEE, 2001, pp. 1027–1032.
[3] A. Ghosh, A. Jindal, and A. Joshi, “Design of a capacitor-supported dynamic voltage restorer
(dvr) for unbalanced and distorted loads,” IEEE Transactions on Power Delivery, vol. 19, no. 1,
pp. 405–413, Jan. 2004.
[4] S. Sasitharan and Mahesh K. Mishra, “Constant switching frequency band controller for dy-
namic voltage restorer,” IET Power Electronics, vol. 3, no. 5, pp. 657–667, Sept. 2010.
[5] S. Sasitharan, Mahesh K. Mishra, B. Kalyan Kumar, and V. Jayashankar, “Rating and design
issues of dvr injection transformer,” International Journal of Power Electronics, vol. 2, no. 2,
pp. 143–163, 2010.
189

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NPTEL Course

Dr. Mahesh Kumar

1 SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND ITS COMPONENTS

2 THREE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER DEFINITIONS AND VARIOUS COMPO-

2.1.4 Power Invariance in abc and αβ0 Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2.2 Instantaneous Active and Reactive Powers for Three-phase Circuits . . . . . . . . 33

2.2.1 Three-Phase Balance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

2.2.2 Three-Phase Unbalance System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

2.3 Symmetrical components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

2.3.1 Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

2.3.2 Positive Sequence Powers and Unbalance Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.4 Three-phase Non-sinusoidal Balanced System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51

2.4.1 Neutral Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.4.2 Line to Line Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

2.4.3 Apparent Power with Budeanu Resolution: Balanced Distortion Case . . . 54

2.4.4 Effective Apparent Power for Balanced Non-sinusoidal System . . . . . . 54

2.5 Unbalanced and Non-sinusoidal Three-phase System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55

2.5.1 Arithmetic and Vector Apparent Power with Budeanu’s Resolution . . . . . 58

2.5.2 Effective Apparent Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3 FUNDAMENTAL THEORY OF LOAD COMPENSATION

3.2 Fundamental Theory of Load Compensation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.2.1 Power Factor and its Correction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

3.2.2 Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

3.2.3 An Approximation Expression for the Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . 75

3.3 Some Practical Aspects of Compensator used as Voltage Regulator . . . . . . . . . 81

3.4 Phase Balancing and Power Factor Correction of Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . 85

3.4.1 Three-phase Unbalanced Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

4 CONTROL THEORIES FOR LOAD COMPENSATION

5 SERIES COMPENSATION: VOLTAGE COMPENSATION USING DVR

SINGLE PHASE CIRCUITS: POWER

1.2 Power Terms in a Single Phase System

p(t) = v( t) i(t) = V I [2 sin ωt sin(ωt − φ)]

Fig. 1.1 A single phase system

p(t) = V I cos φ − V I cos(2ωt − φ)

p(t) = P (1 − cos 2ωt) − Q sin 2ωt (1.5)

3. Repeat the above when load is ZL = 12 − j13 Ω, ZL = 12 Ω, and ZL = j13 Ω

4. Comment upon the results.

where φ = tan−1 (XL /RL ), and I = (V /|ZL |)

Case 1: When load is inductive, ZL = 12 + j13 Ω

The instantaneous power is given as,

p(t) = V I cos φ(1 − cos 2ωt) − V I sin φ sin 2ωt

The above implies that,

pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

Q = V I sin φ = 230 × 13 × sin 47.2906◦ = 2196.9 VAr

Fig. 1.2 Case 1: Voltage, current and various power components

pactive (t) = 2028.23(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 13 × cos 47.2906o = 2028.23 Watt

0 0 Reactive Power (VAr)

Fig. 1.3 Case 2: Voltage, current and various power components

pactive (t) = 4408.33(1 − cos(2 × 314t))

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 19.167 × cos 0o = 4408.33 W

10 3000 Average Power (W)

Fig. 1.4 Case 3: Voltage, current and various power components

P = V I cos φ = 230 × 17.692 × cos 90o = 0 W

0 Active Power (W)

Fig. 1.5 Case 4: Voltage, current and various power components

The instantaneous power is therefore given by,

p(t) = V I1 [cos φ1 − cos(2ωt − φ1 )] − V I1 sin φ1 sin 2ωt

P = P1 = average value of p(t) = V I1 cos φ1

S 2 = V 2 I12 + V 2 [I22 + I32 + I42 + ...]

In above equation, H is known as harmonic power and represents V As corresponding to harmonics

The following points are observed from description.

Example 1.2 Consider following single