LICENSURE EXAMINATION FOR TEACHERS

Descriptive Statistics

Terminologies

Descriptive statistics - Numbers which are used to describe information or data or those techniques used to
calculate those numbers.

Variable (x) - A measurable characteristic. Individual measurements of a variable are called varieties,
observations, or cases.

Population (X) - All subjects or objects possessing some common specified characteristic. The population in a
statistical investigation is arbitrarily defined by naming its unique properties.

Parameter - A measurable characteristic of a population. A measurable quantity derived from a population, such as
population mean or standard deviation.

Sample - A smaller group of subjects or objects selected from a large group (population).

Frequency graph - A picture depicting the number of times an event occurred.

Bar graph or histogram - A frequency graph with number of blocks or length of bar representing the frequency of
occurrence.

Frequency polygon - A modification of the bar graph with lines connecting the midpoints of the highest point on
each bar.

Frequency curve - A modification of a frequency polygon with the sharp corners rounded. The area under the
connecting line of the bar graph, frequency polygon, and frequency curve are equivalent and represent frequency
of occurrence.

Four Types of Measurement Scales

Measurement Characteristics Example

Scale
1. Nominal  Groups and labels data Gender ( 1-male, 2-female)
2. Ordinal  Ranks data Income (1-low, 2-average, 3-high)
 Distance between points are
indefinite
3. Interval  Distance between points are Test scores and temperature
equal * a score of zero in a test does not mean
 No absolute zero point no knowledge at all
4. Ratio  All of the above except that it Height, weight
has an absolute zero point * a zero weight means no weight at all
Measures of Central Tendency

One characteristic that is particular interest is a measure of central tendency, which gives some idea of the
average or typical score in the distribution. This average is more precisely thought of as index of location of the
distribution on the score scale.

1. Arithmetic Mean or Mean (Arithmetic Average). The mean is the arithmetic average of a set of scores,
which is the most widely used and familiar average, the most reliable and the most stable of all measures of
central tendency. It is the point on the score scale obtained by finding the sum of all the scores and dividing by
their number. An important property of the mean is that every one of the scores of the group affects its value.

2. Median (Positional Average). The median is the point on the score scale which is so located that the same
number of scores are above it as are below it. This is a score that divides the distribution into two equal halves.
It is sometimes called counting average.

3. Mode (Counting Average). The mode is the score value that has a frequency which is large in relation to
other frequencies near it in the distribution. It is the score that most often in the distribution. It is also referred
to as crude or inspectional average

Measures of Variability

When describing a set of scores, it is often significant to report how variable the scores are, how much they
spread out high to low scores. How much they spread out from high to low scores. Then, a measure of this spread
is an important statistic for describing a group. Variability is the extent to which the scores of a group tend to scatter
(disperse/spread) above and below a central point in the distribution.

1. Range. A very simple measure of variability is the range of scores in the group. This is simply the difference
between the highest and the lowest scores.

2. Quartile Deviation (or Semi-interquartile range). One measure of variability that includes a specified part of
the total group, usually the middle 50 % (between the 25 th and the 75th percentile). It is actually the average
distance from the median to the 2 quartiles, that is, it tells how far the quartile points lie from the median, on
the average.

3. Standard Deviation. It is a measure of dispersion among all scores in the distribution. It is the square root of
the average of the squared deviations from the mean.

What Measure to Use

Appropriate Statistical Tools

Assumptions When Used
 When the frequency distribution is
regular/ symmetrical/normal
 Usually used when the data are
numeric (interval or ratio)
 When the frequency distribution is
irregular/ skewed
 Usually used when the data are ordinal
 When the distribution of scores is
normal and quick answer is needed
 Usually used when the data are
nominal
Measure of Central Tendency Measure of Variability
- describes the representative - describes the degree of
value of a set of data spread or dispersion of a set of
data
Mean - the arithmetic Standard Deviation - the
average root-mean-square of the
deviations from the mean.
Median - the middle score Quartile Deviation (Semi
in a group of scores that – Interquartile Range) –
are ranked. The positional the average deviation of
average the 1st and 3rd quartiles
from the median
Mode – the score that Range – the difference
occurs most frequently. between the highest and
The counting average lowest score in a set of
observations
I. Procedure in the Computation of the Measures of Central Tendency

A. Mean

Procedure:
1. Mean of Ungrouped Data: used for few cases ( N<30 )
a. Get the sum of scores (  X)
b. Divide the sum by the number of cases (N)

