Clases Acidos Saturados PDF

710 DOI 10.1002/ejlt.200700040 Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.
109 (2007) 710–732
Virginie Duboisa Fatty acid profiles of 80 vegetable oils with regard to

Sylvie Bretonb
Michel Lindera their nutritional potential
Jacques Fannia
Michel Parmentiera The current concern for fat intake in western countries has raised the question of the
individual fatty acid (FA) impact on health. This important issue has strengthened the
a
Nancy-Université, INPL-ENSAIA, awareness of nutritionists and food manufacturers for the control of the FA profile of
Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France
b food products. The aim of this review is to provide a classification of the FA profiles of
St Hubert, Rungis, France
80 vegetable oil sources, according to their nutritional potential. The first part of the
review focuses on lipoprotein metabolism, and on the impact of each dietary FA on
blood lipid composition (LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and circulating triacylglyc-
erols). In the second part of the review, the oil sources are clustered by similar FA
profiles, and the classification is discussed with regard to the individual FA action on
blood lipid composition. Apart from the major vegetable seeds, the clustering high-
lighted some interesting nutritional oil sources containing mainly a-linolenic acid
(camelina, linseed, perilla and stock oils), or interesting amounts of the two essential FA
(purslane, chia, raspberry seed, sea buckthorn seed and salicorn oils). Furthermore,
this classification provides a useful tool for the formulation of the FA profile of food
products.
Keywords: Oil sources, blood lipids, fatty acids.
1 Introduction ability, and a fortiori to health. Indeed, the sn-2 position is

conserved during the whole digestive process, which
With the growing body of evidence that not all fats and explains why in natural fats and oils the most physiologi-
oils are equivalent when it comes to health, interest in cally important FA are esterified on the sn-2 position [4–6].
specific fatty acid (FA) profiles has been emerging. Public In vegetable sources, unsaturated FA are mainly esterified
health institutes, such as AFSSA, the French Agency for on this important sn-2 position [7].
Food Safety, as well as British and German authorities,
have independently recommended daily amounts for Among PUFA, the most important families are the well-
each type of FA, i.e. saturated, monounsaturated, poly- known n-3 and n-6 fatty acids [8]. These two families are
unsaturated and long-chain polyunsaturated FA (SFA, similar as they both comprise a precursor, namely ALA for
MUFA, PUFA and LC-PUFA, respectively) [1]. Even more, the n-3 and linoleic acid (LA) for the n-6 family (Fig. 1), and
these texts have also given specific recommendations for terminal products obtained by a succession of elonga-
some individual FA like a-linolenic acid (ALA) or doc- tions and desaturations during the metabolism, the two
osahexaenoic acid (DHA) [1]. groups of FA sharing the same long-chain converting
Review Article
enzymes [2]. These compounds are said to be essential

A fatty acid is a hydrocarbon chain, saturated or not, with because the human body is unable to synthesize them,
a methyl group at one end (n), and a carboxylic function at although it can metabolize them to longer-chain deriva-
the other (D). An SFA, as its name suggests, possesses an tives. So the diet must cover the organism need for these
alkane-like structure with a fully saturated hydrocarbon FA [2].
chain, while a MUFA has one double bond, and a PUFA
several ones, with these double bonds being naturally in Thus, a competition exists between n-3 and n-6 FA, with
cis configuration [2]. an excess of one group causing a significant decrease in
the conversion yield of the other (Fig. 2) [9].
Vegetable oils are mainly triacylglycerols, made by ester-
ification of three FA on the glycerol skeleton [3]. The three What is true for the conversion into long-chain FA is also
positions are not equivalent when it comes to bioavail- true for the synthesis of eicosanoids, i.e. leukotrienes and
prostaglandins. These are autocrine or paracrine chemi-
cal signals acting as hormone-like cell messengers [9].
Correspondence: Jacques Fanni, Nancy-Université, INPL-
This has been an essential issue for nutritionists because
ENSAIA, 2 avenue de la Forêt de Haye, BP 172, 54505 Van-
doeuvre-les-Nancy, France. Phone: 133 3 83595886, Fax: 133 these two signal families have antagonist actions. While
3 83595804, e-mail: Jacques.Fanni@ensaia.inpl-nancy.fr n-3 FA give birth to anti-inflammatory, anti-thrombotic,
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 710–732 Oil fatty acid profiles & nutritional impact 711
Fig. 1. Schematic view of a-linolenic (ALA, top) and linoleic acids (LA, bot-
tom), showing the double bonds in the hydrocarbon chain. The numbers
represent the carbon atoms bearing a double bond. These FA are the pre-
cursors of the n-3 and n-6 families, respectively. Symbols: grey, carbon;
black, oxygen.
Fig. 2. Conversion of LA and ALA into long-chain derivatives and synthesis of hormone-like metabolites from
arachidonic and eicosapentaenoic acids. LOX, lipoxygenase; COX, cyclooxygenase; LT, leukotrienes; PG, pros-
taglandins; Tx, thromboxane.
anti-hypertensive and anti-arrhythmic derivatives, n-6 Apart from the leukotriene and prostaglandin contribu-
FA generate inflammatory, thrombotic, hypertensive and tion, the main deleterious effect of FA has been the impact
arrhythmic metabolites [10–12]. That is why the “n-6/n- on plasma lipid composition [low-density lipoprotein
3 ratio” must reflect the need for a nutritional equilibri- (LDL)-cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-choles-
um. terol and triacylglycerols]. Knowing that each one of these
blood lipids has been demonstrated as an independent
Let’s stress here that these inflammatory products are
risk factor for ischemic heart disease [13–20], scientists
useful in case of infections or wounds, and so one must
have begun to pay attention to the dietary FA intake.
not completely suppress n-6 from the diet. The n-6/n-3
ratio has been made to remember the need for a balance With this recent concern about specific FA, the food
between the two eicosanoid families, to avoid a “pro- industry has looked for particular fats and oils containing
inflammatory status” on the one hand and an “immuno- these compounds, to optimize the “fat profile” of the final
deficient status” on the other hand [10–12]. products. A new market has arisen, with providers pro-

712 V. Dubois et al. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 710–732
posing dozens of specific oils. The aim of this review is to In the second pathway, IDL lose their apo E, which
provide a clustering of the FA profiles of these oil sources, lengthens their residential time in the bloodstream. In fact,
according to their nutritional potential. Each profile pre- VLDL and IDL also bear apo B, which can bind to the B/E
sented here is the average of several publications. As the receptor too, but less efficiently. IDL then become LDL, as
FA composition depends on many factors (cultivar, cli- they continue to deliver triacylglycerols to the target cells
mate, year, soil, etc.), these values are likely to vary [21, 23]. LDL are more susceptible to be oxidized by free
according to the literature source. Furthermore, only radicals because of their increased residential time in the
vegetable oils are studied here, not fish or algae oils. bloodstream. When it happens, the lipoproteins are taken
up by vessel wall macrophages, which is the first step
leading to atherosclerosis [21, 26].
2 Nutritional impact of dietary FA
In this review, the clustering of FA profiles is discussed 2.1.2 HDL
with regard to the individual FA action on blood lipid
composition. However, the impact of FA on cardiovas- HDL are produced by the hepatocytes, and their role is to
cular event occurrence will not be discussed here. Before transport extra cholesterol from peripheral organs back to
presenting this classification, the first part of the review the liver [21]. To sum up, excess cholesterol is transferred
will focus on the different lipoprotein metabolism and on from the peripheral cells to HDL, which bring it back to the
the hyper/hypolipidemic effect of each dietary FA. liver where it is degraded into biliary salts, and then elimi-
nated by the entero-hepatic cycle [21]. A distinction can be
made between the two subclasses of HDL, HDL2 and
2.1 Metabolism of lipoproteins HDL3. Indeed, HDL2 has been more strongly correlated
with ischemic heart disease (IHD) than HDL3 [27]. More-
Dietary and endogenous fats are carried to the target over, when HDL3 was adjusted for HDL2 in addition to the
organs by different lipoproteins, i.e. chylomicrons, LDL regular risk factors in a multivariate analysis, it lost its sta-
and HDL. These particles contain a core of triacylglycer- tistical significance [27]. HDL2 has then been considered
ols, liposoluble vitamins and cholesteryl esters, sur- as anti-atherosclerotic while the role of HDL3 has remained
rounded by a phospholipid and free cholesterol layer. more equivocal.
These also contain specific proteins, called apolipopro-
teins (apo), which act as enzyme cofactors or receptor
ligands [21–23]. To summarize, the chylomicrons trans- 2.1.3 Blood lipid composition
port the dietary fat from the intestinal epithelium to the
peripheral cells, reaching the bloodstream via the lym- LDL- and HDL-cholesterol refer to the cholesterol and
phatic system [22, 24]. Very-low-density lipoproteins cholesteryl ester content of LDL and HDL, respectively.
(VLDL) are the chylomicron equivalent produced by the LDL-cholesterol is often called “bad cholesterol” because
liver during the interprandial period [23–25]. HDL act as as LDL lose their triacylglycerol load, their proportion of
reverse cholesterol carrier, taking up the excess choles- cholesterol and cholesteryl esters becomes more impor-
terol from the peripheral cells to bring it back to the liver. tant. When taken up by vessel wall macrophages, they
After having accomplished their role as carriers, the dif- are responsible for fatty streak formation [21, 25].
ferent lipoproteins are taken up by the hepatocytes for
recycling, through the interaction between an apo E On the contrary, HDL-cholesterol is considered as “good
borne by the lipoprotein and a hepatic apo B/E receptor cholesterol” because the reverse transport of cholesterol
[21, 23, 25]. is an important metabolic pathway of preventing athero-
sclerosis, as it enables the reprocessing of cholesterol
[21]. In fact, the liver transfers the major part of cholesteryl
2.1.1 VLDL and LDL esters from lipoproteins to bile, with 80% of that choles-
terol being reabsorbed by the entero-hepatic cycle. Most
Two different pathways exist for VLDL. In the first one, the
of the cholesterol in the organism comes from this repro-
VLDL triacylglycerols are depleted by the lipoprotein
cessing and from the endogenous synthesis (acetate
lipase, and the particles become VLDL remnants, also
being the substrate). Dietary cholesterol is responsible for
called intermediate-density lipoproteins (IDL). During this
only 10–20% of the plasma total cholesterol level [21, 23].
period, the apo C (the lipoprotein lipase cofactor) hides
the apo E, preventing the uptake of VLDL by the liver. The last parameter that can be evaluated is the plasma
When a VLDL becomes an IDL, apo C frees apo E, which triacylglycerol (TAG) level. It represents the triacylglycerol
binds avidly to the hepatic receptor [21]. content of all the lipoproteins, and permits the evaluation

of circulating lipids. Fasting TAG levels comprise VLDL, However, the increasing number of individual FA studies
IDL, LDL and HDL content, and postprandial TAG levels has shown the need for a more precise distinction than
comprise in addition the chylomicron load. just SFA against unsaturated FA.
2.2 Lipoproteins as cardiovascular risk factors 3.1.1 SFA

Since many years, LDL-cholesterol, HDL-cholesterol and Two hypotheses have been cited to explain the choles-
TAG have been identified as risk factors for cardiovas- terol-raising effect of SFA. On the one hand, they might be
cular diseases, especially IHD (myocardial infarction responsible for a decrease in the B/E receptor expression
being the most important one). on the hepatocyte surface, and on the other hand, their
incorporation into the cell membrane phospholipids
LDL-cholesterol has been positively correlated to cardio-
might impair its fluidity, thus disturbing the receptor action
vascular disease in many studies [13, 15, 16, 18, 20], and
[7].
new drugs have emerged, namely statins and fibrates.
Even in the food industry LDL-cholesterol has become a – Short-chain SFA (less than 12 carbon atoms in the
new target for “health products”, with the use of vege- hydrocarbon chain) are not present in large quantities in
table sterols and stanols, in margarines or yogurts. vegetable oils. Maybe that is why their effect on plasma
lipids has not been much studied [30]. Nevertheless, they
HDL-cholesterol and TAG have first been considered to-
were neutral vis-à-vis either LDL-, HDL-cholesterol or
gether, which has led to the “high TAG-low HDL” risk fac-
triacylglycerol levels. In fact they might just be rapidly
tor [13, 16]. More recent studies have shown that each
used to provide energy [7].
one of these is an independent risk factor for IHD, with
opposite signs. That is to say elevated TAG have been – Lauric and myristic acids increased LDL-cholesterol [4,
deleterious [14, 15, 17–20], while high HDL-cholesterol 30–32]. Myristic acid was more deleterious than lauric
has proven protective [14, 15, 18, 20]. acid, but its position on the glycerol backbone seemed to
be very important (see Section 3.2) [4, 30, 32].
Some data to illustrate this: An LDL-cholesterol level
raised by 10% corresponded to an increase of IHD risk by – Palmitic acid displayed a particular impact. Indeed, if
15%, a similar raise of 10% of the TAG level enhanced this most studies have shown a cholesterol-raising effect of
risk by 7%, while a decrease of 10% of HDL-cholesterol this FA [4, 30, 32, 33], some others have demonstrated
augmented the risk by 13% [16]. relative neutrality [31, 34]. The Malaysian team who con-
ducted these last two studies has hypothesized that a
threshold might exist: Above 400 mg of dietary choles-
3 Impact of dietary FA structure on plasma terol ingested per day, palmitic acid might be cholesterol-
lipid composition increasing, even more than myristic acid, and quite neu-
tral underneath this value [31, 34]. It seems that more
3.1 FA structure studies are needed to explain these inconclusive results.
It has been well described that FA structure influences – Stearic acid displayed no deleterious effect on plasma
plasma lipid levels. Historically, this impact on total cho- lipids [7, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36]. Indeed, it has been shown
lesterol has been calculated with the Keys’ and Hegsted’s that a diet high in stearic acid did not increase plasma
equations [7]: lipids compared to a high-oleic or high-linoleic diet [35].
Two hypotheses have been proposed to explain this un-
Keys et al. [28]:
usual result:
DTC = 2.76DSFA – 1.356DUFA 1 1.56DC1/2
(i) The stearic acid melting point is high above the human
where TC is the total cholesterol, SFA is the proportion of body temperature; so it is solid at 37 7C, and more likely to
SFA (% of the total energy amount), UFA is the proportion be eliminated in the faeces instead of being absorbed by
of unsaturated FA (% of the total energy amount) and C is the intestinal epithelium [37] (in vegetable oils, SFA are
the dietary cholesterol (in mg per 1000 kcal/day). preferentially esterified on the sn-1,3 positions of glycerol
[3–5]; during the digestion, the lipase specifically breaks
Hegsted et al. [29]: sn-1 and sn-3 ester bonds, leaving the sn-2 FA in place;
stearic acid, when released by the lipase, remains free in
DTC = 2.166DSFA – 1.356DUFA 1 1.56DC’
the intestinal lumen, solid because of its melting point
where C’ is the dietary cholesterol (in mg/day). above 37 7C),

