Chapter 1

Definition of Information Technology

1. Information technology is the set of tools, processes, and methodologies such as
coding/programming, data communications, data conversion, storage and retrieval, systems
analysis and design, systems control, and associated equipment employed to collect, process,
and present information. In broad terms, IT also includes office automation, multimedia, and
telecommunications.
2. Information technology (IT) is the application of computers to store, study, retrieve, transmit,
and manipulate data, or information, often in the context of a business or other enterprise. IT is
considered a subset of information and communications technology (ICT). In 2012, Zuppo
proposed an ICT hierarchy where each hierarchy level "contain some degree of commonality in
that they are related to technologies that facilitate the transfer of information and various types
of electronically mediated communications."
The term Information technology (IT) is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer
networks, but it also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and
telephones. Several industries are associated with information technology, including computer
hardware, software, electronics, semiconductors, internet, telecom equipment, and e-commerce.
According to Anyakoha (1991), information technology is "the use of man-made tools for the
collection, generation, communication, recording, re-management and exploitation of information. It
includes those applications and commodities, by which information is transferred, recorded, edited,
stored, manipulated or disseminated".
Hawkridge (1983) describes information technology as a revolution which has penetrated
almost all fields of human activity, thus transforming economic and social life.
IT Tools
IT tools are Computers, networks, satellites, robotics, videotext, television, e-mail, electronic games,
mobile phones, fax machines and automated office equipment are some of the many tools used in IT.
Computers
Computers were originally used by scientists for calculating numbers, and have gradually
become useful in offices and industries. In recent times, simplified models that can be used by almost
everybody have become common in schools and homes for accomplishing many varied tasks and
applications.
Fapohunda (1999) lists the uses that computers are now commonly put to: writing letters, and
reports, printing books, newspapers, and magazines, drawing pictures and diagrams, doing statistics,

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mathematics and handling financial records, controlling traffic lights, flying aeroplanes, making and
playing music and video, sending messages anywhere in the world.
Internet
The Internet is a global collection of many types of computers and computer networks that
are linked together. It is increasingly becoming the solution to many information, problems,
information exchange, and marketing (Adesanya, 2002). Eseyin (1997) describes the Internet as a
mixture of many services with the two most commonly used being electronic mail (e-mail for short)
and the World Wide Web (www). It plays a significant role in education, health, political processes,
agriculture, economy, businesses and newsgroups. Woherem (2000) states that with Internet
connectivity, one can do business all over the world without physical contact with the buyer or the
need for a business intermediary.
E-mail
Electronic mail (e-mail) is the exchange of text messages and computer files transmitted via
communications networks such as the Internet (Nwosu, 2004). Fapohunda (1999) sees the e-mail
system as the equivalent of postal mailing services, with the biggest difference being the time and cost
involved. And not only written data, but all sorts of information in the form of video, audio, or
photographs, can be sent via e-mail. Oketunji (2000) describes e-mail as an increasing popular method
of communication, especially in the workplace.
Mobile Phones
Bittner (1989) defines mobile phones as a telephone system that can move or be moved easily
and quickly from place to place. Mobile phones were once the tool of rich and busy executives who
could afford both the luxury. Mobile phones are now the ICT that is reshaping and revolutionizing the
communications globally. Its impact on the economic activities of nations, businesses, and small
entrepreneurs is phenomenal. According to Marcelle (2000), the availability of this new technology
has been reshaping the material basis of the society as well as bringing about a profound restructuring
of economic, political, and cultural relations among states.
Importance/Role of IT
1. Importance/Role of IT in Agriculture
In the context of agriculture, the potential of information technology (IT) can be assessed broadly
under two heads: (a) as a tool for direct contribution to agricultural productivity and (b) as an indirect
tool for empowering farmers to take informed and quality decisions which will have positive impact
on the way agriculture and allied activities are conducted.
Precision farming, popular in developed countries, extensively uses IT to make direct contribution to
agricultural productivity. The techniques of remote sensing using satellite technologies, geographical
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information systems, and agronomy and soil sciences are used to increase the agricultural output. This
approach is capital intensive and useful where large tracts of land are involved. Consequently it is
more suitable for farming taken up on corporate lines.
The indirect benefits of IT in empowering farmer are significant and remain to be exploited. The farmer
urgently requires timely and reliable sources of information inputs for taking decisions. At present,
the farmer depends on trickling down of decision inputs from conventional sources which are slow
and unreliable. The changing environment faced by farmers makes information not merely useful, but
necessary to remain competitive.
The Effects of IT on Agriculture
IT has made its way into the agricultural sector, and with positive results. To name a few, here are
some of its effects: 1. Improved decision making. 2. Better planning. 3. Community involvement. 4.
Agricultural breakthroughs. 5. Agriculture for everyone
People only have to open their minds to the endless possibilities that technological advancement can
bring to agriculture. Instead of being locked away with the traditional strategies for planting, why not
get involved in new and improved methods of farming? Today’s society can benefit from agricultural
advancements and live sustainable lives by improving the production, harvest methods, and
distribution of agricultural goods. All of these effects and more are possible through the successful
merge of IT and agriculture which is why farmers are getting more and more encouraged to take part
in this positive change.
2. The Importance of Information Technology in Business
With the introduction of computers, the business world was changed forever. Using computers and
software, businesses use information technology to ensure that their departments run smoothly. They
use information technology in a number of different departments including human resources, finance,
manufacturing, and security. Using information technology, businesses have the ability to view
changes in the global markets far faster than they usually do. They purchase software packages and
hardware that helps them get their job done. Most larger businesses have their own information
technology department designed to upkeep the software and hardware.
Information technology has allowed businesses to keep up with the supply and demand as consumers
grow more anxious to have their items instantly. Using information technology, businesses like
Amazon are working to help busy consumers do their grocery shopping. Just a few clicks on a website
allows the consumer to submit an order, and information technology sends that order to the company.