Formula: =

Example: Scores are 5,7,9,11, and 13

Sum of scores is 45
Solution: X =  X/ N = 45/5 = 9

2. Mean from Grouped Data

Procedure Example:

1.) Determine the classmark of each class Class Limits Xm f fXm

interval or class limit
2.) Multiply each classmark with the 45-49 47 2 94
corresponding frequency 40-44 42 0 0
3.) Get the sum of the products obtained in 35-39 37 12 444
step 2 30-34 32 13 416
4.) Then, divide the sum by the total number 25-29 27 10 270
of frequencies (N) 20-24 22 5 110
5.) The quotient obtained is the mean, ( ) 15-19 17 4 68
10-14 12 4 48
N = 50 1450
4
Formula: =
where:
Xm = the classmark of the class
interval, it is the midpoint = = =
of the class interval
f = class frequency 29
N = sum total of the frequencies
or cases or observations
B. Median ( )
1. Median of Ungrouped Data

There are several ways in the computation of median for ungrouped data. The process depends
on a case to case basis

Case 1. The total number of cases is an odd number

Procedure Example ( N = 11)

1.) Arrange the scores from highest to 1. 100

lowest or vice versa 2. 98
3. 97
2.) Get the middlemost score. The score is 4. 96
the median score 5. 94
6. 92 Median score
7. 91
8. 90
9. 88
10. 87
11. 87

Case 2: The total number of cases is an even (N=8) number.

Procedure Example ( N = 8 )

2. Median for Grouped Data ( N  30 )

Procedure Example:

6.) Add up or accumulate the frequencies Class Limits f CF

starting from the lowest to the highest class 45-49 2 50
limit. Call this the cumulative frequency. 40-44 0 48
(CF) Lmdn 35-39 12 48
7.) Find one half of the number of cases in the 29.5 30-34 13 Fmdn 36
25-29 10 23 CFb
distribution. ( ) 20-24 5 13
8.) Find the cumulative frequency which is 15-19 4 8
equal or closest but higher than the half of 10-14 4 4
the number of cases. The class containing N=50
this frequency is the median class.
9.) Find the lowest boundary of the median class
(Lmdn) of the median class.  N2  CFb 
10.) Get the less than cumulative frequency of the Mdn = Lmdn  c
class below the median class. (CFb)  Fmdn 
11.) Subtract this from the half of the number of  
cases in the distribution. (N/2-CFb)
 25  23 
12.) Get the frequency of the median class. (F Mdn)  29.5   5
13.) Find the class interval size or class width (c ),  13 
then apply the given formula below
2
Formula: Mdn or =
 29.5   5 = 29.5 + 0.77
 13 
 N  CFb 
Lmdn   2 c
= 30.27
 Fmdn 
 
 Where:
Lmdn = lowest limit of the median class
c = class interval size or class width

= half of the number of cases

CFb = cumulative frequency below the
median class
FMdn = frequency of the median class

C. Mode ( X̂ )

Procedure

1. Mode of Ungrouped Data

Get the most frequent score

Example 1: one mode or unimodal

27, 26, 25, 24, 24, and 23 Mode is 24

Example 2: two modes or bimodal

27, 27, 26, 25, 24, 24, and 23 Modes are 27 and 24

Example 3: three modes or trimodal

27, 27, 26, 25, 24, 24, 23 and 23 Modes are 27, 24, and 23

 when there are more than three modes, they are called polymodal or multimodal

 when there is no mode, it is described as a rectangular distribution.

2. Mode for Grouped Data

a. Crude Mode - refers to the midpoint of the class limit with the highest frequency.

Procedure: Example

1.) Find the class limit with the Class Limits f

highest frequency 45-49 2
40-44 0
2.) Get the mid-point of that class 35-39 12
limit 30-34 13 The highest
25-29 10 frequency
3.) The midpoint of the class limit 20-24 5
with the highest frequency is 15-19 4
the crude mode 10-14 4
Mode class = 30-34
Mode = 32

b. Refined Mode - refers to the mode obtained from an ordered arrangements or a class
frequency distribution

Formula: X̂ = Lmo + ( )c

Procedure: Example
 1. Identify Class Limits f
the modal class with the 45-49 2
highest frequency occurs 40-44 0
2. Determi 35-39 12 d2 = 1
ne the lower boundary Lmo = 29.5 30-34 13
(Lmo) of the modal class 25-29 10 d1 = 3
3. Get the 20-24 5
difference between the 15-19 4
frequency of the modal 10-14 4
class and the frequency
just before it (d1)
4. Get the X̂ = Lmo +
difference between the
frequency of the modal
class and the frequency ( )c
just after it (d2)
5. Find
the size of the class = 29.5 +
interval (c) and the (5)
frequency of the modal
class
6. Then, = 29.5 +
apply the formula
= 29.5 + 3.75

= 33.25

How will you interpret the Measures of Central Tendency?