(ii) or it might be quickly desaturated into oleic acid, and that one of the LA metabolites, maybe g-linolenic
thus its own effect would be hidden [33]. (C18:3 n-6, GLA) or dihomo-g-linolenic acids (C20:3 n-6,
dihomo-GLA), was active instead of LA itself [46].
– Long-chain SFA: The amount of long-chain SFA (more
Knowing that D6-desaturation is a limiting step of LA
than 18 carbon atoms) in vegetable oil sources is very
conversion [46], it seems obvious that if dihomo-GLA is
small; thus, their contribution to the fat intake is negligible.
the active one, providing GLA in the diet will be more
Furthermore, their intestinal absorption is weak, because
effective than providing LA alone. Furthermore, an
of their high melting point, which is higher than the one of
excess of LA has been known to inhibit its own conver-
stearic acid. Thus, no effect on plasma lipids has been
sion to longer-chain derivatives [47]. This might link the
shown [30, 32, 33].
“GLA or dihomo-GLA/active components” hypothesis
As a remark, it is interesting to note that SFA tended to [46] to the “too much LA/no effect” one [31], with an
increase HDL-cholesterol [30, 38]. Unfortunately, this excess of LA impairing its conversion to GLA or dihomo-
positive effect did not counteract their deleterious GLA and therefore inhibiting their cholesterol-lowering
increasing of LDL-cholesterol and plasma triacylglycerols effect.
[7]. Therefore SFA have not been recommended by nutri-
LA has also been shown to decrease plasma triacylglyc-
tionists.
erols [19] and HDL-cholesterol [44], but weakly.
Moreover, as said above, an excess of LA promotes an

3.1.2 MUFA inflammatory status in the human body [10–12]. There-
fore, the n-6/n-3 ratio requires the LA consumption to be
Oleic acid is the main component of numerous vegetable
decreased in all developed countries, as recommended
oils, including olive and rapeseed oils, and is the major
[1].
dietary monoenic acid. It might have a slight and con-
troversial positive effect on LDL-cholesterol [7, 30, 33, 35, – ALA has been described as neutral on plasma LDL-
36, 39–41]. Olive oil has long been described as healthy cholesterol [48–51]. Nevertheless some studies have
because of the presence of oleic acid, but it seems that demonstrated a positive effect of ALA on LDL-choles-
other compounds might be considered as the active terol, but other FA of the test diet were modified, for
ones. MUFA positive action on plasma lipids has been example LA [52], SFA [53–55], or the whole diet [56, 57].
demonstrated in studies where SFA were the control FA.
This choice has introduced a bias in the results because The effect on HDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerols has
of the cholesterol-raising effect of these compounds [7, not been cleared. In fact, some studies have shown no
30, 33]. When MUFA action was tested against a low fat/ effect of ALA [48, 50–53], while two others have exhibited
high carbohydrate diet, they were found to be neutral [36, a concomitant decrease in triacylglycerols and HDL-cho-
41]. lesterol [54, 55], one has shown an increase in HDL [49],
and two others an increase in HDL and a decrease in
Apart from LDL-cholesterol [36], the oleic acid effect on triacylglycerols [56, 57]. One might, however, remark that
HDL-cholesterol and triacylglycerols has been incon- most of these studies did not only concern a change in
clusive [30, 41]. ALA level, but involved a more important modification of
the diet.
3.1.3 PUFA It is obvious that more controlled trials are needed to

allow strong conclusions on whether ALA has an effect on
– LA: Among PUFA, LA is the only one that decreased plasma lipids. Furthermore, this was the final statement of
LDL-cholesterol [19, 30, 34, 42–44]. Some authors, the “UK Food Standards Agency a-linolenic acid work-
however, failed to demonstrate such an effect of LA [7, shop report”, which compared the health impact of ALA
35]. Furthermore, other authors proposed a threshold and its long-chain derivatives [58].
hypothesis, saying that above a certain amount of LA in
the diet it might lose its action [31, 45]. According to However, the n-3 FA intake, and especially ALA, should
them, the positive effect on cholesterol was only effec- be increased in western countries because:
tive if LA represented less than 17–20% of the total FA (i) its conversion into eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) is
intake [31]. Anyway, control FA sometimes were SFA, important to produce anti-inflammatory compounds,
and in those trials the only possible conclusion that
could be drawn was that replacing SFA with LA improved (ii) its presence in the body regulates the synthesis of LA
the lipoprotein profile of the subjects [42–44]. Some derivatives, and avoids a “too inflammatory status” by
authors proposed another hypothesis though, which was rebalancing the n-6/n-3 ratio [10–12].

– EPA and DHA: The numerous trials that studied long- On the contrary, palmitic acid appeared to be more cho-
chain n-3 FA have shown no effect of EPA and DHA on lesterol-increasing when esterified on the sn-2 position of
LDL-cholesterol, a positive effect on triacylglycerols [49, glycerol, as it is found in cow’s milk fat, for example [32].
59–71], and a small increase of HDL-cholesterol [49, 60, In human milk fat, palmitic acid is mostly esterified on the
64, 65, 69, 70, 72]. Furthermore, the INTERLIPID study sn-2 position as well, to provide the newborn with a highly
has shown a positive relationship between n-3 LC-PUFA energetic substrate [76].
intake and HDL-cholesterol concentration [73]. However,
this action on HDL has been controversial [59, 61–63, 66, Long-chain SFA might have a deleterious effect on lipo-
71, 74]. But when authors distinguished both HDL sub- proteins if esterified on the sn-2 position. In fact, lipopro-
classes, i.e. HDL2 and HDL3, the action of EPA and DHA tein and hepatic lipases are regiospecific. That is to say
became clearer. In fact, n-3 LC-PUFA increased HDL2, they mainly break the sn-1,3 FA ester bond, producing
while decreasing or being neutral on HDL3 [59, 62, 70, 72]. mono- and diacylglycerols. These compounds then act
This has been a more precise way of evaluating the effect as emulsifiers; thus, they tend to reach the surface of the
of EPA and DHA on plasma lipids, which has highlighted lipoprotein. Due to the high melting points of long-chain
their positive action on HDL-cholesterol. SFA, they harden the particle surface, impairing the
hepatic uptake [77, 78].
What has been observed is a 10–30% decrease of
Let’s focus on the specific position of FA in vegetable oil
plasma triacylglycerols, and a 5–15% increase of HDL-
sources. As said in the introductive section of this review,
cholesterol, for a 0.7–1 g/day dose of EPA/DHA [63, 64,
SFA are preferentially esterified on the sn-1,3 position of
66, 67, 69, 71]. Such a dose corresponds to one or two
glycerol in vegetable oils [3–5]. Considering the facts
fatty fish meals per week, which is a tastier advice than
presented above, among myristic acid, palmitic acid and
Grandma’s tablespoon of cod liver oil. Increasing this
long-chain SFA, only myristic acid was more deleterious
dose to more than 1 g/day did not strengthen the effect
in vegetable oil sources compared to animal fat, espe-
[49, 59–62, 65, 68, 70].
cially cow’s milk fat [4, 5]. Thus, it seems that vegetable oil
It seems important to remember that replacing SFA by sources have been more interesting than animal fats
either MUFA or PUFA improved the plasma lipid profile. regarding the impact on blood lipid composition.
There has not been a strong consensus on a positive
action of either LA or oleic acid, due to the difficulty of
measuring their impact without modifying the SFA 4 Vegetable oil FA profiles in relation with
amount in the diet. One possible approach has been to their nutritional impact
replace lipids by carbohydrates [41]. A meta-analysis of
395 metabolic ward trials studied isocaloric replacements Eighty vegetable oil sources were studied, selected by a
of individual FA by other FA or by complex carbohydrates bibliographic search using “FA profile, lipid composition,
[36]. Altogether, the authors concluded that SFA raised oil” as keywords. Thereby some minor oils are included
LDL- and HDL-cholesterol, MUFA did not influence LDL- while some more known are not, depending on the infor-
cholesterol but may have increased HDL-cholesterol, and mation available on their FA profile. The oils were clus-
PUFA may have decreased LDL-cholesterol and raised tered by similar FA profiles. The three main classes con-
HDL-cholesterol [36]. cern sources with a FA profile containing mainly SFA,
MUFA or PUFA, and subclasses were made with regard to
their second main FA. The nutritional impact of each
3.2 FA position on the glycerol backbone subclass was evaluated using the conclusions drawn in
the first part of the review.
The FA structure alone does not satisfactorily explain the
impact of dietary lipids on blood lipid composition. The four main oil sources around the world are soybean,
Indeed, the position of an FA on the glycerol backbone palm, rapeseed, and sunflower oils [79]. Among these
also influences its effect on plasma lipids. sources, soybean and rapeseed oils contain significant
amounts of ALA (7.8% [80–85] and 9.9% [82, 84, 86],
For example, myristic acid increased cholesterol to a les- respectively), which is the most deficient essential FA
ser extent when esterified on the sn-2 position, as it is according to the European food agencies statements [1]. To
found in cow’s milk fat [75]. That is the reason why some highlight every nutritionally interesting oil source, a subgroup
scientists have defended cow’s milk fat against vegetable was created in each subclass where oils with more than
oils comprising the same amount of myristic acid [75]. 7.8% of ALA were included. That is to say that the ALA con-
Moreover, myristic acid on the sn-2 position might stimu- tent of soybean oil was used here as a threshold above
late ALA conversion to EPA and DHA [75]. which the ALA level renders a source nutritionally interesting.

4.1 SFA class Their nutritional interest lies in the neutrality of stearic and
oleic acids (the second most important component of the
4.1.1 Capric acid subclass FA profile) with regard to plasma lipid composition [7, 30–
32, 35, 36, 39–41].
This kind of FA profile is not common; indeed, only two
oils were clustered in this group: two subspecies of
Cupheae (Cuphea ilavea and Cuphea leptopoda [87]). 4.2 MUFA class
They mainly contain short-chain FA, particularly capric
acid, up to 92% in Cuphea leptopoda. These sources are 4.2.1 MUFA subclass (>60%)
interesting in case of a need for a particularly high energy
content that is immediately available [7, 30]. Obviously, the most representative oil of this group with
monounsaturated profiles is olive oil (Olea europaea [82,
83, 101–104]), which contains almost 80% of oleic acid.
4.1.2 Lauric and myristic acid subclass Hazelnut (Corylus avellana [80, 105]), macadamia nut
(Macadamia tetraphylla [106]), avocado (Persea amer-
Coconut oil (Cocus nucifera [83, 88–90]) and palm kernel icana [107]), apricot kernel (Prunus armeniaca [108]),
oil (Elaeis guineensis [89, 91]) have a similar FA profile, chufa (Cyperus esculentus [109]) and adjouaba (Haema-
including a majority of SFA, mainly lauric acid. Less tostaphis barteri [110]) oils possess similar FA profiles.
known oils could also be added to this group: Cuphea
As said above, oleic acid has been shown to be neutral
laminuligena, C. tolucana and C. wrightii [87], Cambodia
with regard to plasma lipids [35, 36, 39, 41]. Thus, this
nut oil (Irvingia malayana [92]), and also babassu butter
group is a useful source to complete formulations, acting
(Orbignya oleifera [93]).
as a “nutritional excipient”.
Their nutritional use is questionable because lauric and
Crambe oil (Crambe abyssinica [111]) was also clustered
myristic acids are known as the most cholesterol-
in this group, with erucic acid as the predominant MUFA,
increasing SFA [4, 30–32]. Nevertheless, they are impor-
which is an unusual FA profile.
tant textural agents used by the fat and food industries to
confer an adequate texture to final products. As a sublevel of this group, oils containing at least 7.8% of
ALA have associated the neutrality of oleic acid to the
nutritional benefit of the n-3 precursor [10–12]. These
4.1.3 Palmitic acid subclass were rapeseed (Brassica napus [82, 84, 86]), belize oils
(Ximenia americana [110]) and white mustard seed (Bras-
The best example of this group is palm oil (Elaeis gui- sica alba [80, 83]). Rapeseed oil contains 9.9% of ALA,
neensis [83, 94–96]), often used in food or cosmetic for- belize oil 10.3% and white mustard seed oil 12.5%.
mulations to provide texture and softness to products.
As for crambe oil, white mustard seed oil is quite different
Pili nut oil (Canarium ovatum [97]), while less known, has a from rapeseed and belize because it contains more erucic
similar FA profile. These oils are interesting because pal- than oleic acid. This fatty acid is thought to have a
mitic acid is less deleterious than lauric or myristic acids pathogenic potential when given at high doses to animals
[4, 30–34], especially when esterified on the sn-1,3 posi- [112]. This issue forced the rapeseed oil furnishers to
tion of glycerol [32], as it is the case in these oils [5, 32, develop a new crop without erucic acid. It has been called
97]. canola and was developed in Canada. The rapeseed oil
profile presented in this review is actually canola oil.
4.1.4 Stearic acid subclass

4.2.2 MUFA + SFA + LA subclass
Three oils were put in this group, with stearic acid as main
component: cocoa butter (Theobroma cacao [98]), shea This group is characterized by an FA profile containing
butter (Vitellaria paradoxa – previously Butyrospermum less MUFA than the previous one, with LA instead. It
paradoxum [98]) and mango seed oil (Mangifer indica [99, contains peanut (Arachis hypogea [80, 84, 113–115]), rice
100]). Cocoa butter is mostly used in the food industry, bran (Oryza sativa [81, 116–118]), oats (Avena sativa
while shea butter is mainly seen in cosmetics, although it [119]), buckwheat (Polygonum fagopyrum [81]), pistachio
has also been authorized as a cocoa butter alternative in (Pistacia atlantica [120]), silver maple tree (Acer sacchar-
chocolate products [98]. These three oils all contain up to inum [121]), ratanjyot (Jatropha curcas [122]), argan
40% of stearic acid, and due to their high melting point, it (Argania spinosa [123, 124]) and gokhru oils (Tribulus ter-
is obvious that these are more “butters” than oils. restris [100]).

