MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Algebra

1. (a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab + b2 ; a2 + b2 = (a + b)2 − 2ab

2. (a − b)2 = a2 − 2ab + b2 ; a2 + b2 = (a − b)2 + 2ab
3. (a + b + c)2 = a2 + b2 + c2 + 2(ab + bc + ca)
4. (a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b); a3 + b3 = (a + b)3 − 3ab(a + b)
5. (a − b)3 = a3 − b3 − 3ab(a − b); a3 − b3 = (a − b)3 + 3ab(a − b)
6. a2 − b2 = (a + b)(a − b)
7. a3 − b3 = (a − b)(a2 + ab + b2 )
8. a3 + b3 = (a + b)(a2 − ab + b2 )
9. an − bn = (a − b)(an−1 + an−2 b + an−3 b2 + · · · + bn−1 )
10. an = a.a.a . . . n times
11. am .an = am+n
am
12. n = am−n if m > n
a
=1 if m = n
1
= n−m if m < n; a ∈ R, a 6= 0
a
13. (am )n = amn = (an )m
14. (ab)n = an .bn
 a n an
15. = n
b b
16. a0 = 1 where a ∈ R, a 6= 0
1 1
17. a−n = n , an = −n
a√ a
18. ap/q = q ap
19. If am = an and a 6= ±1, a 6= 0 then m = n
20. If an = bn where n 6= 0, then a = ±b
√ √ √ √
21. If x, y are quadratic surds and if a + x = y, then a = 0 and x = y
√ √ √ √
22. If x, y are quadratic surds and if a + x = b + y then a = b and x = y
23. If a, m, n are positive real numbers and a 6= 1, then loga mn = loga m+loga n
m
24. If a, m, n are positive real numbers, a 6= 1, then loga = loga m − loga n
n
25. If a and m are positive real numbers, a 6= 1 then loga mn = n loga m
logk a
26. If a, b and k are positive real numbers, b 6= 1, k 6= 1, then logb a =
logk b
1
27. logb a = where a, b are positive real numbers, a 6= 1, b 6= 1
loga b
28. if a, m, n are positive real numbers, a 6= 1 and if loga m = loga n, then
m=n

Typeset by AMS-TEX
2

√
29. if a + ib = 0 where i = −1, then a = b = 0
√
30. if a + ib = x + iy, where i = −1, then a = x and b = y √
−b ± b2 − 4ac
31. The roots of the quadratic equation ax2 +bx+c = 0; a 6= 0 are
2a
( √ √ )
−b + ∆ −b − ∆
The solution set of the equation is ,
2a 2a
where ∆ = discriminant = b2 − 4ac
32. The roots are real and distinct if ∆ > 0.
33. The roots are real and coincident if ∆ = 0.
34. The roots are non-real if ∆ < 0.
35. If α and β are the roots of the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0, a 6= 0 then
−b coeff. of x
i) α + β = =−
a coeff. of x2
c constant term
ii) α · β = =
a coeff. of x2
36. The quadratic equation whose roots are α and β is (x − α)(x − β) = 0
i.e. x2 − (α + β)x + αβ = 0
i.e. x2 − Sx + P = 0 where S =Sum of the roots and P =Product of the
roots.
37. For an arithmetic progression (A.P.) whose first term is (a) and the common
difference is (d).
i) nth term= tn = a + (n − 1)d
n n
ii) The sum of the first (n) terms = Sn = (a + l) = {2a + (n − 1)d}
2 2
where l =last term= a + (n − 1)d.
38. For a geometric progression (G.P.) whose first term is (a) and common ratio
is (γ),
i) nth term= tn = aγ n−1 .
ii) The sum of the first (n) terms:

a(1 − γ n)
Sn = ifγ < 1
1−γ
a(γ n − 1) .
= if γ > 1
γ−1
= na if γ = 1

39. For any sequence {tn }, Sn − Sn−1 = tn where Sn =Sum of the first (n)
terms.
P
n n
40. γ = 1 + 2 + 3 + · · · + n = (n + 1).
γ=1 2
P 2
n n
41. γ = 12 + 22 + 32 + · · · + n2 = (n + 1)(2n + 1).
γ=1 6
 3

P
n n2
42. γ 3 = 13 + 23 + 33 + 43 + · · · + n3 = (n + 1)2 .
γ=1 4
43. n! = (1).(2).(3). . . . .(n − 1).n.
44. n! = n(n − 1)! = n(n − 1)(n − 2)! = . . . . .
45. 0! = 1.
n(n − 1) n−2 2 n(n − 1)(n − 2) n−3 3
46. (a + b)n = an + nan−1 b + a b + a b +···+
2! 3!
bn , n > 1.
 Trigonometric Formula Sheet
Definition of the Trig Functions
Right Triangle Definition Unit Circle Definition
Assume that: Assume θ can be any angle.
0 < θ < π2 or 0◦ < θ < 90◦
y