The Importance of Information Technology in Education

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The world of education is changing as the modern world continues to grow. With so much progress
happening, it’s important that education be able to reach students in new ways so that
their students are prepared for the future. The students of today are the leaders, inventors, teachers,
and businessmen (and women) of tomorrow. Without the proper skills, these students will not have
the preparation needed to survive. With so much focus placed on education, it can sometimes be
difficult to hold a job and still get the training needed to get a better job. Information technology plays
a key role in students being able to keep their jobs and go to school. Now, most schools offer online
classes that can be accessed on computers or laptops, tablets, and even mobile phones. A busy
student at work can easily check in or submit assignments while on their lunch break.
Teachers need to be prepared by staying up to date with information technology, and this can mean
more than just reading about the latest gadgets. Using technology, teachers can prepare their
students for a future flooded with gadgets including tablets, mobile phones, computers, and so much
more.
Information technology is helping to prevent more high school and college dropouts as well. Life
events can happen to anyone at any time, and even high schools are taking advantage of online classes
so that students can continue their education instead of considering dropping out.
The Importance of Information Technology in Healthcare
Improvements in information technology have allowed for great reform in healthcare. Most medical
offices can now send and receive digital medical information from doctors you’ve had in the past.
Changes like this allow costs to be lowered and increase the amount of time doctors can spend on
patients compared to paperwork.
Security improvements with information technology have made it so that your medical information is
secure no matter where it’s sent. You can even have prescriptions sent digitally to local pharmacies at
most medical.
Along with the changing the amount of paperwork required at your medical office, information
technology has also updated the technology a doctor can use to diagnose or treat you. Using
computerized axial tomography (CAT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, the doctor can use
a computer to create detailed images of your organs along with creating; images that show changes
in your body chemistry and blood flow. This can be helpful to find illnesses that aren’t found with
blood tests or other medical tests.