The “with more than 7.8% ALA” sublevel of this group Walnut (Juglans regia [142]) and lupin oils (Lupinus mex-
comprises sugar maple tree (9%, Acer saccharum [121]) icanus [143]) show equivalent FA profiles, except that they
and sea buckthorn berry oils (8.8%, Hippophae rham- possess 10 and 8% of ALA, respectively.
noides [125, 126]). Sea buckthorn berry oil displays a
particular nutritional interest because it provides the n-3
family precursor associated with less than 20% of LA 4.3.3 LA + MUFA subclass
(15.6%).
Sunflower oil (Helianthus annuus [80, 83, 84, 94, 144,
145]) comprises linoleic and oleic acids as major compo-
4.3 PUFA class nents. The following sources have a similar FA profile:
corn (Zea mays [80–83, 146–148]), wheat germ (Triticum
4.3.1 LA subclass (>60%) aestivum [83, 149, 150]), artichoke (Cynara scolymus
[151]), sesame (Sesamum indicum [80–83, 116, 152–
This first group of oils comprising a majority of PUFA
155]), pumpkin seed (Cucurbita pepo [133, 156]), onion
contains more than 60% of LA. Keeping in mind that too
(Allium cepa [100]), cumin (Cuminum cymimum [157]),
much n-6 FA causes a pro-inflammatory status in the hu-
borage (Borago officinalis [130, 131, 158]), quinoa (Che-
man body [10–12], these oils seem to be too rich in this
nopodium quinua [81]), two subspecies of amaranth
component to be interesting. This makes their use in for-
(Amaranthus caudatus [159] and Amaranthus cruentus
mulations complex with regard to the n-6/n-3 balance,
[81]), African bean (Pentaclethra macrophylla [160]) and
which is then difficult to reach. The only alternative is to
kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus [161]).
use them in mixes with oils providing other FA.
The oils clustered in this group are grape seed (Vitis vini- Among these sources, borage oil looks different because
fera [83, 100, 127, 128]), evening primrose (Oenothera of its high content in GLA, which almost reaches 22% of
biennis [83, 129–131]), melon seed (Cucumis melo [132]), the total FA [130, 131, 158]. As said in the LA subclass for
tobacco seed (Nicotiana tabacum [100]), paprika seed blackcurrant seed oil, borage oil might have a cholesterol-
(Capsicum annuum [133]), safflower (Carthamus tintorius lowering role due to this level of GLA [46].
[80, 84, 134–136]), salicorn (Salicornia bigelovii [134]) and
As for the previous groups, some oils present an equiva-
thumba oils [100].
lent FA profile with more than 7.8% of ALA: soybean
Blackcurrant seed oil (Ribes nigrum [128]) contains, in (Glycine max [80–85]), hemp (Cannabis sativa [83, 157,
addition, more than 7.8% of ALA (11.9%). This level of ALA 162]), fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum [163]) and
makes blackcurrant seed oil the most interesting product cranberry seed oils (Vaccinium oxycoccos [157]). These
of this group, with an n-6/n-3 ratio of 4.4. Furthermore, four oils contain 7.8, 19.7, 23.2 and 22.3% of ALA,
blackcurrant seed oil contains more than 12% of GLA respectively, which gives them n-6/n-3 ratios between 1.8
[128], which, according to Horrobin and Huang [46], is and 6.7.
either the active component in the n-6 family to lower
cholesterol or the substrate for dihomo-GLA if this FA is the If an LA-rich oil is needed to prepare a mix, soybean,
efficient one. Evening primrose oil also contains an impor- hemp, fenugreek and cranberry seed oils must be pre-
tant amount of GLA, but with hardly any ALA. This char- ferred among all these LA-high groups. Indeed they pro-
acteristic makes blackcurrant seed oil an interesting vide MUFA and ALA beside LA, which are considered
source, but one should pay attention to the inflammatory more pertinent than SFA for a healthy food product [36,
status that n-6 FA cause when thinking about using this oil, 41].
which, overall, provides an important quantity of LA.
4.3.4 ALA + MUFA subclass

4.3.2 LA + SFA subclass
These last two groups are dedicated to oils containing a
Cotton seed (Gossypium hirsutum [80, 81, 83, 84, 137, majority of ALA, from 28% up to 60% of total FA.
138]), black cumin (Nigella sativa [139]), watermelon seed
(Citrullus sp. [133]), cactus (Opuntia ficus indica [140]), Conversion of this precursor into long-chain derivatives is
amaranth (Amaranthus hypocondriacus [81]) and niger not very efficient in the human body. It has been esti-
seed oils (Guizotia abyssinica [100, 141]) were clustered in mated to be less than 10% for EPA [164–167] and less
this group. Their FA profiles mainly contain LA, associated than 5% (more likely less than 1%) for DHA [164, 166,
with SFA (especially palmitic acid). Their use as main com- 168, 169]. Even the EPA-to-DHA conversion is weak, and
ponent appears then not really interesting [4, 30–33, 45]. maybe nil [70, 170–172].

However, one remark should be stressed: The ALA-to- 6 Conclusions

DHA conversion might be more efficient in women (10%)
than in men (,1%) [164, 166]. The authors of these two In western diets, for example in France, UK or Germany,
trials also showed that, among women, the conversion lipids represent 40% of the total energy amount, SFA
was more important in contraceptive pill users. They standing for almost half of it. The proportion of PUFA is
postulated that estrogen might enhance the conversion, a less than 15% (11% LA, 0.8% ALA, 0.25% EPA/DHA),
useful phenomenon during pregnancy to provide suffi- with an n-6/n-3 ratio of around 15 [179–181]. This does
cient amounts of DHA to the fetus for retina and brain not meet the general governments’ recommendations,
development [164, 166]. which have stated that lipids should not represent more
than 30% of the total energy amount, with less than 33%
Even if the conversion is not sufficient to produce the of SFA, and an n-6/n-3 ratio of 5 or less (Agence Fran-
amounts of long-chain derivatives the human body çaise pour la Sécurité Sanitaire des Aliments, the French
needs, the conversion to EPA is useful to counteract the food agency [1]; National Cholesterol Education Program,
deleterious effects of an n-6 FA-rich diet [10–12]. an American expert panel workshop on the management
In this first group, oils contain MUFA beside ALA. These of hypercholesterolemia [182]; American Heart Associa-
are camelina (Camelina sativa [173]), linseed (Linum usi- tion [183]; Deutsche Gesellschaft für Ernährung, the Ger-
tatissimum [83, 116, 136]), perilla (Perilla frutescens [82, man food agency [184]).
174]) and stock oils (Matthiola tricuspidata [129]). There has been an increasing awareness of the food
Among these, linseed and perilla oils have the most industry for “quality of fat” apart from “quantity of fat”. To
important amount of precursor, with values reaching 55% meet this demand for PUFA, especially for ALA, new
vs. 43.9% and 38.1% for stock and camelina, respectively. vegetable oil sources should be used instead of the well-
known sunflower or peanut oils.
The classification provided in this review highlights the

4.3.5 ALA + LA subclass
interesting oils of the second to last group, comprising
The last group of this clustering comprises purslane (Por- camelina, linseed, perilla and stock oils, for their high
tulaca oleracea [175, 176]), chia (Salvia hispanica [129, amount of ALA if only this FA is required. To provide the
177, 178]), raspberry seed (Rubus idaeus [135]), sea two essential polyenic acids, LA and ALA, one might pre-
buckthorn seed (Hippophae rhamnoides [125, 126]) and fer using purslane, chia, raspberry seed, sea buckthorn
salicorn oils (Salicornia europaea [175]). seed or salicorn oils.
The common FA profile of these oils associates a level of Despite the interest in ALA, and the awareness of scien-
ALA higher than 28% (purslane oil, 32.4%; chia oil, tists and nutritionists regarding essential FA intake, food
61.3%; raspberry seed oil, 29.1%; sea buckthorn seed product manufacturers tend to decrease ALA in their
oil, 28.8%; salicorn oil, 28%), plus 20% or more of LA. goods to increase the shelf life of the products. In fact,
With an n-6/n-3 ratio less than 2, these sources are very with ALA being more likely to be oxidized, the higher the
interesting with regard to providing a good equilibrium ALA amount, the shorter is the shelf life. To meet this
between the two essential FA. demand, new oil sources are developed, containing more
oleic acid and less ALA, for example high-oleic sunflower,
rapeseed, soybean or safflower. From the nutrition point
5 Vegetable oil sources classified by their of view, food products should contain more ALA, event if
nutritional FA profile the shelf life needs to be shortened. With the increasing
amount of governmental publications concerning public
Tabs. 1–6 summarize all available data about the oil health, the food industry will have to go down the ALA
sources, as classified using the keys presented above, road and work harder to protect their product from lipid
i.e. the nutritional impact of dietary FA on plasma lipid oxidation.
composition. The oil sources were clustered in classes
EPA and DHA were shown in the first section of this review
with a similar type of FA profile, i.e. SFA class, MUFA class
to have positive effects on blood lipid composition [49,
and PUFA class. Each class is subcategorized with regard
59–74]. However, as highlighted, the yield of the conver-
to the second main FA type occurring in the oil.
sion chain from precursor to EPA and DHA does not pro-
This classification has drawn a general picture of the vide sufficient amounts of these terminal molecules,
nutritional potential of many vegetable oil sources, which especially in the case of DHA [70, 164–172]. Therefore,
might be useful in designing the FA profile of a food fish or algae oil sources can be used, but this was not the
product. point of this classification, and so these were not includ-

Tab. 1. FA composition of vegetable oils with an SFA nutritional profile (CA, LRA 1 MA, PA and SA subclasses).
SFA
Subclass CA LRA 1 MA PA SA
Name Cuphea Cuphea Coconut Palm Cuphea Cuphea Cuphea Cambo- Babassu Palm Pili nut Cocoa Shea Mango
kernel dia nut butter butter seed
Latin Cuphea Cuphea Cocus Elaeis Cuphea Cuphea Cuphea Irvingia Orbignya Elaeis Cana- Theo- Vitellaria Mangifer
ilavea lepto- nucifera guine- laminuli- tolucana wrightii malay- oleifera guine- rium broma para- indica
poda ensis gena ana ensis ovatum cacao doxa
8:0 1.0 1.8 7.6 4.1 0.5 0.5 0.4 – 5.5 0.1 – – – –
10:0 85.8 92.6 6.5 3.7 19.5 22.7 29.6 2.7 6.1 0.1 – – – –
12:0 1.7 0.2 48.2 46.0 65.4 62.2 57.2 42.5 34.1 0.4 – – – –
14:0 – 0.3 18.5 17.8 6.3 4.7 3.3 42.1 19.2 1.1 0.1 – – –
16:0 2.1 1.2 8.7 8.4 2.1 1.9 1.7 7.3 10.6 43.8 33.3 25.1 5.0 8.9
18:0 0.6 0.2 2.7 1.6 0.2 0.2 0.2 1.6 4.3 4.4 10.9 36.4 41.0 40.3
20:0 0.4 0.1 0.1 – 0.2 0.2 0.1 – – 0.3 0.2 1.2 0.6 2.5
22:0 – – – – – – – – – 0.1 – 0.2 – 0.6
24:0 – – – – – – – – – 0.1 – – – 0.5
Total SFA 91.6 96.4 92.6 81.9 94.2 92.4 92.5 96.2 79.8 50.4 44.5 62.9 46.5 52.8
16:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – 0.2 – – – –
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – 0.3 – – –
17:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 – – 6.0 16.4 – – – 2.3 17.1 39.1 44.7 34.1 48.0 41.3
18:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:1 n-9 – – 0.1 – – – – – – 0.1 – – 0.1 –
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
24:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Total MUFA 0.0 0.0 6.1 16.4 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.3 17.1 39.4 45.0 34.1 48.0 41.3
18:2 n-6 4.0 1.5 1.8 3.1 1.4 2.2 2.1 1.5 3.1 10.2 10.1 2.8 5.1 6.9
18:3 n-3 4.2 2.0 0.1 – 4.3 5.3 5.1 – – 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5
18:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
Total PUFA 8.2 3.5 1.9 3.1 5.7 7.5 7.2 1.5 3.1 10.5 10.6 3.0 5.4 7.4
Total n-6 4.0 1.5 1.8 3.1 1.4 2.2 2.1 1.5 3.1 10.2 10.1 2.8 5.1 6.9
Total n-3 4.2 2.0 0.1 – 4.3 5.3 5.1 – – 0.3 0.5 0.2 0.3 0.5
Ratio n-6/n-3 1.0 0.8 18 – 0.3 0.4 0.4 – – 34 20 14 17 14
References [87] [87] [83, [89, 91] [87] [87] [87] [92] [93] [83, [97] [98] [98] [99, 100]
88–90] 94–96]
CA, capric acid; LRA, lauric acid; MA, myristic acid; PA, palmitic acid; SA, stearic acid.