(x, y)

hypotenuse 1
y
opposite θ
x
x
θ
adjacent

opp hyp
sin θ = csc θ = y 1
hyp opp sin θ = csc θ =
1 y
adj hyp x 1
cos θ = sec θ = cos θ = sec θ =
hyp adj 1 x
opp adj y x
tan θ = cot θ = tan θ = cot θ =
adj opp x y

Domains of the Trig Functions

sin θ, ∀ θ ∈ (−∞, ∞) csc θ, ∀ θ 6= nπ, where n ∈ Z
 1
cos θ, ∀ θ ∈ (−∞, ∞) sec θ, ∀ θ 6= n + π, where n ∈ Z
2
 1
tan θ, ∀ θ 6= n + π, where n ∈ Z cot θ, ∀ θ 6= nπ, where n ∈ Z
2

Ranges of the Trig Functions

−1 ≤ sin θ ≤ 1 csc θ ≥ 1 and csc θ ≤ −1
−1 ≤ cos θ ≤ 1 sec θ ≥ 1 and sec θ ≤ −1
−∞ ≤ tan θ ≤ ∞ −∞ ≤ cot θ ≤ ∞

Periods of the Trig Functions

The period of a function is the number, T, such that f (θ +T ) = f (θ ) .
So, if ω is a fixed number and θ is any angle we have the following periods.
2π 2π
sin(ωθ) ⇒ T = csc(ωθ) ⇒ T =
ω ω
2π 2π
cos(ωθ) ⇒ T = sec(ωθ) ⇒ T =
ω ω
π π
tan(ωθ) ⇒ T = cot(ωθ) ⇒ T =
ω ω

1
 Identities and Formulas
Tangent and Cotangent Identities Half Angle Formulas
r
sin θ cos θ 1 − cos(2θ)
tan θ = cot θ = sin θ = ±
cos θ sin θ 2
r
Reciprocal Identities 1 + cos(2θ)
cos θ = ±
1 1 2
sin θ = csc θ = s
csc θ sin θ 1 − cos(2θ)
1 1 tan θ = ±
cos θ = sec θ = 1 + cos(2θ)
sec θ cos θ
Sum and Difference Formulas
1 1
tan θ = cot θ =
cot θ tan θ sin(α ± β) = sin α cos β ± cos α sin β

Pythagorean Identities cos(α ± β) = cos α cos β ∓ sin α sin β

2 2
sin θ + cos θ = 1
tan α ± tan β
tan2 θ + 1 = sec2 θ tan(α ± β) =
1 ∓ tan α tan β
1 + cot2 θ = csc2 θ
Product to Sum Formulas
Even and Odd Formulas
1
sin α sin β = [cos(α − β) − cos(α + β)]
sin(−θ) = − sin θ csc(−θ) = − csc θ 2
cos(−θ) = cos θ sec(−θ) = sec θ 1
cos α cos β = [cos(α − β) + cos(α + β)]
tan(−θ) = − tan θ cot(−θ) = − cot θ 2
1
Periodic Formulas sin α cos β = [sin(α + β) + sin(α − β)]
2
If n is an integer 1
cos α sin β = [sin(α + β) − sin(α − β)]
sin(θ + 2πn) = sin θ csc(θ + 2πn) = csc θ 2
cos(θ + 2πn) = cos θ sec(θ + 2πn) = sec θ Sum to Product Formulas
tan(θ + πn) = tan θ cot(θ + πn) = cot θ    
α+β α−β
Double Angle Formulas sin α + sin β = 2 sin cos
2 2
   
α+β α−β
sin(2θ) = 2 sin θ cos θ sin α − sin β = 2 cos sin
2 2
   
cos(2θ) = cos2 θ − sin2 θ α+β α−β
cos α + cos β = 2 cos cos
= 2 cos2 θ − 1 2 2
   
= 1 − 2 sin2 θ α+β α−β
cos α − cos β = −2 sin sin
2 2
2 tan θ
tan(2θ) = Cofunction Formulas
1 − tan2 θ
π  π 
Degrees to Radians Formulas sin − θ = cos θ cos − θ = sin θ
If x is an angle in degrees and t is an angle in 2 2
π  π 
radians then: csc − θ = sec θ sec − θ = csc θ
2 2
π t πx 180◦ t π  π 
= ⇒ t = and x = tan − θ = cot θ cot − θ = tan θ
180◦ x 180◦ π 2 2

2
 Unit Circle
(0, 1)

√
3 90◦ , π2 √
3
(− 12 , 2
) ( 12 , 2
)
√ √ √ √
2 2 2 2
(− 2
, 2
) ( 2
, 2
)
120◦ , 2π
3
60◦ , π3
√ √
(− 3 1
, ) 135◦ , 3π
4
45◦ , π4 ( 3 1
, )
2 2 2 2