The Importance of Information Technology in Security

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With so many transactions done online and so much information available online, it’s important to
keep all of that safe. Information technology makes it possible for your online data to stay secure until
accessed by the proper channels. Using passwords and encryption, information technology hides your
personal digital data away, and the only way it can be accessed is by companies who have permission
from you.
Chapter 2
Information and Communication Technology in agriculture (ICT in agriculture)
Information and communication technology in agriculture (ICT in agriculture), also known as e-
agriculture, is developing and applying innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural domain, with a primary
focus on agriculture. ICT in agriculture offers a wide range of solutions to some agricultural challenges.
It is seen as an emerging field focusing on the enhancement of agricultural and rural development
through improved information and communication processes. In this context, ICT is used as an
umbrella term encompassing all information and communication technologies including devices,
networks, mobiles, services and applications; these range from innovative Internet-era technologies
and sensors to other pre-existing aids such as fixed telephones, televisions, radios and satellites. E-
agriculture continues to evolve in scope as new ICT applications continue to be harnessed in the
agriculture sector. More specifically, e-agriculture involves the conceptualization, design,
development, evaluation and application of innovative ways to use ICTs in the rural domain, with a
primary focus on agriculture. Provisions of standards, norms, methodologies, and tools as well as
development of individual and institutional capacities, and policy support are all key components of
e-agriculture.
Telephone – Interactive voice response
Computer and networks – Agriculture information and markets
Broadcasting – Expertise sharing, advisory and community
Satellite- weather, universal accessibility, remote sensing
Moblie – Advisory, sales, banking, networking
Internet and broadband- knowledge sharing, social media, e-community, banking, trading, market
platform
Sensor networks- Real time information, better data quality and quantity, decision making
Data storage and analytics- precision agriculture, actionable knowledge
The main applications of ICT in agriculture sector are listed below:
Wireless technologies: Wireless technologies have numerous applications in agriculture. One major
usage is the simplification of closed-circuit television camera systems; the use of wireless
communications eliminates the need for the installation of coaxial cables.
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Global Positioning System: In agriculture, the use of the Global Positioning System provides benefits
in geo-fencing, map-making and surveying. GPS receivers dropped in price over the years, making it
more popular for civilian use. With the use of GPS, civilians can produce simple yet highly accurate
digitized map without the help of a professional cartographer.
In Kenya, for example, the solution to prevent an elephant bull from wandering into farms and
destroying precious crops was to tag the elephant with a device that sends a text message when it
crosses a geo-fence. Using the technology of SMS and GPS, the elephant can roam freely and the
authorities are alerted whenever it is near the farm.
Geographic information systems
Geographic information systems, or GIS, are extensively used in agriculture, especially in precision
farming. Land is mapped digitally, and pertinent geodetic data such as topography and contours are
combined with other statistical data for easier analysis of the soil. GIS is used in decision making such
as what to plant and where to plant using historical data and sampling.
Computer-controlled devices (automated systems)
Automatic milking systems are computer controlled stand alone systems that milk the dairy cattle
without human labor. The complete automation of the milking process is controlled by an agricultural
robot, a complex herd management software, and specialized computers. Automatic milking
eliminates the farmer from the actual milking process, allowing for more time for supervision of the
farm and the herd. Farmers can also improve herd management by using the data gathered by the
computer. By analyzing the effect of various animal feedson milk yield, farmers may adjust accordingly
to obtain optimal milk yields. Since the data is available down to individual level, each cow may be
tracked and examined, and the farmer may be alerted when there are unusual changes that could
mean sickness or injuries.[8]
Smartphone mobile apps in Agriculture
Use of Mobile technologies as a tool of intervention in agriculture is increasingly popular. Smartphone
penetration enhance the multi-dimensional positive impact on sustainable poverty reduction and
identify accessibility as the main challenge in harnessing the full potential (Silarszky et al., 2008) in
agricultural space. Reach of smart phone even in rural areas extended the ICT services beyond simple
voice or text messages. Several smartphone apps are available for agriculture, horticulture, animal
husbandry and farm machinery.
Smartphone mobile applications designed and developed by Jayalaxmi agrotech Pvt Ltd from India are
the most commonly used agriculture apps in India. Their mobile apps are in regional language are
designed to break the literacy barrier and deliver the information in most simple manner. Several
thousands of farmers across Asia are empowered with these apps.
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RFID Technology (Radio frequency Identification)
The Veterinary Department of Malaysia's Ministry of Agriculture introduced a livestock-tracking
program in 2009 to track the estimated 80,000 cattle all across the country. Each cattle is tagged with
the use of RFID technology for easier identification, providing access to relevant data such as: bearer's
location, name of breeder, origin of livestock, sex, and dates of movement. This program is the first of
its kind in Asia, and is expected to increase the competitiveness of Malaysian livestock industry in
international markets by satisfying the regulatory requirements of importing countries like United
States, Europe and Middle East. Tracking by RFID will also help producers meet the dietary standards
by the halal market. The program will also provide improvements in controlling disease outbreaks in
livestock