Tab. 2. FA composition of vegetable oils with a MUFA nutritional profile (MUFA subclass).
MUFA
Subclass MUFA
Name Olive Hazelnut Macada- Avocado Apricot Chufa Adjouaba Crambe Rapeseed Belize White mus-
mia nut kernel tard seed
Latin Olea Corylus Macada- Persea Prunus Cyperus Haemato- Crambe Brassica Ximenia Brassica
europaea avellana mia tetra- ameri- arme- esculen- staphis abyssinica napus ameri- alba
phylla cana niaca tus barteri cana
8:0 – – – – – – – – – 0.6 –
10:0 – – – – – – – – – – –
12:0 – – – – – – – – – – –
14:0 0.0 0.0 1.3 – – 0.2 4.2 – 0.1 – –
16:0 12.1 4.9 9.7 15.7 4.4 13.8 1.4 2.2 5.1 3.3 –
18:0 2.6 2.7 2.1 0.7 0.5 3.2 15.4 – 1.7 3.5 –
20:0 0.4 0.1 1.7 – – 0.4 – – 0.6 – 1.6
22:0 0.1 0.1 0.5 – – – – – 0.3 – 1.2
24:0 0.1 0.0 0.2 – – – – – 0.2 – 0.6
Total SFA 15.3 7.8 15.4 16.4 4.8 17.5 21.0 2.2 8.0 7.3 3.4
16:1 n-7 0.8 0.2 26.7 7.3 0.1 0.3 – – 0.2 – –
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – –
17:1 n-7 0.2 0.1 – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 72.5 82.7 48.4 60.3 66.3 72.6 69.4 16.5 60.1 72.1 23.2
18:1 n-7 – – 3.0 – – – – – – – –
20:1 n-9 0.3 0.2 2.0 0.2 – – – 4.7 1.4 – 8.8
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:1 n-9 – 0.0 0.7 – – – 2.7 62.5 0.4 3.5 36.5
24:1 n-9 – 0.0 – – – – – – 0.3 1.2 –
Total MUFA 73.8 83.1 80.4 67.8 66.4 72.9 72.1 83.7 62.4 76.8 68.5
18:2 n-6 9.4 8.9 3.4 13.7 28.6 8.9 – 9.3 21.5 1.3 8.9
18:3 n-3 0.6 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.1 0.4 – 4.8 9.9 10.3 12.5
18:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – – – – – – 6.9 – 0.1 – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – 3.4 –
20:4 n-6 – – – 0.1 – – – – – 0.6 –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
Total PUFA 10.0 9.0 3.6 15.2 28.8 9.3 6.9 14.1 31.5 15.6 21.4
Total n-6 9.4 8.9 3.4 13.8 28.6 8.9 6.9 9.3 21.6 5.3 8.9
Total n-3 0.6 0.1 0.2 1.4 0.1 0.4 – 4.8 9.9 10.3 12.5
Ratio n-6/n-3 16 89 17 9.8 286 22 – 1.9 2.2 0.1 0.7
References [82, 83, [80, 105] [106] [107] [108] [109] [110] [111] [82, 84, [110] [80, 83]
101–104] 86]

Tab. 3. FA composition of vegetable oils with a MUFA nutritional profile (MUFA and MUFA 1 SFA 1 LA subclasses).
MUFA
Subclass MUFA 1 SFA 1 LA
Name Peanut Rice bran Oats Buckwheat Pistachio Maple tree Ratanjyot Argan Gokhru Maple tree Sea buck-
(silver) (sugar) thorn berry
Latin Arachis Oryza Avena Polygonum Pistacia Acer sac- Jatropha Argania Tribulus Acer sac- Hippophae
hypogea sativa sativa fagopyrum atlantica charinum curcas spinosa terrestris charum rhamnoi-
des
8:0 – – – – – – – – – – –
10:0 – – – – – – – – – – –
12:0 – – – – – – – – – – –
14:0 0.1 0.4 – 0.2 – – 0.1 0.1 23.5 – –
16:0 10.4 18.2 18.0 19.5 24.0 10.5 15.3 12.3 12.9 10.1 27.0
18:0 3.0 1.9 1.7 2.2 1.8 3.0 6.6 5.1 – 2.5 1.4
20:0 1.2 0.7 – 1.5 – 0.3 0.2 0.2 – 0.3 –
22:0 2.30 0.2 – 1.3 – 0.3 – 0.1 – 0.3 –
24:0 1.4 – – 0.5 – 0.3 – – – 0.2 –
Total SFA 18.3 21.3 19.8 25.2 25.8 14.4 22.2 17.8 36.4 13.4 28.3
16:1 n-7 0.2 0.2 – 0.3 1.2 0.5 – 0.1 – 0.6 25.6
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – –
17:1 n-7 0.1 – – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 47.9 41.7 39.8 37.1 46.0 27.6 40.1 45.7 34.0 21.3 14.9
18:1 n-7 – – – – – 7.9 – – – 9.0 6.8
20:1 n-9 1.3 – – – – 4.0 – 0.2 – 3.7 –
20:1 n-7 – 0.5 – – – 0.5 – – – 0.6 –
22:1 n-9 0.1 – – – – 3.1 – – – 3.4 –
24:1 n-9 – – – – – 2.4 – – – 2.7 –
Total MUFA 49.6 42.4 39.8 37.4 47.2 46.0 40.1 45.9 34.0 41.3 47.2
18:2 n-6 30.3 34.6 37.7 35.5 27.4 29.4 35.9 34.4 20.8 30.8 15.7
18:3 n-3 0.4 1.2 1.3 1.9 – 5.2 0.2 1.4 – 9.0 8.8
18:3 n-6 – – – – – 0.5 – – – 0.8 –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – –
Total PUFA 30.8 35.9 38.9 37.4 27.4 35.1 36.1 35.8 20.8 40.6 24.5
Total n-6 30.3 34.6 37.7 35.5 27.4 29.9 35.9 34.4 20.8 31.6 15.7
Total n-3 0.4 1.2 1.3 1.9 – 5.2 0.2 1.4 – 9.0 8.8
Ratio n-6/n-3 76 29 29 19 – 5.7 180 25 – 3.4 1.8
References [80, 84, [82, [119] [81] [120] [121] [122] [123, 124] [100] [121] [125, 126]
113–115] 116–118]
LA, linoleic acid.

Tab. 4. FA composition of vegetable oils with a PUFA nutritional profile (LA and LA 1 SFA subclasses). 722
PUFA
Subclass LA LA 1 SFA
Name Grape Evening Melon Tobacco Paprika Safflower Salicorn Thumba Black- Cotton Black Water- Cactus Amaranth Niger Walnut Lupin
seed primrose seed seed currant seed cumin melon pear seed
seed seed
V. Dubois et al.
Latin Vitis Oeno- Cucumis Nicotiana Capsicum Cartha- Salicornia ? Ribes Gossy- Nigella Citrullus Opuntia Amaran- Guizotia Juglans Lupinus
vinifera thera melo tabacum annuum mus bigelovii nigrum pium sativa sp. ficus thus hy- abys- regia mexi-
biennis tintorius hirsutum indica pocon- sinica canus
driacus
8:0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
10:0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
12:0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
14:0 – 0.0 0.0 0.7 – – – 9.2 – 0.8 10.5 0.1 0.6 0.3 4.4 0.1 0.4
16:0 4.5 6.0 9.5 9.4 13.8 6.1 7.5 6.9 6.3 24.2 11.0 11.3 27.3 23.1 12.0 10.4 20.8
18:0 2.1 1.6 4.9 – 3.7 2.3 1.5 – 2.0 2.3 3.5 10.2 2.6 3.6 3.0 3.9 5.0
20:0 0.2 0.3 0.2 – – 0.4 – – – 0.2 1.0 – – 0.7 0.2 0.3 0.2
22:0 – 0.1 – – – 0.3 – – – 0.1 0.9 – – 0.2 0.3 0.1 0.0
© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

24:0 – – 0.1 – – 0.1 – – – 0.1 0.3 – – – 0.1 – –
Total SFA 6.7 8.1 14.8 10.1 17.6 9.1 9.0 16.1 8.3 27.8 27.0 21.7 30.4 27.9 20.0 14.8 26.4
16:1 n-7 – 0.1 0.2 – 0.1 0.1 – – – 0.7 0.6 0.3 1.7 0.1 – 0.4 –
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – 0.5
17:1 n-7 – – 0.0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 17.6 8.3 19.4 13.7 14.6 13.4 13.4 19.6 14.4 17.4 19.5 18.1 14.6 25.3 13.5 – 16.9
18:1 n-7 0.8 0.6 – – – – – – 0.9 – – – – – – – –
20:1 n-9 – 0.3 0.1 – – 0.2 – – 1.0 0.1 – – – 0.2 – – –
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:1 n-9 – 0.1 0.4 – – – – – – 0.0 0.9 – – – – – –
24:1 n-9 – – – – – 0.2 – – – – – – – – – – –
Total MUFA 18.4 9.4 20.1 13.7 14.7 13.9 13.4 19.6 16.3 18.2 21.0 18.4 16.3 25.6 13.5 0.4 17.4
18:2 n-6 64.5 73.8 64.1 70.7 67.8 76.0 75.5 62.7 48.3 53.2 48.3 59.6 45.3 45.8 65.4 74.0 47.7
18:3 n-3 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.9 – 0.3 2.0 0.2 11.9 0.2 2.4 0.4 7.3 0.8 0.1 10.0 8.2
18:3 n-6 0.4 9.5 – – – – – – 12.9 – – – 0.3 – – – –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – 1.9 – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – 0.1 – – – – – – 0.3 – – – – – – – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – 0.5 – – – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – 0.5 – – – – – – – – 0.9 – –
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
www.ejlst.com
Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 109 (2007) 710–732
Tab. 4. Continued
PUFA
Subclass LA LA 1 SFA
Name Grape Evening Melon Tobacco Paprika Safflower Salicorn Thumba Black- Cotton Black Water- Cactus Amaranth Niger Walnut Lupin
seed primrose seed seed currant seed cumin melon pear seed
seed seed
Latin Vitis Oeno- Cucumis Nicotiana Capsicum Cartha- Salicornia ? Ribes Gossy- Nigella Citrullus Opuntia Amaran- Guizotia Juglans Lupinus
vinifera thera melo tabacum annuum mus bigelovii nigrum pium sativa sp. ficus thus hy- abys- regia mexi-
biennis tintorius hirsutum indica pocon- sinica canus
driacus
Total PUFA 65.4 83.4 64.3 71.6 67.8 77.3 77.5 62.9 75.3 53.4 50.7 60.0 52.9 46.6 66.5 84.0 55.8
Total n-6 64.9 83.3 64.1 70.7 67.8 76.5 75.5 62.7 61.5 53.2 48.3 59.6 45.6 45.8 65.4 74.0 47.7
Total n-3 0.6 0.1 0.2 0.9 – 0.8 2.0 0.2 13.8 0.2 2.4 0.4 7.3 0.8 1.1 10.0 8.2
Ratio n-6/n-3 108 738 321 79 – 253 38 313 4.1 266 20 149 6.2 57 654 7.4 5.8
References [83, 100, [83, [132] [100] [133] [80, 83, [134] [100] [128] [80, 81, [139] [133] [140] [81] [100, 141][142] [143]
127, 128] 129–131] 134–136] 83, 84,
137, 138]

LA, linoleic acid.
Oil fatty acid profiles & nutritional impact
www.ejlst.com
723
Tab. 5. FA composition of vegetable oils with a PUFA nutritional profile (LA 1 MUFA subclass). 724
PUFA
Subclass LA 1 MUFA
Name Sun- Corn Wheat- Artichoke Sesame Pump- Onion Cumin Borage Quinoa AmaranthAmaranthAfrican Kenaf Soybean Hemp Fenu- Cranberry
flower germ kin seed bean greek seed
Latin Helian- Zea Triticum Cynara Sesa- Cucur- Allium Cumi- Borago Chen- Amaran- Amaran- Pentacle- Hibiscus Glycine Cannabis Trigo- Vacci-
V. Dubois et al.
thus mays aesti- scoly- mum bita cepa num cy- offici- opodium thus thus thra ma- cannabi- max sativa nella nium
annuus vum mus indicum pepo mimum nalis quinua caudatus cruentus crophylla nus foenum– oxy-
graecum coccos
8:0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
10:0 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
12:0 0.5 – – – – – – – – – – 0.7 – 0.5 – – – –
14:0 0.1 – – – 0.1 0.2 0.7 0.2 0.1 0.3 – 0.2 – 0.5 0.1 – 0.2 –
16:0 6.4 12.3 17.5 13.9 9.6 12.8 9.1 12.1 11.9 11.4 15.4 21.3 3.8 20.1 10.8 6.3 10.8 7.8
18:0 4.5 1.9 1.0 3.4 5.0 9.0 4.4 3.4 4.3 0.8 3.5 3.7 0.7 3.2 3.9 2.8 5.1 1.9
20:0 0.3 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.6 – – 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.8 0.7 1.5 0.5 0.3 0.7 2.1 –
22:0 0.8 0.1 – 0.1 0.2 – – – 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.3 3.9 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.9 –
24:0 0.2 0.1 – 0.3 0.1 – – – – – 0.3 – 12.5 0.1 0.3 – – –