150◦ , 5π
6
30◦ , π6

180◦ , π
(−1, 0) (1, 0)
0◦ , 2π

210◦ , 7π
6
330◦ , 11π
6
√ √
3 3
(− 2
, − 12 ) 225◦ , 5π 315◦ , 7π ( 2
, − 21 )
4 4

√ √
240◦ , 4π
3
300◦ , 5π
3 √ √
2
(− 2
, − 22 ) ( 2
2
, − 2
2
)
√ √
3 3
(− 12 , − 2
) ( 12 , − 2
)
270◦ , 3π
2

(0, −1)

F or any ordered pair on the unit circle (x, y) : cos θ = x and sin θ = y

Example
√
cos ( 7π
6) = − 23 sin ( 7π 1
6 ) = −2

3
 Inverse Trig Functions
Definition Inverse Properties
These properties hold for x in the domain and θ in
θ = sin−1 (x) is equivalent to x = sin θ the range

θ = cos−1 (x) is equivalent to x = cos θ

sin(sin−1 (x)) = x sin−1 (sin(θ)) = θ
θ = tan−1 (x) is equivalent to x = tan θ
cos(cos−1 (x)) = x cos−1 (cos(θ)) = θ

Domain and Range tan(tan−1 (x)) = x tan−1 (tan(θ)) = θ

Function Domain Range

Other Notations
π π
θ = sin−1 (x) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 − ≤θ≤
2 2
sin−1 (x) = arcsin(x)
−1
θ = cos (x) −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤θ≤π
cos−1 (x) = arccos(x)
−1 π π
θ = tan (x) −∞ ≤ x ≤ ∞ − <θ<
2 2
tan−1 (x) = arctan(x)

Law of Sines, Cosines, and Tangents

a c

γ α
b

Law of Sines Law of Tangents

sin α sin β sin γ a−b tan 12 (α − β)
= = =
a b c a+b tan 12 (α + β)
Law of Cosines
b−c tan 12 (β − γ)
=
a2 = b2 + c2 − 2bc cos α b+c tan 12 (β + γ)

b2 = a2 + c2 − 2ac cos β a−c tan 12 (α − γ)

=
a+c tan 21 (α + γ)
c2 = a2 + b2 − 2ab cos γ

4
 Complex Numbers
√
i= −1 i2 = −1 i3 = −i i4 = 1
√ √
−a = i a, a ≥ 0 (a + bi)(a − bi) = a2 + b2
√
(a + bi) + (c + di) = a + c + (b + d)i |a + bi| = a2 + b2 Complex Modulus

(a + bi) − (c + di) = a − c + (b − d)i (a + bi) = a − bi Complex Conjugate

(a + bi)(c + di) = ac − bd + (ad + bc)i (a + bi)(a + bi) = |a + bi|2

DeMoivre’s Theorem

Let z = r(cos θ + i sin θ), and let n be a positive integer.

Then:
z n = rn (cos nθ + i sin nθ).

Example: Let z = 1 − i, find z 6 .

Solution: First write z in polar form.

p √
r= (1)2 + (−1)2 = 2
 
−1 −1 π
θ = arg(z) = tan =−
1 4
√   π  π 
Polar Form: z = 2 cos − + i sin −
4 4
Applying DeMoivre’s Theorem gives :
√ 6   π  π 
6
z = 2 cos 6 · − + i sin 6 · −
4 4
    
3π 3π
= 23 cos − + i sin −
2 2
= 8(0 + i(1))

= 8i

5
 Finding the nth roots of a number using DeMoivre’s Theorem

Example: Find all the complex fourth roots of 4. That is, find all the complex solutions of
x4 = 4.

We are asked to find all complex fourth roots of 4.

These are all the solutions (including the complex values) of the equation x4 = 4.

For any positive integer n , a nonzero complex number z has exactly n distinct nth roots.
More specifically, if z is written in the trigonometric form r(cos θ + i sin θ), the nth roots of
z are given by the following formula.
    
1 θ 360◦ k θ 360◦ k
(∗) r cos
n + + i sin + , f or k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n − 1.
n n n n

Remember from the previous example we need to write 4 in trigonometric

  form by using:
p b
r = (a)2 + (b)2 and θ = arg(z) = tan−1 .
a
So we have the complex number a + ib = 4 + i0.