The Secret of Change is to Focus all of Your Energy, not on Fighting the Old but on Building the New !
E-agriculture (also referred to as ICT in agriculture) is a relatively recent term in the field of agriculture
and rural development practices. Consistency in the use of this term began to materialize with the
dissemination of results from a global survey carried out by the United Nations (UN). This survey
conducted in late 2006 by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) found
that half of those who replied identified "e agriculture" with information dissemination, access and
exchange, communication and participation processes improvements around rural development. In
contrast, less than a third highlighted the importance of technical hardware and technological tools.
E-agriculture, therefore, describes an emerging field focused on the enhancement of agricultural and
rural development through improved information and communication processes. More specifically,
e-agriculture involves the conceptualization, design, development, evaluation and application of
innovative ways to use information and communication technologies (ICTs) in the rural domain, with
a primary focus on agriculture.
In 2008, the United Nations referred to e-agriculture as "an emerging field" with the expectation that
its scope would change and evolve as our understanding of the area grows.
Many ICT in agriculture or e-agriculture interventions have been developed and tested around the
world, with varied degrees of success, to help agriculturists improve their livelihoods through
increased agricultural productivity and incomes, and reduction in risks. Some useful resources for
learning about e-agriculture in practice are the World Bank’s e-sourcebook ICT in agriculture –
connecting smallholder farmers to knowledge, networks and institutions (2011), ICT uses for inclusive
value chains (2013), ICT uses for inclusive value chains (2013) and Success stories on information and

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communication technologies for agriculture and rural development have documented many cases of
use of ICT in agriculture.
The FAO-ITU E-agriculture Strategy Guide provides a framework to holistically address the ICT
opportunities and challenges for the agricultural sector in a more efficient manner while generating
new revenue streams and improve the livelihoods of the rural community as well as ensure the goals
of the national agriculture master plan are achieved.The existence of e-agriculture strategy and its
alignment with other government plans will prevent e-agriculture projects and services from being
implemented in isolation.

WSIS process
e-agriculture is one of the action lines identified in the declaration and plan of action (2003) of the
World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS). The "Tunis Agenda for the Information Society",
published on 18 November 2005, emphasizes the leading facilitating roles that UN agencies need to
play in the implementation of the Geneva Plan of Action.
FAO hosted the first e-agriculture workshop in June 2006, bringing together representatives of leading
development organizations involved in agriculture. The meeting served to initiate development of an
effective process to engage as wide a range of stakeholders involved in e-agriculture, and resulted in
the formation of the e-Agriculture Community, a community of practice. The e-Agriculture
Community's Founding Partners include: Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research
(CGIAR); Technical Centre for Agriculture and Rural Development (CTA); FAO; Global Alliance for
Information and Communication Technologies and Development (GAID); Global Forum on Agricultural
Research (GFAR); Global Knowledge Partnership (GKP); Gesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit
(now called Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit, GIZ); International Association
of Agricultural Information Specialists (IAALD); Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture
(IICA); International Fund for Agricultural Development (IFAD); International Centre for
Communication for Development (IICD); United States National Agricultural Library (NAL); United
Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs (UNDESA); the World Bank.

Chapter 3
Anatomy of Computers
Definition- A computer can be defined as an electronic system that takes input from its user, stores
it, processes it according to the given instruction, and generates the required output.
Four basic operations performed by the computer-
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 1) Input, Processing, Output, Storing
Data- Collected facts and figures, pertaining to the study are known as Data.
Information- Data arranged in a meaningful way i.e. processed data are known as Information.
Main components of computer are - 1. Central processing unit (CPU)
2. Main Memory 3. External Memory (or secondary memory) 4. Peripherical devices (input/output
devices)
Characteristics of computer- Accuracy, Automatic, High speed, Versatility, Storage capability and no
intellectual power.
ANATOMY OF COMPUTERS
The computer system consists of three units:
1. Input device 2. Central Processing Unit (CPU) 3. Output Devices
Block diagram of a Computer :