Total SFA 12.8 14.8 18.7 18.0 15.7 22.0 14.2 16.0 16.6 13.0 20.4 27.0 22.4 25.1 15.7 10.1 19.1 9.7
16:1 n-7 0.1 0.1 – 0.1 0.2 0.4 – – 0.2 0.1 – 0.3 – 1.6 0.2 – – –
16:1 n-9 – – 1.1 – – – – 1.0 – – – – – – – – – –
17:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 22.1 27.7 19.1 30.0 39.7 25.7 34.3 24.0 18.7 25.6 29.7 31.1 28.2 29.2 23.9 12.1 15.9 22.7
18:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – 0.1 – – 1.2 – – – – – –
20:1 n-9 0.2 0.3 1.6 – 0.2 – – 0.4 3.9 1.0 – 0.3 0.7 0.2 0.1 – 0.8 –
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:1 n-9 0.1 0.0 0.4 – 0.0 – – – 2.1 0.5 – – 1.6 0.7 – – 9.7 –
24:1 n-9 – – 0.2 – – – – – 1.2 – – – – – – – – –
Total MUFA 22.4 28.1 22.4 30.1 40.1 26.1 34.3 25.4 26.1 27.2 29.7 32.9 30.5 31.7 24.2 12.1 26.4 22.7
18:2 n-6 65.6 56.1 55.2 51.2 45.0 51.3 44.6 55.8 38.5 52.8 45.0 40.2 35.8 45.9 52.1 55.9 41.2 44.3
18:3 n-3 0.5 1.0 6.1 – 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 7.0 – 0.7 – 0.7 7.8 19.7 23.2 22.3
18:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – 21.9 – – – – – – 2.8 – –
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:2 n-6 – – 0.2 – 0.1 – – 2.6 0.2 – – – 0.9 – – 0.8 – 1.0
20:3 n-6 – – – – 0.2 – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – 3.7 – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – – –
www.ejlst.com
Tab. 5. Continued
PUFA
Subclass LA 1 MUFA
Name Sun- Corn Wheat- Artichoke Sesame Pump- Onion Cumin Borage Quinoa AmaranthAmaranthAfrican Kenaf Soybean Hemp Fenu- Cranberry
flower germ kin seed bean greek seed
Latin Helian- Zea Triticum Cynara Sesa- Cucur- Allium Cumi- Borago Chen- Amaran- Amaran- Pentacle- Hibiscus Glycine Cannabis Trigo- Vacci-
thus mays aesti- scoly- mum bita cepa num cy- offici- opodium thus thus thra ma- cannabi- max sativa nella nium
annuus vum mus indicum pepo mimum nalis quinua caudatus cruentus crophylla nus foenum– oxy-
graecum coccos
Total PUFA 66.0 57.1 61.5 51.2 45.7 51.5 44.9 58.7 60.9 59.8 45.0 40.9 40.4 46.6 59.8 79.1 64.4 67.6
Total n-6 65.6 56.1 55.4 51.2 45.3 51.3 44.6 58.4 60.6 52.8 45.0 40.2 40.4 45.9 52.1 59.4 41.2 45.3
Total n-3 0.5 1.0 6.1 – 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.4 7.0 – 0.7 – 0.7 7.8 19.7 23.2 22.3
Ratio n-6/n-3 131 56 9.2 – 113 257 149 279 96 7.5 – 57 – 66 6.7 2.8 1.8 2.0
References [80, 83, [80–83, [83, 149, [151] [80–83, [133, [100] [157] [130, [81] [159] [81] [160] [161] [80–85] [83, 157, [163] [157]
84, 94, 146–148]150] 116, 156] 131, 158] 162]

144, 145] 152–155]
LA, linoleic acid.

Oil fatty acid profiles & nutritional impact
www.ejlst.com
725
Tab. 6. FA composition of vegetable oils with a PUFA nutritional profile (ALA 1 MUFA and ALA 1 LA subclasses).
PUFA
Subclass ALA 1 MUFA ALA 1 LA
Name Camelina Lin Perilla Stock Purslane Chia Raspberry Sea buck- Salicorn
seed thorn seed
Latin Camelina Linum usi- Perilla Matthiola Portulaca Salvia Rubus Hippophae Salicornia
sativa tatissimum frutescens tricuspidata oleracea hispanica idaeus rhamnoides europaea
8:0 – – – – – – – – –
10:0 – – – – – – – – –
12:0 – – – – – – – – –
14:0 – – – – 0.2 – – – 1.3
16:0 5.3 6.1 9.1 9.5 16.4 6.8 2.7 8.4 21.6
18:0 3.0 3.4 2.7 6.0 3.6 3.2 1.0 2.8 2.9
20:0 1.4 0.5 – – 1.2 – – – 2.4
22:0 – – – – 0.1 – – – 2.5
24:0 – – – – 0.2 – – – –
Total SFA 9.7 10.0 11.9 15.5 21.7 10.0 3.7 11.1 30.6
16:1 n-7 – 0.1 – – – – – – 1.4
16:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – –
17:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – –
18:1 n-9 18.7 18.4 18.4 26.6 11.8 7.3 12.0 19.2 4.4
18:1 n-7 – – – – – – – 2.3 1.5
20:1 n-9 11.6 – – – – – – – –
20:1 n-7 – – – – – – – – –
22:1 n-9 2.5 – – – – – – – –
24:1 n-9 – – – – – – – – –
Total MUFA 32.8 18.5 18.4 26.6 11.8 7.3 12.0 21.5 7.3
18:2 n-6 16.0 16.8 14.9 12.4 34.1 19.8 54.5 38.5 23.5
18:3 n-3 38.1 55.0 55.0 43.9 32.4 61.3 29.1 28.8 28.0
18:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – 0.6
18:4 n-3 – – – – – – – – 0.4
20:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – –
20:3 n-6 – – – – – – – – –
20:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – –
20:5 n-3 – – – – – – – – 0.4
22:2 n-6 – – – – – – – – –
22:4 n-6 – – – – – – – – 1.9
Total PUFA 54.1 71.8 69.9 56.3 66.5 81.1 83.6 67.3 54.8
Total n-6 16.0 16.8 14.9 12.4 34.1 19.8 54.5 38.5 25.9
Total n-3 38.1 55.0 55.0 43.9 32.4 61.3 29.1 28.8 28.9
Ratio n-6/n-3 0.4 0.3 0.3 0.3 1.1 0.3 1.9 1.3 0.8
References [173] [83, 116, [82, 174] [129] [175, 176] [129, 177, [135] [125, 126] [175]
136] 178]
ALA, a-linolenic acid; LA, linoleic acid.
ed. Let’s just mention cod liver [185, 186], salmon [187, The first one is the food grade status. Indeed, perilla oil
188], anchovy [185] or sardine oils [185, 189] as the major received an unfavorable report from the French council on
available marine sources of LC-PUFA. public health [190], which stated that the use of perilla oil
is not recommended in the human diet, even in dietetic
Concerning the vegetable sources presented in this supplements. Linseed oil was also historically forbidden
review, two difficulties are standing against their use in the in France [191], but a more recent report recommended
food industry. its use in food products, which opened a way for new

health-oriented goods [192]. Concerning the other [8] C. Alais, G. Linden: Lipides. In: Biochimie Alimentaire. 2nd
sources, the first food company who will want to use them Edn. Eds. C. Alais, G. Linden, Masson, Paris (France) 1991,
pp. 55–73.
will have to obtain a “novel food safety agreement”,
[9] T. Brody: Vitamins. In: Nutritional Biochemistry. 2nd Edn. Ed.
delivered by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), T. Brody, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (USA) 1999, pp.
which is a long and tough procedure. 491–692.
[10] M. Y. Abeywardena, R. J. Head: Long chain n-3 poly-
The second difficulty is the availability and sustainability unsaturated fatty acids and blood vessel function. Cardio-
vasc Res. 2001, 52, 361–371.
of these sources. In fact, even if camelina, perilla, linseed
[11] M. Y. Abeywardena, P. L. McLennan, J. S. Charnock: Differ-
and sea buckthorn oils do exist in industrial quantities, i.e.
ential effects of dietary fish oil on myocardial pros-
providers are proposing these products as food ingre- taglandin I2 and thromboxane A2 production. Am J Physiol.
dients, this is not the same nowadays for raspberry seed, 1992, 260, H379–H385.
chia, purslane, stock or salicorn oils. Industrial-scale [12] H. A. Lehr, C. Hubner, B. Finckh, D. Nolte, U. Beisiegel, A.
production of chia was launched in Argentina 10 years Kohlschutter, K. Messmer: Dietary fish oil reduces leuko-
cyte/endothelium interaction following systemic adminis-
ago, but it seems that they encountered some sustain- tration of oxidatively modified low density lipoprotein. Cir-
ability problems because this product is not yet available culation. 1991, 84, 1725–1731.
on the edible oil sources market. Purslane is maybe a [13] J. Jeppesen, H. O. Hein, P. Suadicani, F. Gyntelberg: Rela-
promising one as it has been used in Greece, especially in tion of high TG-low HDL-cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol to
the incidence of ischemic heart disease. Arterioscler
Crete, for cattle feeding. Thromb Vasc Biol. 1997, 17, 1114–1120.
[14] D. L. Sprecher, T. R. Watkins, S. Behar, W. V. Brown, H. B.
Taken altogether, these difficulties have not allowed the Rubins, E. J. Schaefer: Importance of high-density lipopro-
food industry to use alternative nutritionally interesting oil tein cholesterol and triglyceride levels in coronary heart dis-
ease. Am J Cardiol. 2003, 91, 575–580.
sources in manufactured goods. If a trend has been seen
[15] P. Cullen: Evidence that triglycerides are an independent
toward an improved FA profile of products such as
coronary heart disease risk factor. Am J Cardiol. 2000, 86,
spreads and margarines, the majority of food products 943–949.
containing important amounts of hidden fats has not paid [16] J. P. Despres, I. Lemieux, G. R. Dagenais, B. Cantin, B.
attention with regard to this important nutritional issue. In Lamarche: HDL-cholesterol as a marker of coronary heart
these cases, economics remains the major criterion for disease risk: The Quebec cardiovascular study. Athero-
sclerosis. 2000, 153, 263–272.
formulation, leading to the use of the traditional, cheap
[17] L. E. Eberly, J. Stamler, J. D. Neaton, Multiple Risk Factor
sources. Intervention Trial Research Group: Relation of triglyceride
levels, fasting and nonfasting, to fatal and nonfatal coronary
heart disease. Arch Intern Med. 2003, 163, 1077–1083.
[18] W. H. Frishman: Biologic markers as predictors of cardio-
References vascular disease. Am J Med. 1998, 104, 18S–27S.
[19] P. M. Kris-Etherton, K. D. Hecker, A. E. Binkoski: Poly-
[1] P. Legrand, J. M. Bourre, B. Descomps, G. Durand, S. unsaturated fatty acids and cardiovascular health. Nutr Rev.
Renaud: Lipides. In: Apports Nutritionnels Conseillés pour la 2004, 62, 414–426.
Population Française. 3rd Edn. Ed. A. Martin, Lavoisier Tec & [20] H. M. Roche, M. J. Gibney: Effect of long-chain n-3 poly-
Doc, Paris (France) 2001, pp. 63–82. unsaturated fatty acids on fasting and postprandial tria-
[2] M. Naudet, J. Soulier, M. Farines: Principaux constituants cylglycerol metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr. 2000, 71 (Suppl.),
chimiques des corps gras. In: Manuel des Corps Gras. Vol. 1. 232S–237S.
Ed. A. Karleskind, Lavoisier Tec & Doc, Paris (France) 1992, [21] T. Brody: Lipids. In: Nutritional Biochemistry. 2nd Edn. Ed. T.
pp. 65–115. Brody, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (USA) 1999, pp.
[3] J. P. Poisson, M. Narce: Corps gras alimentaires: Aspects 311–378.
chimiques et biochimiques. In: Lipides et Corps Gras Ali- [22] W. J. Simmonds: Fat absorption and chylomicron formation.
mentaires. Ed. J. Graille, Lavoisier Tec & Doc, Paris (France) In: Blood Lipids and Lipoproteins: Quantitation, Composi-
2003, pp. 1–50. tion and Metabolism. Ed. G. J. Nelson, John Wiley & Sons,
[4] J. E. Hunter: Studies on effects of dietary fatty acids as relat- Inc., New York, NY (USA) 1972, pp. 705–744.
ed to their position on triglycerides. Lipids. 2001, 36, 655– [23] V. G. Shore, B. Shore: The apolipoproteins: Their structure
668. and functional roles in human-serum lipoproteins. In: Blood
[5] W. M. N. Ratnayake, J. K. Daun: Chemical composition of Lipids and Lipoproteins: Quantitation, Composition and
canola and rapeseed oils. In: Rapeseed and Canola Oil: Pro- Metabolism. Ed. G. J. Nelson, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New
duction, Processing, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gun- York, NY (USA) 1972, pp. 789–824.
stone, Blackwell Publishing, Oxford (UK) 2004, pp. 37–78. [24] T. Brody: Digestion and absorption. In: Nutritional Biochem-
[6] F. D. Gunstone: Structure of fatty acids and lipids. In: The istry. 2nd Edn. Ed. T. Brody, Academic Press, San Diego, CA
Chemistry of Oils and Fats. Sources, Compositions, Proper- (USA) 1999, pp. 57–132.
ties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing, [25] J. A. Glomset: Plasma lecithin:cholesterol acyltransferase.
Oxford (UK) 2004, pp. 50–75. In: Blood Lipids and Lipoproteins: Quantitation, Composi-
[7] S. M. Grundy, M. A. Denke: Dietary influences on serum lipids tion and Metabolism. Ed. G. J. Nelson, John Wiley & Sons,
and lipoproteins. J Lipid Res. 1990, 31, 1149–1172. Inc., New York, NY (USA) 1972, pp. 745–788.