 The value that represents a set of data will be the basis in determining whether the group is performing
better or poorer than the other groups.

Types of Distribution

On the normal distribution curve, the Measures of Central Tendency (mean, median, and mode) are in the
same spot at the middle of the curve. The curve is symmetrical.
 A skewed distribution represents a set of scores or numbers that is not equal on both sides. This results
from a few scores in a data set falling farther to one end or the other. This arrangement is quite common in
real world settings, especially when smaller numbers of scores are involved.

When a set of scores is skewed, the "averages" are not at the exact center and the curve is asymmetrical.
The mode remains at the highest part of the curve, the median is still the middle score, and the mean is
pulled in the direction of the outliers. This refers to a negatively skewed distribution, that is, the distribution
is said to be left-skewed or "skewed to the left". Thus, the mean is pulled toward the negative tail of the curve.
Hence, tail is stretched toward the left side of the baseline. This means that the left tail is longer; the mass of
the distribution is concentrated on the right of the figure. It has relatively few low values.

Conversely, when disproportionately high scores occur, the mean is pulled toward the positive tail of the
curve. In this case, tail is stretched toward the right side of the baseline. This refers to a positively skewed
distribution, that is, the distribution is said to be right-skewed or "skewed to the right". This means that
the right tail is longer; the mass of the distribution is concentrated on the left of the figure. It has relatively
few high values.

II. Procedure in the Computation of the Measures of Variability

A. Range ( R )

1. For Ungrouped Data – the difference between the highest and lowest score

2. For Grouped Data – the difference between the highest limit of the highest class limit and the
lowest limit of the lowest class limit

B. Standard Deviation (SD)

 Procedure for Ungrouped data Example
1.) Find the mean. ( )
2.) Subtract the mean from each score to get X d= X–( ) d²
5 -4 16
the deviation. [ d = X – ( ) ]
7 -2 4
3.) Square the deviation. (d ² )
9 0 0
4.) Get the sum of the squared deviations. (d² ) 11 2 4
5.) Divide the sum by the number of 13 4 16

d = 40
2
cases:

6.) Get the square root of the answer.

= = 9 SD =
= 10
Formula: SD = = 3.16

How will you interpret the standard deviation?

1. The results will help you determine if the group is homogeneous or not.
2. The results will also help you determine the number of students that fall below and above the average
performance

Study how to do this:

 Mean - 1 SD and Mean + 1 SD would give the limits of an average ability
 The point right below - 1 SD is the upper limit of the below average ability
 The point right above + 1 SD is the lower limit of the above average ability

STANDARD SCORES

 Indicate the pupil’s relative position by showing how far his raw score is above or below average
 Express the pupil’s performance in terms of standard unit from the mean.
 Represented by the normal probability curve or what is commonly called the normal curve
 Used to have a common unit to compare raw scores from different tests

1. Z-SCORES

 tells the number of standard deviations equivalent to a given raw score

Formula: Where
X = individual’s raw score
XX
Z X = mean of the normative group
SD SD = standard deviation of the
normative group
Given: X  26 ; SD = 2

Joseph’s Score
X = 27

X  X 27  26 1
Z =  Z = 0.5
SD 2 2
John’s Score
 X = 25

X  X 25  26  1
Z   Z = -0.5
2 2 2

Note:
Z – score is negative when X < X
Z – score is positive when X > X

2. T – SCORES

 it refers to any set of normally distributed standard deviation score that has a mean of 50 and a
standard deviation of 10.
 Computed after converting raw scores to z-scores to get rid of negative values

Formula : T – score = 50 + 10 (Z)

Joseph’s T – score = 50 + 10 (0.5) = 50 + 5 = 55

John’s T – score = 50 + 10 (-0.5) = 50 + (-5) = 45

Guide for the Interpretation of Standard Scores

The equivalence of z-scores, t-scores and their relation to percentiles and to the
normal curve is shown below.

2% 2%
14% 34% 34% 14%

SD’s -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4

Z-Scores -4 -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3 +4

T-Scores 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Percentiles 1 2 16 50 84 98 99.9

Corresponding Standard Scores and Percentile

in a Normal Distribution