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

ALU
OUTPUT DEVICES
INPUT DEVICES
CONTROL UNIT

REGISTERS

MEMORY UNIT
A computer system is composed of following elements-
1) Hardware- It generally refers to the physical equipment that performs the basic functions
contained within the data processing cycle i.e. input, processing and output. Hardware
consists of input devices like keyboard and mouse; output devices like printer, monitor;
processing devices like CPU; memory devices like RAM, ROM; secondary memory devices like
hard disk.
2) Software- Software refers to collection of a sequence of instructions designed to direct a
computer to perform certain functions.
A software package is a group of programs that solves a specific problem or perform a specific
type of job.
Software is generally categorised as:-
i) System software ii. Application software iii.Utility software
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 3) Firmware- It is software substituted for hardware and is stored in ROM chips. Both system
and application software are being supplied in firmware form.
Firmware is also referred as ‘Hardware on software’.
For example- ROM chip, BIOS (Basic Input Output System), SIM card of mobile phone etc.
4) Peopleware- It refers to the persons required to design programs and operate a
computer.Three principal positions in computer areas are:-
System analyst, Programmer and Computer operator
5) Procedures- Procedures generally include obtaining, preparing jobs, initiating new programs
and changing or deleting old ones.

A. CPU (Central Processing Unit) – Also known as “The Processor”.

Functions of CPU
i. All major calculations and comparisons performed by a computer are carried out
inside its CPU
ii. CPU is responsible for activating and controlling the operations of other units of the
computer system.
iii. It receives the users instruction from the connected input devices and sends
processed data to the appropriate components and output devices.
CPU has two parts – 1.Control Unit (CU) 2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU)
1. Control Unit:- It does not perform any actual processing on the data, but acts as a control
nervous system for the other components of the computer .
Functions of Control Unit:
i. It manages and co-ordinates the entire computer system, including the input and output units.
ii. It obtains instructions from the program stored in the main memory, interprets the
instructions, issues signals that cause other units of the system to execute them.
2. Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – It is the place where actual execution of the instruction
takes place during the data processing operation.
Functions of ALU :
i. It performs four kinds of arithmetic operations addition, subtraction, multiplication & division.
ii. It performs the logical operations of 3 types – equal to, less than, greater than, less than or equal
to, greater than or equal to.
In addition to CU & ALU , CPU also contain registers.
Registers are temporary storage areas for instruction or data. They are not part of memory. They
are used by control unit & ALU for storage of intermediate results & control information.
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 B. Memory: Memory is also known as primary storage, primary memory, main memory,
RAM(Random Access Memory)
Main memory is the part of the computer that holds data & instructions for processing
although closely associated with CPU, it is separate from CPU.
Memory stores program instructions or data for only as long as the program they pertain to is in
operation . The instruction or data are destroyed when the machine is turned off.
Data and instructions flow to and from the memory in the following manner – They first enter into
the memory from the input device by the control unit. Control unit sends these items from memory
to the ALU where the data is processed according to the instructions given. After being processed the
information is sent to the memory, where it is hold until it is ready to be released to an output unit.
Important characteristics of the main memory is that it allows very fact access to instructions and data.
C. Peripherals – A peripheral device is an optional device which when attached to a computer expands
its abilities to include specific specialised tasks. There are three categories of peripherals – i) Input
devices ii) Output devices iii) External storage devices or secondary storage/Memory devices.
Mother Board – It is considered as the skeleton of computer as the computer parts fit within it. All
mother boards must include an integrated chipset which establishes the types of components that are
compatible with it. All motherboards must accommodate at least 1 CPU, capabilities for some type of
storage device, as well as some common I/O device. Every mother board includes BIOS (Basic Input /
Output Systems) which performs system checks at boot-up time of the system.
UPS (Uninterrupted Power supply – It is a device used to supply power to the computer system during
the power failure. If there is a power failure during working of computer system, UPS supplies power
for 10- 15 minutes depending upon its rating, so that the user could complete his/her work, if possible,