[26] J. M. R. Frenoux, E. D. Prost, J. L. Belleville, J. L. Prost: A [44] F. H. Mattson, S. M. Grundy: Comparison of effects of diet-
polyunsaturated fatty acid diet lowers blood pressure and ary saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty
improves antioxidant status in spontaneously hypertensive acids on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man. J Lipid Res.
rats. J Nutr. 2001, 131, 39–45. 1985, 26, 194–202.
[27] J. T. Salonen, R. Salonen, K. Seppanen, R. Rauramaa, J. [45] V. Wijendran, K. C. Hayes: Dietary n-6 and n-3 fatty acid
Tuomilehto: HDL, HDL2, and HDL3 subfractions, and the risk balance and cardiovascular health. Annu Rev Nutr. 2004, 24,
of acute myocardial infarction; a prospective population 597–615.
study in Eastern Finnish men. Circulation. 1991, 84, 129– [46] D. F. Horrobin, Y. S. Huang: The role of linoleic acid and its
139. metabolites in the lowering of plasma cholesterol and the
[28] A. Keys, J. T. Anderson, F. Grande: Serum cholesterol re- prevention of cardiovascular disease. Int J Cardiol. 1987, 17,
sponse to changes in the diet. IV: Particular saturated fatty 241–255.
acids in the diet. Metabolism. 1965, 14, 776–787. [47] M. Lasserre, F. Mendy, D. Spielmann, B. Jacotot: Effects of
[29] D. M. Hegsted, R. B. McGandy, M. L. Myers, F. J. Stare: different dietary intake of essential fatty acids on C20:3
Quantitative effects of dietary fat on serum cholesterol in omega6 and C20:4 omega6 serum levels in human adults.
man. Am J Clin Nutr. 1965, 17, 281–295. Lipids. 1985, 20, 227–233.
[30] P. M. Kris–Etherton, S. Yu: Individual fatty acid effects on [48] M. de Lorgeril, P. Salen, J. L. Martin, I. Monjaud, J. Delaye,
plasma lipids and lipoproteins: Human studies. Am J Clin N. Mamelle: Mediterranean diet, traditional risk factors, and
Nutr. 1997, 65 (Suppl.), 1628S–1644S. the rate of cardiovascular complications after myocardial
[31] P. Khosla, K. Sundram: Effects of dietary fatty acid compo- infarction. Circulation. 1999, 99, 779–785.
sition on plasma cholesterol. Prog Lipid Res. 1996, 35, 93– [49] R. B. Singh, M. A. Niaz, J. P. Sharma, R. Kumar, V. Rastogi,
132. M. Moshiri: Randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
[32] S. Kubow: The influence of positional distribution of fatty trial of fish oil and mustard oil in patients with suspected
acids in native, interesterified and structure-specific lipids acute myocardial infarction: The Indian Experiment of Infarct
on lipoprotein metabolism and atherogenesis. J Nutr Bio- Survival-4. Cardiovasc Drugs Ther. 1997, 11, 485–491.
chem. 1996, 7, 530–541. [50] C. M. Oomen, M. C. Ocke, E. J. M. Feskens, F. J. Kok, D.
[33] A. Bonanome, S. M. Grundy: Effect of dietary stearic acid on Kromhout: Alpha-linolenic acid intake is not beneficially
plasma cholesterol and lipoprotein levels. N Engl J Med. associated with 10-year risk of coronary artery disease inci-
1988, 318, 1244–1248. dence: The Zutphen Elderly Study. Am J Clin Nutr. 2001, 74,
457–463.
[34] K. C. Hayes, P. Khosla: Dietary fatty acid thresholds and
cholesterolemia. FASEB J. 1992, 6, 2600–2607. [51] Y. E. Finnegan, A. M. Minihane, E. C. Leigh-Firbank, S. Kew,
G. W. Meijer, R. Muggli, P. C. Calder, C. M. Williams: Plant-
[35] K. A. Hunter, L. C. Crosbie, A. Weir, G. J. Miller, A. K. Dutta- and marine-derived n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids have
Roy: A residential study comparing the effects of diets rich in differential effects on fasting and postprandial blood lipid
stearic acid, oleic acid, and linoleic acid on fasting blood concentrations and on the susceptibility of LDL to oxidative
lipids, haemostatic variables and platelets in young healthy modification in moderately hyperlipidemic subjects. Am J
men. J Nutr Biochem. 2000, 11, 408–416. Clin Nutr. 2003, 77, 783–795.
[36] R. Clarke, C. Frost, R. Collins, P. Appleby, R. Peto: Dietary [52] E. Ros, I. Nunez, A. Perez–Heras, M. Serra, R. Gilabert, E.
lipids and blood cholesterol: Quantitative meta-analysis of Casals, R. Deulofeu: A walnut diet improves endothelial
metabolic ward studies. BMJ 1997, 314, 112–117. function in hypercholesterolemic subjects. Circulation.
[37] S. Bennett Clark, A. Derksen, D. M. Small: Plasma clearance 2004, 109, 1609–1614.
of emulsified triolein in conscious rats: Effects of phospha- [53] M. Indu, Ghafoorunissa: n-3 Fatty acids in Indian diets.
tidylcholine species, cholesterol content and emulsion sur- Comparison of the effects of precursor (a-linolenic acid) vs.
face physical state. Exp Physiol. 1991, 76, 39–52. product (long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids). Nutr
[38] R. L. Jackson, M. L. Kashyap, R. L. Barnhart, C. Allen, E. Res. 1992, 12, 569–582.
Hogg, C. J. Glueck: Influence of polyunsaturated and satu- [54] P. Wilkinson, C. Leach, E. E. Ah-Sing, N. Hussain, G. J.
rated fats on plasma lipids and lipoproteins in man. Am J Miller, D. J. Millward, B. A. Griffin: Influence of alpha-lino-
Clin Nutr. 1984, 39, 589–597. lenic acid and fish oil on markers of cardiovascular risk in
[39] W. S. Harris: n-3 Fatty acids and serum lipoproteins: Human subjects with an atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype. Ather-
studies. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997, 65 (Suppl.), 1645S–1654S. osclerosis. 2005, 181, 115–124.
[40] W. S. Harris: Fish oils and plasma lipids and lipoprotein me- [55] G. Zhao, T. D. Etherton, K. R. Martin, S. G. West, P. J. Gillies,
tabolism in humans: A critical review. J Lipid Res. 1989, 30, P. M. Kris-Etherton: Dietary alpha-linolenic acid reduces
785–807. inflammatory and lipid cardiovascular risk factors in
[41] S. M. Grundy: Comparison of monounsaturated fatty acids hypercholesterolemic men and women. J Nutr. 2004, 134,
and carbohydrates for lowering plasma cholesterol. N Engl J 2991–2997.
Med. 1986, 314, 745–748. [56] R. B. Singh, G. Dubnov, M. A. Niaz, S. Ghosh, R. Singh, S. S.
[42] J. T. Judd, D. J. Baer, B. A. Clevidence, R. A. Muesing, S. C. Rastogi, O. Manor, D. Pella, E. M. Berry: Effect of an Indo-
Chen, J. A. Weststrate, G. W. Meijer, J. Wittes, A. H. Lich- Mediterranean diet on progression of coronary artery dis-
tenstein, M. Vilella-Bach, E. J. Schaefer: Effects of margar- ease in high risk patients (Indo-Mediterranean Diet Heart
ine compared with those of butter on blood lipid profiles Study): A randomised single-blind trial. Lancet. 2002, 360,
related to cardiovascular disease risk factors in normolip- 1455–1461.
emic adults fed controlled diets. Am J Clin Nutr. 1998, 68, [57] R. B. Singh, S. S. Rastogi, R. Verma, B. Laxmi, R. Singh, S.
768–777. Ghosh, M. A. Niaz: Randomized controlled trial of cardio-
[43] R. Wood, K. Kubena, B. O’Brien, S. Tseng, G. Martin: Effect protective diet in patients with recent acute myocardial
of butter, mono and polyunsaturated fatty acid-enriched infarction: Results of one year follow up. BMJ. 1992, 304,
butter, trans fatty acid margarine, and zero trans fatty acid 1015–1019.
margarine on serum lipids and lipoproteins in healthy men. J [58] P. Sanderson, Y. E. Finnegan, C. M. Williams, P. C. Calder, G.
Lipid Res. 1993, 34, 1–11. C. Burdge, S. A. Wootton, B. A. Griffin, D. J. Millward, N. C.

Pegge, W. J. E. Bemelmans: UK food standards agency [73] N. Okuda, H. Ueshima, A. Okayama, S. Saitoh, H. Naka-
alpha-linolenic acid workshop report. Br J Nutr. 2002, 88, gawa, B. L. Rodriguez, K. Sakata, S. R. Choudhury, J. D.
573–579. Curb, J. Stamler for the INTERLIPID Research Group: Rela-
[59] Y. K. Lungershausen, M. Abbey, P. J. Nestel, P. R. C. Howe: tion of long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake to
Reduction of blood pressure and plasma triglycerides by serum high density lipoprotein cholesterol among Japanese
omega-3 fatty acids in treated hypertensives. J Hypertens. men in Japan and Japanese-American men in Hawaii: The
1994, 12, 1041–1045. INTERLIPID study. Atherosclerosis. 2005, 178, 371–379.
[60] S. Grimsgaard, K. H. Bonaa, J. B. Hansen, A. Nordoy: Highly [74] P. E. Kahl, E. Schimke, R. Hildebrandt, J. Beitz, I. Schimke,
purified eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid H. Beitz, H. Mrochen, H. J. Mest: The influence of cod-liver
in humans have similar triacylglycerol-lowering effects but oil diet on various lipid metabolism parameters, the throm-
divergent effects on serum fatty acids. Am J Clin Nutr. 1997, boxane formation capacity, platelet function and the serum
66, 649–659. MDA level in patients suffering from myocardial infarction.
Cor Vasa. 1987, 19, 199–208.
[61] J. Goodfellow, M. F. Bellamy, M. W. Ramsey, C. J. H. Jones,
M. J. Lewis: Dietary supplementation with marine omega-3 [75] H. Dabadie, E. Peuchant, M. Bernard, P. LeRuyet, F. Mendy:
fatty acids improve systemic large artery endothelial func- Moderate intake of myristic acid in sn-2 position has bene-
tion in subjects with hypercholesterolemia. J Am Coll Car- ficial lipidic effects and enhances DHA of cholesteryl esters in
diol. 2000, 35, 265–270. an interventional study. J Nutr Biochem. 2005, 16, 375–382.
[62] T. A. Mori, G. F. Watts, V. Burke, E. Hilme, I. B. Puddey, L. J. [76] K. D. Dotson, J. P. Jerrell, M. F. Picciano, E. G. Perkins: High-
Beilin: Differential effects of eicosapentaenoic acid and performance liquid chromatography of human milk tria-
docosahexaenoic acid on vascular reactivity of the forearm cylglycerols and gas chromatography of component fatty
microcirculation in hyperlipidemic, overweight men. Circu- acids. Lipids. 1992, 27, 933–939.
lation. 2000, 102, 1264–1269. [77] B. C. Mortimer, M. A. Kenrick, D. J. Holthouse, R. V. Stick, T.
[63] C. Torres, L. Mira, C. P. Ornelas, A. Melim: Study of the G. Redgrave: Plasma clearance of model lipoproteins con-
effects of dietary fish intake on serum lipids and lipoproteins taining saturated and polyunsaturated monoacylglycerols
in two populations with different dietary habits. Br J Nutr. injected intravenously in the rat. Biochim Biophys Acta.
2000, 83, 371–379. 1992, 1127, 67–73.
[64] P. Singer, M. Wirth: Can n-3 PUFA reduce cardiac arrhyth- [78] T. G. Redgrave, D. R. Kodali, D. M. Small: The effect of tria-
mias? Results of a clinical trial. Prostaglandins Leukot cyl-sn-glycerol structure on the metabolism of chylomicrons
Essent Fatty Acids. 2004, 71, 153–159. and triacylglycerol-rich emulsions in the rat. J Biol Chem.
1988, 263, 5118–5123.
[65] P. Singer, M. Wirth, I. Berger, S. Voigt, U. Gerike, W. Godicke,
U. Koberle, H. Heine: Influence on serum lipids, lipoproteins [79] J. Klere, J. C. Barsacq, A. Uzzan, A. Karleskind, J. M. Hochard:
and blood pressure of mackerel and herring diet in patients Généralités. In: Manuel des Corps Gras. Vol. 1. Ed. A. Karles-
with type IV and V hyperlipoproteinemia. Atherosclerosis. kind, Lavoisier Tec & Doc, Paris (France) 1992, pp. 1–64.
1985, 56, 111–118. [80] E. Christopoulou, M. Lazaraki, M. Komaitis, K. Kaselimis:
[66] GISSI-Prevenzione: Administration de compléments ali- Effectiveness of determination of fatty acids and triglycer-
mentaires à base d’acides gras polyinsaturés n-3 et de ides for the detection of adulteration of olive oils with vege-
vitamine E après un infarctus du myocarde: Résultats de table oils. Food Chem. 2004, 84, 463–474.
l’essai GISSI-Prevenzione. Lancet North Am Ed. 1999, 354, [81] F. Jahaniaval, Y. Kakuda, M. F. Marcone: Fatty acid and tria-
447–455. cylglycerol compositions of seed oils of five Amaranthus
[67] GISSI-Prevenzione: Early protection against sudden death accessions and their comparison to other oils. J Am Oil
by n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids after myocardial infarc- Chem Soc. 2000, 77, 847–852.
tion. Time-course analysis of the results of the Gruppo Ita- [82] D. S. Lee, B. S. Noh, S. Y. Bae, K. Kim: Characterization of
liano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Mio- fatty acids composition in vegetable oils by gas chroma-
cardico (GISSI)-Prevenzione. Circulation. 2002, 105, 1897– tography and chemometrics. Anal Chim Acta. 1998, 358,
1903. 163–175.
[68] D. Prisco, R. Paniccia, B. Bandinelli, M. Filippini, I. Franca- [83] A. Youdim, A. Martin, J. A. Joseph: Essential fatty acids and
lanci, B. Giusti, L. Giurlani, G. F. Gensini, R. Abbate, G. G. the brain: Possible health implications. Int J Dev Neurosci.
Neri Serneri: Effect of medium-term supplementation with a 2000, 18, 383–399.
moderate dose of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids on blood [84] T. Wang: Soybean oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food Technology,
pressure in mild hypertensive patients. Thromb Res. 1998, Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone,
91, 105–112. Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp. 18–58.
[69] J. Dallongeville, J. Yarnell, P. Ducimetiere, D. Arveiler, J. [85] E. F. Sipos, B. F. Szuhaj: Soybean oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial
Ferrieres, M. Montaye, G. Luc, A. Evans, A. Bingham, B. Oil and Fat Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil and
Hass, J. B. Ruidavets, P. Amouyel: Fish consumption is Oilseeds. 5th Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons, Inc.,
associated with lower heart rates. Circulation. 2003, 108, New York, NY (USA) 1996, pp. 497–602.
820–825. [86] R. Przybylski, T. Mag: Canola/rapeseed oil. In: Vegetable
[70] G. S. Rambjor, A. I. Walen, S. L. Windsor, W. S. Harris: Oils in Food Technology, Composition, Properties and Uses.
Eicosapentaenoic acid is primarily responsible for hypo- Ed. F. D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK)
triglyceridemic effect of fish oil in humans. Lipids. 1996, 31, 2002, pp. 98–127.
S45–S49. [87] T. Saikusa, K. Kitta, Y. Ohkawa, Y. Fujii, S. Kouzai, Y. Mori:
[71] T. Saldeen, R. Wallin, I. Marklinder: Effects of a small dose of Edible properties of Cuphea seed oil. Nippon Shokuhin
stable fish oil substituted for margarine in bread on plasma Kagaku Kogaku Kaishi. 2001, 48, 210–213.
phospholipid fatty acids and serum triglycerides. Nutr Res. [88] R. Laureles, F. M. Rodriguez, C. E. Reano, G. A. Santos, A.
1998, 18, 1483–1492. C. Laurena, E. M. Tecson Mendoza: Variability in fatty acid
[72] D. M. Demke, G. R. Peters, O. I. Linet, C. M. Metzler, K. A. and triacylglycerol composition of the oil of coconut (Cocos
Klott: Effects of a fish oil concentrate in patients with nucifera L.) hybrids and their parentals. J Agric Food Chem.
hypercholesterolemia. Atherosclerosis. 1988, 70, 73–80. 2002, 50, 1581–1586.