Therefore a = 4 and b = 0
p
So r = (4)2 + (0)2= 
4 and
0
θ = arg(z) = tan−1 =0
4
Finally our trigonometric form is 4 = 4(cos 0◦ + i sin 0◦ )

Using the formula (∗) above with n = 4, we can find the fourth roots of 4(cos 0◦ + i sin 0◦ )
  ◦   ◦ 
1 0 360◦ ∗ 0 0 360◦ ∗ 0 √ √
• For k = 0, 4 4 cos + + i sin + = 2 (cos(0◦ ) + i sin(0◦ )) = 2
4 4 4 4
  ◦   ◦ 
1 0 ◦
360 ∗ 1 0 ◦
360 ∗ 1 √ √
• For k = 1, 4 cos
4 + + i sin + = 2 (cos(90◦ ) + i sin(90◦ )) = 2i
4 4 4 4
  ◦   ◦ 
1 0 ◦
360 ∗ 2 0 360◦ ∗ 2 √ √
• For k = 2, 4 4 cos + + i sin + = 2 (cos(180◦ ) + i sin(180◦ )) = − 2
4 4 4 4
  ◦   ◦ 
1 0 ◦
360 ∗ 3 0 360◦ ∗ 3 √ √
• For k = 3, 4 4 cos + + i sin + = 2 (cos(270◦ ) + i sin(270◦ )) = − 2i
4 4 4 4

Thus all of the complex roots of x4 = 4 are:

√ √ √ √
2, 2i, − 2, − 2i .

6
Formulas for the Conic Sections

Circle

StandardF orm : (x − h)2 + (y − k)2 = r2

W here (h, k) = center and r = radius

Ellipse

Standard F orm f or Horizontal M ajor Axis :

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
a2 b2

Standard F orm f or V ertical M ajor Axis :

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
+ =1
b2 a2
Where (h, k)= center

2a=length of major axis

2b=length of minor axis

(0 < b < a)

Foci can be found by using c2 = a2 − b2

Where c= foci length

7
 More Conic Sections

Hyperbola

Standard F orm f or Horizontal T ransverse Axis :

(x − h)2 (y − k)2
− =1
a2 b2

Standard F orm f or V ertical T ransverse Axis :

(y − k)2 (x − h)2
− =1
a2 b2

Where (h, k)= center

a=distance between center and either vertex

Foci can be found by using b2 = c2 − a2

Where c is the distance between

center and either focus. (b > 0)

Parabola

Vertical axis: y = a(x − h)2 + k

Horizontal axis: x = a(y − k)2 + h

Where (h, k)= vertex

a=scaling factor

8
 f (x)

f (x) = sin(x)

1√
3
2
√
2
2

1
2

x
0 π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 5π 7π 11π
6 4 3
π
3 4 6
π 6 4 3
3π
3 4 6 2π
2 2

− 12
√
2
− 2
√
− 23
-1

 √
5π  2
Example : sin =−
4 2

f (x)

f (x) = cos(x)

1√
3
2
√
2
2

1
2

x
0 π π π 2π 3π 5π 7π 5π 4π 5π 7π 11π
6 4 3
π
3 4 6
π 6 4 3
3π
3 4 6 2π
2 2

− 12
√
2
− 2
√
− 23
-1

 √
7π  3
Example : cos =−
6 2

9
 − π2 f (x) π
2

f (x) = tan x

√
3

1
√
3
3

x
− π3 − π4 − π6 0 π π π
−π − 5π 3π 2π
6 − 4 − 3 6 4 3
2π
3
3π
4
5π
6
π
√
3
− 3

−1

√
− 3

10
 1

Calculus I Formulas
MAC 2311

1. Limits and Derivatives

2. Differentiation rules

3. Applications of Differentiation

4. Integrals

5. Applications of Integration

Professor: Dr. Mohammad Shakil

C0-Author: Jeongmin Correa

Mathematics Department

Miami Dade College -- Hialeah Campus

 2

Any rational function is continuous where it is defined on its domain.

y y= f(x) Basic Limit Evaluations at
*

left right
x=a x
Relationship between the Limit and one-sided limits
(left & right ( )

Properties

(f(x) =a polynomial or rational func. in the domain of x)

f(x)

4. [f(x) f(x) (x) Limit at Infinity: Horizontal asymptotes

5. [f(x)g(x)] = f(x) g(x)

6. =
y y y
7. f(g(x)) = f ( (x)) H.P.
8. x x x
y y
9.
H.P.

Indeterminate Forms:
x x

(When a limit of rational func. has an indeterminate form, Find Vertical Asymptotes
Simplify the func. by common factors between numerator and denominator.)
1. Simplify the func. by common factors between numerator and
denominator.

2. Make the denominator =0 for x

Squeeze Theorem
3. x = a is the Vertical Asymptotes.

Limit of Trigonometric Functions

Absolute function
f(x) =
1. -(x-c) if x
2. 0 if x = c
3. x-c if x

Prove Continuous at x = a of f(x)

1. f(a) exists. f(a) is defined at x=a

Any polynomial is continuous everywhere all x.