or could save the work so that it could be retrieved later on.
Role of Computers in Agriculture:
1. Computer is used in agriculture for record keeping, fertiliser application, to determine which
crops to plant to maximise the profit, and determine what and how much medication to give
to livestock.
2. In dairy farming it is used to give the exact amount of feed to each cow based on amount of
milk the cow gives.
3. Used to determine the time of marketing of products to give the best advantage.
4. Marketing and internet buying are also done by help of computers.
Peripheral Devices of Computer:
Input Devices: Input devices are electromechanical devices that accepts data from outside world and
translates them into a form the computer can interpret.
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Function of input Unit- i. It accepts the list of instructions and data from the outside world.
ii. It converts these instructions and data in computer acceptable from i.e to
binary codes (0 & 1) by input interfaces.
iii. Supplies the converted instructions & data to the computer system for further
processing.
Most commonly used input devices are Key Board and Mouse.
Keyboard- It is most commonly used input device. Allows data entry into a computer system by
pressing a set of keys. Classified into general purpose and special purpose keyboards.
(i) General purpose keyboard is QWERTY keyboard it has (i) alphanumeric keys (all
alphabets A-Z and numbers 0-9)
(ii) Numeric Keypad (0-9, +,-,x,/) is located on the right side of the keyboard.
(iii) Function keys from F1to F12 usually arranged in a first row at the top of the
keyboard. Each function key performs different function depending upon the
current application being run by the user. They are also known as soft keys.
(iv) Cursor movement keys – These keys let us to change the position of the cursor on
the screen (cursor is the blinking mark on the screen where characters typed by
users would be entered).
Other features of keyboard are –
(i) Auto repeat feature i.e if a key is pressed for a delay period of 0.3 seconds, than the
character of the key start auto repeating.
(ii) Key board buffer – It is a small memory inside the key board in which the key stroke is first
saved before being transferred to main memory of the computer.
Mouse:- It is most popular point and draw device . It provides graphic user interface (GUI) for
interacting with computers. It is hand movable and has two buttons on the top (left button and right
button) and a ball on the bottom. Operation with mouse are pointing, clicking, double clicking and
dragging.
Other point and draw devices are:
(i) Track ball- It is similar to mouse except that a ball is placed at the top and is rolled with fingers.
(ii) Joy Stick- Similar to track ball except that the spherical ball at the top has a stick mounted on it.
(iii) Electronic Pen- We can hold the pen in our hand and directly point with it on the screen to select
menu times or icons.
(iv) Touch Screen- It enables the user to choose from available options by simply touching with the
finger, the desired icon or menu item display on the computers screen.
(v) Vision- Input system – It allows a computer to accept input just by seeing an object.
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(vi) Data Scanning devices- These are input devices used for direct data entry into the computer
system from source documents. Some of the commonly used data scanning devices are Image
scanner, optical character recognition (OCR), Optical Mark Reader (OMR) and Magnetic Ink Character
Recognition (MICR).
Optical Mark Reader (OMR) – These scanners are capable of recognising a pre-specified type of mark
made by pencil or pen
Magnetic Ink Character Recognition (MICR) – Used by banks for faster processing of large volume of
cheques.
Output Device: An output device is an electromechanical device that accepts data from a computer
and translates them into a form suitable for use by the user.
Some of the commonly used output devices are Monitors, Printers, Plotters, Computer Output
Microfilm (COM), voice response system, etc.
Output produced by computer is of two types – (1) Soft copy – It can only be seen, not be touched
and carried. (2) Hard copy – It can be provided on paper or some material that can be touched . It is
permanent in nature .
Monitor – Most popular device for producing soft copy output. Monitor together with keyboard form
Video Display Terminal (VDT). VDT is the most popular I/O device.
Two basic types of monitors. (i) Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) (ii) Flat panel
(i) CRT monitor with 17 inch to 21 inch screen size are commonly used with PC
(ii) A flat panel monitor is only about one-inch-thick, is light in weight & consumes less electricity
as compared to a CRT Monitor. The display technology used by flat panel monitor include LCD
(Liquid Crystal Display), LED (Luminescent Electro Display), GPD ( Gas Plasma Display)
The higher the resolution of a monitor , the clearer will be its displayed images.
A monitor may be monochrome or colour the most popular colour monitor are CGA- Colour Graphic
Adapter, EGA- Extended Graphic Array, VGA- Video graphic Array., SVGA- Super VGA.