[89] T. P. Pantzaris, Y. Basiron: The lauric oils. In: Vegetable Oils istics and oxidative stability. J Agric Food Chem. 2003, 51,
in Food Technology, Composition, Properties and Uses. 3797–3805.
Ed. F. D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) [106] A. Kaijser, P. Dutta, G. Savage: Oxidative stability and lipid
2002, pp. 157–202. composition of macadamia nuts grown in New Zealand.
[90] E. C. Canapi, Y. T. V. Agustin, E. A. Moro, E. Pedrosa, Jr., M. Food Chem. 2000, 71, 67–70.
L. J. Bendano: Coconut oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat [107] O. Moreno, L. Dorantes, J. Galindez, R. I. Guzman: Effect
Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil and Oilseeds. 5th of different extraction methods on fatty acids, volatile
Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY compounds, and physical and chemical properties of avo-
(USA) 1996, pp. 97–124. cado (Persea americana Mill.) oil. J Agric Food Chem.
[91] D. Bereau, B. Benjelloun-Mlayah, J. Banoub, R. Bravo: FA 2003, 51, 2216–2221.
and unsaponifiable composition of five Amazonian palm [108] M. H. Abd El-Aal, M. K. M. Khalil, E. H. Rahma: Apricot
kernel oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2003, 80, 49–53. kernel oil: Characterization, chemical composition and uti-
[92] J. Bandelier, T. Chunhieng, M. Olle, D. Montet: Original lization in some baked products. Food Chem. 1986, 19,
study of the biochemical and oil composition of the Cam- 287–298.
bodia nut Irvingia malayana. J Agric Food Chem. 2002, 50, [109] J. P. H. Linssen, G. M. Kielman, J. L. Cozijnsen, W. Pilnik:
1478–1482. Comparison of chufa and olive oils. Food Chem. 1988, 28,
[93] L. A. Gioielli, R. N. M. Pitombo, A. M. Pinheiro, A. M. T. M. 279–285.
Balbo: Water relations in freeze-dried powdered short- [110] O. Eromosele, I. C. Eromosele: Fatty acid compositions of
enings from Babassu fat. J Food Process Eng. 1998, 37, seed oils of Haematostaphis barteri and Ximenia amer-
411–421. icana. Bioresour Technol. 2002, 82, 303–304.
[94] H. M. D. Noor Lida, K. Sundram, W. L. Siew, A. Aminah, S. [111] Y. P. Wang, J. S. Tang, C. Q. Chu, J. Tian: A preliminary
Mamot: TAG composition and solid fat content of palm oil, study on the introduction and cultivation of Crambe abys-
sunflower oil, and palm kernel olein blends before and after sinica in China, an oil plant for industrial uses. Ind Crops
chemical interesterification. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2002, 79, Prod. 2000, 12, 47–52.
1137–1144.
[112] H. J. Thomasson, J. Boldingh: The biological value of oils
[95] N. Rajanaidu, A. Kushari, A. Rafii, A. Mohd Din, I. Maizura,
and fats. II. The growth-retarding substance in rapeseed
B. S. Jalani: Oil palm breeding and genetic resources. In:
oil. J Nutr. 1955, 56, 469–475.
Advances in Oil Palm Research. Eds. B. Yusof, B. S. Jalani,
K. W. Chan, Malaysian Palm Oil Board (Malaysia) 2000, pp. [113] A. Dorschel: Characterization of the TAG of peanut oil by
171–224. electrospray LC-MS-MS. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2002, 79,
749–753.
[96] S. W. Lin: Palm oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food Technology,
Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone, [114] T. Young: Peanut oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp. 59–97. Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil and Oilseeds. 5th
Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
[97] Y. Kakuda, F. Jahaniaval, M. F. Marcone, L. Montevirgen, Q.
NY (USA) 1996, pp. 377–392.
Montevirgen, J. Umali: Characterization of pili nut (Canar-
ium ovatum) oil: Fatty acid and triacylglycerol composition [115] T. H. Sanders: Groundnut (peanut) oil. In: Vegetable Oils in
and physicochemical properties. J Am Oil Chem Soc. Food Technology, Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed.
2000, 77, 991–996. F. D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK)
2002, pp. 231–243.
[98] M. Lipp, E. Anklam: Review of cocoa butter and alternative
fats for use in chocolate. Part A: Compositional data. Food [116] S. P. Kochhar: Sesame, rice-bran and flaxseed oils. In:
Chem. 1998, 62, 73–97. Vegetable Oils in Food Technology, Composition, Proper-
ties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing
[99] J. A. Solis-Fuentes, M. C. Duran-de-Bazua: Mango seed
Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp. 297–326.
uses: Thermal behaviour of mango seed almond fat and its
mixture with cocoa butter. Bioresour Technol. 2004, 92, 71– [117] F. Marini, F. Balestrieri, R. Bucci, A. L. Magri, D. Marini:
78. Supervised pattern recognition to discriminate the geo-
[100] P. Udayasekhara Rao: Nutrient composition of some less- graphical origin of rice bran oils: A first study. Microchem J.
familiar oil seeds. Food Chem. 1994, 50, 379–382. 2003, 74, 239–248.
[101] D. Boskou: Olive oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food Technology, [118] T. Orthoefer: Rice bran oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat
Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone, Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil and Oilseeds. 5th
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp. 244–277. Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
NY (USA) 1996, pp. 393–410.
[102] L. Mannina, G. Dugo, F. Salvo, L. Cicero, G. Ansanelli, C.
Calcagni, A. Segre: Study of the cultivar-composition rela- [119] M. X. Zhou, M. G. Holmes, K. Robards, S. Helliwell: Fatty
tionship in Sicilian olive oils by GC, NMR, and statistical acid composition of lipids of Australian oats. J Cereal Sci.
methods. J Agric Food Chem. 2003, 51, 120–127. 1998, 28, 311–319.
[103] D. Ollivier, J. Artaud, C. Pinatel, J. P. Durbec, M. Guerere: [120] M. Yousfi, B. Nedjmi, R. Bellal, D. Ben Bertal, G. Palla: Fatty
Triacylglycerol and fatty acid compositions of French virgin acids and sterols of Pistacia atlantica fruit oil. J Am Oil
olive oils, characterization by chemometrics. J Agric Food Chem Soc. 2002, 79, 1049–1050.
Chem. 2003, 51, 5723–5731. [121] F. Destaillats, J. B. Jean–Denis, J. Arul, R. L. Wolff, P.
[104] A. Ranalli, L. Pollastri, S. Contento, G. di Loreto, E. Ian- Angers: Fatty acid composition and regiospecific analysis
nucci, L. Lucera, F. Russi: Acylglycerol and fatty acid com- of Acer saccharum (sugar maple tree) and Acer sacchar-
ponents of pulp, seed, and whole olive fruit oils; their use to inum (silver maple tree) seed oils. J Am Oil Chem Soc.
characterize fruit variety by chemometrics. J Agric Food 2002, 79, 1091–1094.
Chem. 2002, 50, 3775–3779. [122] V. M. Gandhi, K. M. Cherian, M. J. Mulky: Toxicological stud-
[105] C. Alasalvar, F. Shahidi, T. Ohshima, U. Wanasundara, H. C. ies on Ratanjyot oil. Food Chem Toxicol. 1995, 33, 39–42.
Yurttas, C. M. Liyanapathirana, F. B. Rodrigues: Turkish [123] T. Rezanka, H. Rezankova: Characterization of fatty acids
Tombul hazelnut (Corylus avellana L.). 2. Lipid character- and triacylglycerols in vegetable oils by gas chromatogra-