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 3
Definition of the number e No Differentiable

(when )
corner discontinuous tangent line(m)=vertical f'(x) =

Slope; m y = p(x) = a polynomial degree n

1. m > 0 positive
2. m < 0 negative
3. m = 0 Horizontal
4. m = Vertical = no slope

Derivatives and Rates of change

The Linear approximation = a tangent line approximation
a slope of secant line
The Linearization of at a y = f (x)

(x+h, f(x+h)) a slope of tangent line

(x , f(x))

The differentials dy by using L x ’ x x-a) + f(a)

x h
x+h
The differentials dy by using L x ’ x x-a) + f(a)
a tangent line
f(x+h) (x+h , f(x+h))
= average rate of change or different quotient
The slope of tangent line = m (of f(x) at x=a)
(dx,,dy) dy
(x, f(x))

= Velocity of f(x) as v x x+h

(limit of difference quotient or Derivative of f(x) at x=a)

An Equation of Tangent Line

but
Use the given f(x) p(
1. Find slope m

2. Find f'( =m
3. y - (x- ) --> to make y = ax + b form

Find Approximate the function

Differentiable at x

( x of L(x) is 0 because 0.04 is closest to 0)

Provided the limit exists.
We say that the func. y = f(x) is differentiable at x

Derivatives of y = f (x) L ’
y' = f'(x) = =

Differentiable at a = continuous at a ( x of L(x) is 0 because -0.015 is closest to 0)

No differentiable the f(x) could be continuous or not
No Limit, No differentiable

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 4
Differentiation Formulas Derivatives of Inverse Trigonometric Func.

3. Constant Multiple Rule c f(x) = c f '(x)

4. Sum & Difference Rule [ f(x) g(x)] = f '(x) g '(x)

5. Natural Exponential Func.

6. Power Rule = (n is any real number)

7. Product Rule [f(x) g(x)] = f ' (x) g(x) + f(x) g '(x)

8. Quotient Rule =

x x x Hyperbolic Functions
x x
1) = f '(x)

2) =

3)

4) sin (f(x)) = cos (f(x)) f '(x)

5) cos (f(x)) =

6) tan (f(x)) = (f(x)) f '(x)

7)

=[ (use form to solve)

Derivatives of Hyperbolic Functions

Derivatives of Trigonometric Func.

Inverse Hyperbolic functions

Miami Dade College -- Hialeah Campus

 5
Derivatives of Inverse Hyperbolic functions Finding Absolute (Global) Max. & Min values (on a closed interval [a, b])
1. f '(x) = 0 Solve for x c , d... = the Critical Numbers (C.N.)= c, d, ...
2. 1) f(a) & f(b) from [a, b]
2) f(c) & f(d) from C.N.
3. Max.= the largest value
Min.= the smallest value

Finding Relative (Local) Max. & Min values on an opened interval

1. f '(x) = 0
a) Solve for x c , d... = the Critical Numbers (C.N.)
b) Critical Points: Find f(c), f(d),... --> (c, f(c)) (d, f(d))...
Hyperbolic Identities
1) 2. Use Arrow diagram
2) a) Draw an arrow line
3) b) Put C.N, on the line
4) c) Choose Testing Points (T.P.) on
5) 3. Increasing interval: f '(T.P.) 0
6) Decreasing interval: f' (T.P.) 0
7) =1 4. Find Relative (local) Values Max. ( ) at x= ( ),
8) Min. ( ) at x= ( )
9)

T.P. C.P. T.P. C.P. T.P.

f '(T.P.) 0 m=0 f' (T.P.) 0 m=0 f '(T.P.) 0

13)
14) Finding Inflection Points of Concavity Changes
1. Find
2.
Solve for x = Inflection Points I.P.
3. Use Arrow diagram
Intermediate Value Theorem
a) Draw an arrow line & Put I.P, on the line
Suppose that f(x) is continuous on [a, b]
c) Choose Testing Points (T.P.) on
Let f(a) N f(b) where f(a) f(b)
4.
Then it exists a number c is belong to (a, b) such that f(c)=N

5. Inflection Points: where the concavity changes (I.P., f(I.P.))

Extreme Values = Absolute (Global) Values
Max. f(c) f(x); (the largest) for all x in the domain of f
Min. f(d) f(x); (the smallest) for all x in the domain of f
continuous on a closed interval [a,b]

Relative (Local) Values

Max. f(c) f(x) when x is near c : x= a & c
T.P. I.P. T.P. I.P. T.P. .
Min. f(d) f(x) when x is near d : x= b & d
f '(T.P.) 0 m=0 f' (T.P.) 0 m=0 f '(T.P.) 0
continuous on a opened interval (

Some Optimization Problems

f(x)
1) Suppose that f(x) is continuous on an interval 'I'
f(c) f(d)
where and the x is the only one C.N.
2) If Absolute Min. at x=c
x =c x=d x =a x =b
If Absolute Max. at x=c
a, b, c,& d are critical numbers where f'(x) = 0 and solve for x

Miami Dade College -- Hialeah Campus

 6
Simple Apply to Economics' Business L'Hospital's Rule
1. Demand Func. = D(x) = p(x) (=Price func. that price per unit)
where x = number of units demanding by consumer at that price 'p.'
It's good for forms

2. Revenue Func. 1. Derivative is continuous 'til it doesn't have the forms.

=(sold numbers selling price) 2. If doesn't have forms, make into the forms
Max. of Rev. = x

Indeterminate Powers ( forms)

3. The Profit Func. Using Derivatives of Logarithmic Func.

; C(x) = Cost Func. (P(x); a capital letter P)

Max. of Prof .= , solve for x (Make the same base)

The Intermediate Value Theorem

Marginal Analysis f(x) is continuous on [a, b] - a closed interval
1. Cost Func. = by Polynomial (=total cost) Let where
Then
such that

*
*
It's called 'Marginal Cost' of producing units.

3. Actual cost or Actual Revenue of Rolle's Theorem

If , then 1) f(x) is continuous on [a, b]
2) f(x) is differentiable in (a, b)
3) f(a) = f(b)
*Tip*
4) Then Then such that
1. Marginal ~ =

2. To find Max or Min. of Revenue

Mean Value Theorem
1) Find
1) f(x) is continuous on [a, b]
2)
2) f(x) is differentiable in (a, b)
3) , Q; When Revenue has Max. or Min? 3) f(a) f(b)
4) R(a)= ? (don't forget unit) Q; What is Max or Min. of Revenue?
(Finding Max or Min. of Profit is the same step)

3. To find Actual Revenue from sale of 4th Unit

1)
Newton's Method
2) (to find 4th value)
3)Find
unit
x
x
How to solve a Business Calculus' problem
1. Underline all numbers and functions
2. Find what is the main question (ex) Max. of Revenue ex) is given ,
3. Find all elements to solve the func. (ex)
4. Do the next step. (ex) solve for x
5. Don't forget unit of the answer. (ex) 40 thousand dollars

... (cont.)
*Keep repeating it 'til two numbers are very close each other & then stop.

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 7
Antiderivative Exponential & Logarithmic Forms

suppose

then f(x) called Antiderivative of g(x) w.r.t. , then Notation

Properties
x

Basic of Integral

Hyperbolic Forms

Trigonometric Forms

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 8
Differentiation Formulas Antiderivative(Integral) Formulas

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 9
Antiderivatives of = Indefinite Integral Definite Integral

is continuous. This represents the area x

F(x) is called Antiderivative of on an interval I under the curve y=f(x) bounded by x-axis a b
if . and the lines x=a and x=b.

1) Left and Right Endpoints

*Member of the family of Antiderivatives of y
’
so we use the idea that the slope of tangent line by slopes of secants lines
and the limit of these approximations.
0 0 x
Suppose we divides S into n th strips and the area A is between left and
3
right endpoints of the rectangles. (the width of all strips are same.)
-3 -3 L
(C is an arbitrary constant.)

The Substitution Rule

1. Let
Ex) is divided by four strips in [0, 1]
y (1, 1) y (1, 1) y (1, 1)

then

0 0 0

Area=A Using left end points Using right end points

The area using Left Endpoints=

1. Let
The area using Right Endpoints=

2) Sample Points
We also find the area with using sample points (any points in each strip).
y y=f(x)
Integral Substitution
The width
of all strips
are same.

a b
(n th strips)
The height if the th rectangle to be the value of at any number
in the th subinterval

3) Midpoint Rule

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 10
x Properties of Definite Integral

1- Using Right Endpoint

2- Using Midpoint

X The Fundamental Theorem of Calculus

0 1 2 Suppose is continuous on [a, b]

The Substitution Rule of Definite Integral

*Norm of P *
Integrals of Symmetric functions suppose f(x) is continuous on [-a, a]

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 11
Areas between Curves
Suppose for all x in [a,b]

1. Find [a, b]
1. to find [a, b] ; when
2. which is ; test any No. between [a, b]
0 2. Find
then the bigger func. is and the other one is
1

Volumes by Cylindrical Shells

Find the area of the shaded region.

-4 0 3

1. Find [a, b] ; the radius y

(5, 4)

Find the area of the shaded region.

x 1. Find [c, d]= [-2, 4] 2. Find the Circumference
- test any No. in [-2, 4] It's about
3. Find the height x

y x=1
1. Find [a, b] ; the radius
2. Find the Circumference
It's about r=1
3. Find the height x
Let S be a solid that lies between x=a and x=b.
0 1
If the cross-sectional area of S in the plane , through x and perpendicular
to the x-axis, is A(x), where A is a continuous func.

Average Values of Func.

If is continuous on [a, b], then there exists a number c in [a, b] such that
y
y=8

x
x

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 12
Work Problems

*The Work done in moving the object from a to b

Hooke's Law
a positive constant (called the spring constant)
a natural length

a stretched length

a) Find the spring's force constant.

a) the spring's force constant =

1. Find it
2. Change the unit to m(Meter)

b) How much work is done ?