phy and statistical analysis. Anal Chim Acta. 1999, 398, [142] G. Tsamouris, S. Hatziantoniou, C. Demetzos: Lipid analy-
253–261. sis of Greek walnut oil (Juglans regia L.). Z Naturforsch C.
[124] Z. Charrouf, D. Guillaume: Ethnoeconomical; ethnomedi- 2002, 57, 51–56.
cal, and phytochemical study of Argania spinosa (L.) [143] P. M. Garcia-Lopez, M. Muzquiz, M. A. Ruiz-Lopez, J. F.
skeels. J Ethnopharmacol. 1999, 67, 7–14. Zamora-Natera, C. Burbano, M. M. Pedrosa, C. Cuadrado,
[125] H. Kallio, B. Yang, P. Peippo, R. Tahvonen, R. Pan: Tria- P. Garzon-de la Mora: Chemical composition and fatty acid
cylglycerols, glycerophospholipids, tocopherols, and profile of several Mexican wild lupins. J Food Compost
tocotrienols in berries and seeds of two subspecies (ssp. Anal. 2001, 14, 645–651.
sinensis and mongolica) of sea buckthorn (Hippophae [144] A. Guinda, M. C. Dobarganes, M. V. Ruiz-Mendez, M.
rhamnoides). J Agric Food Chem. 2002, 50, 3004–3009. Mancha: Chemical and physical properties of a sunflower
[126] B. Yang, H. P. Kallio: Fatty acid composition of lipids in sea oil with high levels of oleic and palmitic acids. Eur J Lipid
buckthorn (Hippophae rhamnoides L.) berries of different Sci Technol. 2003, 105, 130–137.
origins. J Agric Food Chem. 2001, 49, 1939–1947. [145] M. K. Gupta: Sunflower oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food
Technology, Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D.
[127] X. Cao, Y. Ito: Supercritical fluid extraction of grape seed oil
Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp.
and subsequent separation of free fatty acids by high-
128–156.
speed counter-current chromatography. J Chromatogr.
2003, 1021, 117–124. [146] F. D. Goffman, T. Bohme: Relationship between fatty acid
profile and vitamin E content in maize hybrids (Zea
[128] H. Sovova, M. Zarevucka, M. Vacek, K. Stransky: Solubility
mays L.). J Agric Food Chem. 2001, 49, 4990–4994.
of two vegetable oils in supercritical CO2. J Supercrit
Fluids. 2001, 20, 15–28. [147] A. Moreau: Corn oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food Technology,
Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. Gunstone,
[129] B. Heuer, Z. Yaniv, I. Ravina: Effect of late salinization of
Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, pp. 278–296.
chia (Salvia hispanica), stock (Matthiola tricuspidata) and
evening primrose (Oenothera biennis) on their oil content [148] L. R. Strecker, M. A. Bieber, A. Maza, T. Grossberger, W. J.
and quality. Ind Crops Prod. 2002, 15, 163–167. Doskoczynski: Corn oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat
Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil and Oilseeds. 5th
[130] R. Redden, Y. S. Huang, X. Lin, D. F. Horrobin: Separation Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York,
and quantification of the triacylglycerols in evening prim- NY (USA) 1996, pp. 125–158.
rose and borage oils by reversed-phase high-performance
liquid chromatography. J Chromatogr. 1995, 694, 381–389. [149] N. T. Dunford, M. Zhang: Pressurized solvent extraction of
wheat germ oil. Food Res Intern. 2003, 36, 905–909.
[131] S. P. J. N. Senanayake, F. Shahidi: Chemical and stability
characteristics of structured lipids from borage (Borago [150] G. Panfili, L. Cinquata, A. Fratianni, R. Cubadda: Extraction
officinalis L.) and evening primrose (Oenothera biennis L.) of wheat germ oil by supercritical CO2: Oil and defatted
oils. J Food Sci. 2002, 67, 2038–2045. cake characterization. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2003, 80, 157–
161.
[132] M. L. S. de Melo, N. Narain, P. S. Bora: Characterization of
some nutritional constituents of melon (Cucumis melo [151] A. Miceli, P. de Leo: Extraction, characterization and utili-
hybrid AF-522) seeds. Food Chem. 2000, 68, 411–414. zation of artichoke seed oil. Bioresour Technol. 1996, 57,
301–302.
[133] T. A. El-Adawy, K. M. Taha: Characteristics and composi-
tion of watermelon, pumpkin, and paprika seed oils and [152] H. A. Abou-Gharbia, A. A. Y. Shehata, F. Shahidi: Effect of
flours. J Agric Food Chem. 2001, 49, 1253–1259. processing on oxidative stability and lipid classes of
sesame oil. Food Res Intern. 2000, 33, 331–340.
[134] F. Anwar, M. I. Bhanger, M. K. A. Nasir, S. Ismail: Analytical
characterization of Salicornia bigelovii seed oil cultivated in [153] M. Alpaslan, E. Boydak, M. Hayta, S. Gercek, M. Simsek:
Pakistan. J Agric Food Chem. 2002, 50, 4210–4214. Effect of row space and irrigation on seed composition of
Turkish sesame (Sesamum indicum L.). J Am Oil Chem
[135] D. Oomah, S. Ladet, D. V. Godfrey, J. Liang, B. Girard: Soc. 2001, 78, 933–935.
Characteristics of raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) seed oil.
[154] H. Chung, Y. J. Yee, D. H. Kim, H. K. Kim, D. S. Chung:
Food Chem. 2000, 69, 187–193.
Changes of lipid, protein, RNA and fatty acid composition
[136] L. S. Rallidis, G. Paschos, G. K. Liakos, A. H. Velissaridou, in developing sesame (Sesamum indicum L.) seeds. Plant
G. Anastasiadis, A. Zampelas: Dietary a-linolenic acid Sci. 1995, 109, 237–243.
decreases C-reactive protein, serum amyloid A and inter-
[155] S. Deshpande, U. S. Deshpande, D. K. Salunkhe: Sesame
leukin-6 in dyslipidaemic patients. Atherosclerosis. 2003,
oil. In: Bailey’s Industrial Oil and Fat Products. Edible Oil
167, 237–242.
and Fat Products: Oil and Oilseeds. 5th Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui,
[137] L. A. Jones, C. C. King: Cotton seed oil. In: Bailey’s Indus- John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York, NY (USA) 1996, pp.
trial Oil and Fat Products. Edible Oil and Fat Products: Oil 457–496.
and Oilseeds. 5th Edn. Ed. Y. D. Hui, John Wiley and Sons,
[156] Y. M. H. Younis, S. Ghirmay, S. S. Al-Shihry: African
Inc., New York, NY (USA) 1996, pp. 159–240.
Cucurbita pepo L.: Properties of seed and variability in fatty
[138] D. O’Brien: Cottonseed oil. In: Vegetable Oils in Food acid composition of seed oil. Phytochemistry. 2000, 54,
Technology, Composition, Properties and Uses. Ed. F. D. 71–75.
Gunstone, Blackwell Publishing Ltd., Oxford (UK) 2002, [157] D. Parker, D. A. Adams, K. Zhou, M. Harris, L. Yu: Fatty acid
pp. 203–230. composition and oxidative stability of cold-pressed edible
[139] M. B. Atta: Some characteristics of nigella (Nigella sativa L.) seed oils. J Food Sci. 2003, 68, 1240–1243.
seed cultivated in Egypt and its lipid profile. Food Chem. [158] A. Molero Gomez, E. Martinez de la Ossa: Quality of
2003, 83, 63–68. borage seed oil extracted by liquid and supercritical car-
[140] M. F. Ramadan, J. T. Morsel: Oil cactus pear (Opuntia ficus- bon dioxide. Chem Eng J. 2002, 88, 103–109.
indica L.). Food Chem. 2003, 82, 339–345. [159] R. Bruni, A. Medici, A. Guerrini, S. Scalia, F. Poli, M. Muz-
[141] M. F. Ramadan, J. T. Morsel: Phospholipid composition of zoli, G. Sacchetti: Wild Amaranthus caudatus seed oil, a
niger (Guizotia abyssinica cass.) seed oil. Lebensm Wiss nutraceutical resource from Ecuadorian flora. J Agric Food
Technol. 2003, 36, 273–276. Chem. 2001, 49, 5455–5460.

[160] A. Ajayi, F. A. Dawodu, K. O. Adebowale, R. A. Oderinde: [178] W. Coates, R. Ayerza: Commercial production of chia in
Chemical composition of Pentaclethra macrophylla seeds north western Argentina. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1998, 75,
and seed oil grown in Nigeria. Riv Ital Sost Grasse. 2002, 1417–1420.
79, 183–185. [179] E. Kalonji, C. Dumas, J. L. Berta: Acides Gras de la Famille
[161] A. Mohamed, H. Bhardwaj, A. Hamama, C. Webber III: Oméga 3 et Système Cardiovasculaire: Intérêt Nutritionnel
Chemical composition of kenaf (Hibiscus cannabinus L.) et Allégations. Rapport de Juin 2003. Ed. AFSSA, Paris
seed oil. Ind Crops Prod. 1995, 4, 157–165. (France) 2003.
[162] D. Oomah, M. Busson, D. V. Godfrey, J. C. G. Drover: [180] M. Vermorel, P. Pitz, L. Tappy, M. Laville: Energie. In:
Characteristics of hemp (Cannabis sativa L.) seed oil. Food Apports Nutritionnels Conseillés pour la Population Fran-
Chem. 2002, 76, 33–43. çaise. 3rd Edn. Ed. A. Martin, Lavoisier Tec & Doc, Paris
[163] A. El-Sebaiy, A. R. El-Mahdy: Lipid changes during germi- (France) 2001, pp. 17–36.
nation of fenugreek seeds (Trigonella foenum-graecum). [181] J. L. Volatier: Enquête INCA (Individuelle et Nationale sur
Food Chem. 1983, 10, 309–319. les Consommations Alimentaires). Ed. J. L. Volatier, Edi-
[164] G. C. Burdge, A. E. Jones, S. A. Wootton: Eicosapentae- tions Tec & Doc, Paris (France) 2000, pp. 1–158.
noic and docosapentaenoic acids are the principal prod- [182] National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) Expert
ucts of a-linolenic acid metabolism in young men. Br J Nutr. Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High
2002, 88, 355–363. Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III):
[165] G. C. Burdge, Y. E. Finnegan, A. M. Minihane, C. M. Wil- Third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program
liams, S. A. Wootton: Effect of altered dietary n-3 fatty acid (NCEP) expert panel on detection, evaluation and treat-
intake upon plasma lipid fatty acid composition, conver- ment of high blood cholesterol in adults (adult treatment
sion of [13C]a-linolenic acid to longer-chain fatty acids and panel III): Final report. Circulation 2002, 106, 3143–3421.
partitioning towards b-oxidation in older men. Br J Nutr. [183] R. M. Krauss, R. H. Eckel, B. Howard, L. J. Appel, S. R.
2003, 90, 311–321. Daniels, R. J. Deckelbaum, J. W. Erdman, T. L. Bazzarre:
[166] G. C. Burdge, S. A. Wootton: Conversion of a-linolenic acid AHA dietary guidelines. Revision 2000: A statement for
to eicosapentaenoic, docosapentaenoic and docosahex- healthcare professionals from the nutrition committee of the
aenoic acids in young women. Br J Nutr. 2002, 88, 411–420. American Heart Association. Stroke. 2000, 31, 2751–2766.
[167] J. H. Mest, I. Heinroth, H. U. Block, W. Forster: The influ- [184] http://www.food.gov.uk/science/research/researchinfo/
ence of linseed oil diet on fatty acid pattern in phospholip- nutritionresearch/dietandcardiovasc/n02programme/
ids and thromboxane formation in platelets in man. Klin n02pr ojilist/n02015/n02016/
Wochenschr. 1983, 61, 187–191. [185] R. G. Ackman: Fatty acids. In: Marine Biogenic Lipids, Fats
[168] J. T. Brenna: Efficiency of conversion of a-linolenic acid to and Oils. Ed. R. G. Ackman, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL
long chain n-3 fatty acids in man. Curr Opin Clin Nutr (USA) 1989, pp. 103–137.
Metab Care. 2002, 5, 127–132.
[186] W. Steffens: Effects of variation in essential fatty acids in
[169] N. Combe, B. Delplanque, S. Tanguy, C. Boue-Vaysse, F. fish feeds on nutritional value of freshwater fish for humans.
Mendy, B. le Roy, E. Fenart: Composition en acide a-linolé- Aquaculture. 1997, 151, 97–119.
nique des esters de cholestérol plasmatiques: Un marqueur
[187] B. S. Dosanjh, D. A. Higgs, D. J. McKenzie, D. J. Randall, J.
de consommation chez l’homme. OCL. 2002, 9, 245–248.
G. Eales, N. Rowshandeli, M. Rowshandeli, G. Deacon:
[170] J. B. Hansen, S. Grimsgaard, H. Nilsen, A. Nordoy, K. H. Influence of dietary blends of menhaden oil and canola oil
Bonaa: Effects of highly purified eicosapentaenoic acid on growth, muscle lipid composition, and thyroidal status
and docosahexaenoic acid on fatty acid absorption, incor- of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) in sea water. Fish Physiol
poration into serum phospholipids and postprandial trigly- Biochem. 1998, 19, 123–134.
ceridemia. Lipids. 1998, 33, 131–138.
[188] M. Linder, J. Fanni, M. Parmentier: Proteolytic extraction of
[171] C. Benistant, F. Acherd, G. Marcelon, M. Lagarde: Platelet salmon oil and PUFA concentration by lipases. Mar Bio-
inhibitory functions of aortic endothelial cells. Effects of technol. 2005, 7, 70–76.
eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids. Athero-
sclerosis. 1993, 104, 27–35. [189] N. Shirai, M. Terayama, H. Takeda: Effect of season on the
fatty acid composition and free amino acid content of the
[172] A. Mori, D. Q. Bao, V. Burke, I. B. Puddey, L. J. Beilin: sardine Sardinops melanostictus. Comp Biochem Physiol
Docosahexaenoic acid but not eicosapentaenoic acid B Biochem Mol Biol. 2002, 131, 387–393.
lowers ambulatory blood pressure and heart rate in
humans. Hypertension. 1999, 34, 253–260. [190] Conseil Supérieur d’Hygiène Publique de France: Avis du
Conseil Supérieur d’Hygiène Publique de France Relatif à
[173] K. S. Shukla, P. C. Dutta, W. E. Artz: Camelina oil and its l’Emploi d’Huile de Périlla en Alimentation Humaine.
unusual cholesterol content. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 2002, 79, SP 4 437 793 OR: MESP9830614V (France) 1998, pp. 1–5.
965–969.
[191] M. Hirsch: Avis de l’Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire
[174] T. Longvah, Y. G. Deosthale, P. U. Kumar: Nutritional and
des Aliments Relatif à l’Evaluation de l’Emploi de l’Huile de
short term toxicological evaluation of perilla seed oil. Food
Lin, Nature ou en Mélange, dans l’Alimentation Courante
Chem. 2000, 70, 13–16.
ainsi que son Intérêt Nutritionnel en Matière d’Apport
[175] J. L. Guil, M. E. Torija, J. J. Gimenez, I. Rodriguez: Identifi- d’Acide Alpha-Linolénique. Ed. AFSSA, saisine n7 2003-
cation of fatty acids in edible wild plants by gas chroma- SA-0100 (France) 2003, pp. 1–3.
tography. J Chromatogr. 1996, 719, 229–235.
[192] P. Briand: Avis de l’Agence Française de Sécurité Sanitaire
[176] L. Liu, P. Howe, Y. F. Zhou, Z. Q. Xu, C. Howart, R. Zhang: des Aliments Relatif à l’Evaluation de l’Emploi de l’Huile de
Fatty acids and beta-carotene in Australian purslane (Por- Lin, Nature ou en Mélange, dans l’Alimentation Courante
tulaca oleracea) varieties. J Chromatogr. 2000, 893, 207– ainsi que son Intérêt Nutritionnel en Matière d’Apport
213. d’Acide Alpha-Linolénique. Ed. AFSSA, saisine n7 2004-
[177] R. Ayerza: Oil content and fatty acid composition of chia SA-0409 (France) 2006, pp. 1–9.
(Salvia hispanica L.) from five north western locations in
Argentina. J Am Oil Chem Soc. 1995, 72, 1079–1081. [Received: February 9, 2007; accepted: May 2, 2007]

Clases Acidos Saturados PDF

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Clases Acidos Saturados PDF

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

710 DOI 10.1002/ejlt.200700040 Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol.

109 (2007) 710–732

Virginie Duboisa Fatty acid profiles of 80 vegetable oils with regard to

Keywords: Oil sources, blood lipids, fatty acids.

1 Introduction ability, and a fortiori to health. Indeed, the sn-2 position is

enzymes [2]. These compounds are said to be essential

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

2.2 Lipoproteins as cardiovascular risk factors 3.1.1 SFA

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

Moreover, as said above, an excess of LA promotes an

3.1.3 PUFA It is obvious that more controlled trials are needed to

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

4.1.4 Stearic acid subclass

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

4.3.4 ALA + MUFA subclass

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

However, one remark should be stressed: The ALA-to- 6 Conclusions

The classification provided in this review highlights the

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

LA, linoleic acid.

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

84, 94, 146–148]150] 116, 156] 131, 158] 162]

LA, linoleic acid.

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim

ALA, a-linolenic acid; LA, linoleic acid.

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

© 2007 WILEY-VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim www.ejlst.com

You might also like