2. [a, b]=? [0.05, 0.08]

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 Table of Laplace Transforms
f ( t ) = L -1 {F ( s )} F ( s ) = L { f ( t )} f ( t ) = L -1 {F ( s )} F ( s ) = L { f ( t )}
1 1
1. 1 2. e at
s s-a
n! G ( p + 1)
3. t n , n = 1, 2,3,K 4. t p , p > -1
s n +1 s p +1
p 1 × 3 × 5L ( 2n - 1) p
, n = 1, 2,3,K
n - 12
5. t 3 6. t n+ 1
2s 2
2n s 2
a s
7. sin ( at ) 8. cos ( at )
s + a2
2
s + a2
2

2as s2 - a2
9. t sin ( at ) 10. t cos ( at )
(s + a2 ) (s + a2 )
2 2 2
2

2a 3 2as 2
11. sin ( at ) - at cos ( at ) 12. sin ( at ) + at cos ( at )
(s + a )
2 2 2
(s + a )
2 2 2

s(s - a ) 2 2
s ( s + 3a )
2 2

13. cos ( at ) - at sin ( at ) 14. cos ( at ) + at sin ( at )

(s + a )
2 2 2
(s + a )
2 2 2

s sin ( b ) + a cos ( b ) s cos ( b ) - a sin ( b )

15. sin ( at + b ) 16. cos ( at + b )
s2 + a2 s2 + a2
a s
17. sinh ( at ) 18. cosh ( at )
s - a2
2
s - a2
2

b s-a
19. e at sin ( bt ) 20. e at cos ( bt )
(s - a) (s - a)
2 2
+ b2 + b2
b s-a
21. e at sinh ( bt ) 22. e at cosh ( bt )
(s - a) (s - a)
2 2
-b 2
- b2
n! 1 æsö
23. t ne at , n = 1, 2,3,K 24. f ( ct ) Fç ÷
(s - a)
n +1
c ècø
uc ( t ) = u ( t - c ) e - cs d (t - c )
25. 26. e - cs
Heaviside Function s Dirac Delta Function
27. uc ( t ) f ( t - c ) e F (s)
- cs
28. uc ( t ) g ( t ) e - cs L { g ( t + c )}
ect f ( t ) F ( s - c) t n f ( t ) , n = 1, 2,3,K ( -1) F ( n) ( s )
n
29. 30.
1 ¥ t F (s)
31. f (t ) ò F ( u ) du 32. ò f ( v ) dv
t s 0
s
T
t
ò e - st f ( t ) dt
33. ò f ( t - t ) g (t ) dt F (s)G (s) 34. f (t + T ) = f (t ) 0
0
1 - e - sT
35. f ¢ (t ) sF ( s ) - f ( 0 ) 36. f ¢¢ ( t ) s 2 F ( s ) - sf ( 0 ) - f ¢ ( 0 )
37. f ( n) ( t ) s n F ( s ) - s n-1 f ( 0 ) - s n- 2 f ¢ ( 0 )L - sf ( n- 2) ( 0 ) - f ( n-1) ( 0 )
 Table Notes
1. This list is not a complete listing of Laplace transforms and only contains some of
the more commonly used Laplace transforms and formulas.

2. Recall the definition of hyperbolic functions.

et + e - t et - e - t
cosh ( t ) = sinh ( t ) =
2 2

3. Be careful when using “normal” trig function vs. hyperbolic functions. The only
difference in the formulas is the “+ a2” for the “normal” trig functions becomes a
“- a2” for the hyperbolic functions!

4. Formula #4 uses the Gamma function which is defined as

¥
G ( t ) = ò e - x x t -1 dx
0

If n is a positive integer then,

G ( n + 1) = n !

The Gamma function is an extension of the normal factorial function. Here are a
couple of quick facts for the Gamma function

G ( p + 1) = pG ( p )
G ( p + n)
p ( p + 1)( p + 2 )L ( p + n - 1) =
G ( p)
æ1ö
Gç ÷ = p
è2ø
 The Inverse Laplace Transform

1. If L{f (t)} = F (s), then the inverse Laplace transform of F (s) is

L−1 {F (s)} = f (t). (1)

The inverse transform L−1 is a linear operator:

L−1 {F (s) + G(s)} = L−1 {F (s)} + L−1 {G(s)}, (2)

and
L−1 {cF (s)} = cL−1 {F (s)}, (3)
for any constant c.

2. Example: The inverse Laplace transform of

1 6
U (s) = 3
+ 2 ,
s s +4
is

u(t) = L−1 {U (s)}

   
1 −1 2 −1 2
= L + 3L
2 s3 s2 + 4
s2
= + 3 sin 2t. (4)
2

3. Example: Suppose you want to find the inverse Laplace transform x(t) of
1 s−3
X(s) = 4
+ .
(s + 1) (s − 3)2 + 6

Just use the shift property (paragraph 11 from the previous set of notes):
   
−1 1 −1 s−3
x(t) = L +L
(s + 1)4 (s − 3)2 + 6
e−t t3 √
= + e3t cos 6t.
6

4. Example: Let y(t) be the inverse Laplace transform of

e−3s s
Y (s) = .
s2 + 4
Don’t worry about the exponential term. Since the inverse transform of s/(s2 + 4) is cos 2t,
we have by the switchig property (paragraph 12 from the previous notes):
 −3s 
−1 e s
y(t) = L 2
s +4
= H(t − 3) cos 2(t − 3).

5. Example: Let G(s) = s(s2 + 4s + 5)−1 . The inverse transform of G(s) is

 
−1 s
g(t) = L
s2 + 4s + 5
 
−1 s
=L
(s + 2)2 + 1
   
−1 s+2 −1 2
=L −L
(s + 2)2 + 1 (s + 2)2 + 1
= e−2t cos t − 2e−2t sin t. (5)

6. There is usually more than one way to invert the Laplace transform. For example,
let F (s) = (s2 + 4s)−1 . You could compute the inverse transform of this function by
completing the square:
 
−1 1
f (t) = L
s2 + 4s
 
−1 1
=L
(s + 2)2 − 4
 
1 −1 2
= L
2 (s + 2)2 − 4
1 −2t
= e sinh 2t. (6)
2
You could also use the partial fraction decomposition (PFD) of F (s):
1 1 1
F (s) = = − .
s(s + 4) 4s 4(s + 4)
Therefore,
f (t) = L−1 {F (s)}
   
−1 1 −1 1
=L −L
4s 4(s + 4)
1 1 −4t
= − e
4 4
1
= e−2t sinh 2t. (7)
2
7. Example: Compute the inverse Laplace transform q(t) of

3s
Q(s) = .
(s2 + 1)2

You could compute q(t) by partial fractions, but there’s a less tedious way. Note that

3 d 1
Q(s) = − 2
.
2 ds s + 1

Hence,

q(t) = L−1 {Q(s)}

 
3 −1 d 1
=− L
2 ds s2 + 1
3
= t sin t. (8)
2

8. Definition: The convolution of functions f (t) and g(t) is

Z t
(f ∗ g)(t) = f (t − v)g(v) dv. (9)
0

As we showed in class, the convolution is commutative:

Z t Z t
(f ∗ g)(t) = f (t − v)g(v) dv = g(t − v)f (v) dv = (g ∗ f )(t). (10)
0 0

9. Example: Let f (t) = t and g(t) = et . The convolution of f and g is

Z t
(f ∗ g)(t) = (t − v)ev dv
0
Z t Z t
v
=t e dv − vev dv
0 0
t
= e − t − 1. (11)

10. Proposition: (The Convolution Theorem) If the Laplace transforms of f (t) and g(t)
are F (s) and G(s) respectively, then

L {(f ∗ g)(t)} = F (s)G(s), (12)

that is,
L−1 {F (s)G(s)} = (f ∗ g)(t). (13)

11. Suppose that you want to find the inverse transform x(t) of X(s). If you can write
X(s) as a product F (s)G(s) where f (t) and g(t) are known, then by the above result,
x(t) = (f ∗ g)(t).

12. Example: Consider the previous example: Find the inverse transform q(s) of
3s
Q(s) = .
(s2 + 1)2

Write Q(s) = F (s)G(s), where

3
F (s) = ,
s2 +1
and
s
G(s) = .
s2 +1
The inverse transforms are of F (s) and G(s) are f (t) = 3 sin t and g(t) = cos t. Therefore

q(s) = L−1 {Q(s)}

= L−1 {F (s)G(s)}
= (f ∗ g)(t)
Z t
=3 sin (t − v) cos v dv. (14)
0

Even if you stop here, you at least have a fairly simple, compact expression for q(s). To
do the integral (14), use the trigonometric identity

sin (A + B) + sin (A − B)
sin A cos B = .
2
With this, (14) becomes
Z t Z t
3
q(s) = sin t dv + sin (t − 2v) dv
2 0 0
3
= t sin t. (15)
2

13. Example: Find the inverse Laplace transform x(t) of the function
1
X(s) = .
s(s2 + 4)
If you want to use the convolution theorem, write X(s) as a product:

1 1
X(s) = .
s s2 + 4

Since  
−1 1
L = 1,
s
and  
−1 1 1
L = sin 2t,
s2 + 4 2
we have Z t
1
x(t) = sin 2v dv
2 0
1
= (1 − cos 2t).
4
You could also use the PFD:
1 s
X(s) = − 2
.
4s 4(s + 4)

Therefore,    
−1 1 −1 s
x(t) = L −L 2
4s 4(s + 4)
1
= (1 − cos 2t).
4