Printer – Most popular device for producing hard copy monitor
Characteristics of Printers are :-
1. Printing technology used – The common types of printers according to this characteristic are
dot-matrix printer, ink-jet printer, drum printers, chain/band printer & laser printer.
2. Approach of printing - According to this characteristics, printers are classified as impact
printers and non-impact printers.
Impact printer use the approach of hammering a type face against paper & inked ribbon to
produce printed output, where as, non-impact printer use thermal, electronic, chemical or
inkjet technology to produce printed output.
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 Impact printers are noisy in operation, whereas, non-impact printers are quite in operation.
Impact printers can produce multiple copies by using carbon in a single print cycle, which is
not possible with a non-impact printer. Dot matrix, chain/band and drum printers are all
impact printers. Inkjet and laser printers are non-impact.
3. Speed of printing – According to this characteristics, printers are classified as
I) Character Printer -Prints one character at a time, e.g. drum printer, chain/band printer.
ii) Line printer - Prints one line at a time, e.g. dot matrix & Inkjet printer
iii) Page Printer - Prints one page at a time, e.g. Laser printer
4. Quality of Printing - The quality of the printed output is directly proportional to the resolution
of printing which is measured in dots per inch (dpi), dpi refers to the no. of dots that can be
printed per linear inch, horizontally or vertically.
5. Colour - Printers may be capable of producing output in a single colour, in two or three colours
or in multiple colours.
Hydra Printer- It is a combination of a printer, a fax machine, a copy machine and a scanner
Other output devices that produce hard copy
i. Plotter – Used for producing high precision, hard copy graphic output of varying sizes by
architects, engineers, etc.
ii. Computer Output Microfilm (COM) - Allows computer output to be recovered on a roll of
microfilm as microscopic film images.
iii. Voice Response System - It enables the computer to talk to the user.
Representation of information- The units of measurement of storage are BITS, BYTE, FIELD,
RECORD, FILE, DATABASE.
Bit and Byte- Computers use the binary number system, a number system that uses only two binary
digits or bits, 0 and 1.
All numbers, letters and special characters are stored in memory as a combination of the bits 0 and 1.
A bit is the smallest possible unit of data:-
A group of 8 bits is called Byte. A group of 4 bits is called Nibble.
1 Byte=8 bits; 1 Kilo Byte (KB)=210 bytes=1024 bytes; 1 Mega Byte (MB)=210 KB= 1024KB=220 bytes
1 Giga Byte (GB)=210GB=210MB=1024KB=230bytes; 1 Tera Byte (TB)=210GB; 1 Peta Byte (PB)=210TB
1 Exa Byte (EB)=210PB; 1 Zetta Byte (ZB)=210EB; 1 Yotta Byte (YB)=210ZB;
ASCII – American Standard Code for Information Interchange
Secondary storage devices: Due to limited storage capacity and volatility of primary memory, an
additional memory called secondary or external or auxiliary memory is used with most computer
systems.
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Advantages of Secondary Memory
1. Large Storage capacity
2. Cost per bit of storage is low
3. Non-Volatility data stored in it retained as long as the user wants.
Main limitation of secondary storage device is that the access time is large i.e time required to locate
and retrieve stored data from the storage unit is large
Two methods of accessing information -
1. Sequential or serial access – In this, arrival at the desired location may be preceded by
sequencing though other locations so that access time varies according to the location.
2. Random access – In this, arrival at the desired location directly without accessing the
preceding locations.
The various secondary storage devices are
1. Magnetic tape- Method of accessing information is sequential.
Advantage – (i) Storage capacity is very high (ii)Low cost per bit of storage (iii)Easy to handle and
easily portable.
Limitation – (i) Not suitable for storage of those data that require to be accessed randomly.
(ii) Should be stored in a dust free environment.
(iii) Should be properly laballed.
Storage capacity of a tape = data recording density X length of tape.
Data recording density is measured in bytes per inch (bpi)
2. Magnetic disk – It is a thin circular plate made of metal or plastic and coated on both side with
a magnetisable recording material such as iron oxide. Can be erased and used indefinitely.
Provides random access of data.
Storage Capacity = No. of recording surfaces X No. of tracks per surface X No. of sectors per
track X No. of bytes per sector.
Average access time = Average seek time + Average latency time
Seek time – Time required to position the read/write head over the track.
Latency time – Time required to spin the desired sector under the head.
Examples of magnetic disk – Floppy disk, Hard disk
Hard disk – These are the primary on-line secondary storage devices for most computer systems. They
are made of Aluminium. There are three types of hard disk. They are : Zip/Bernoulli disks, Disk Packs
& Winchester disks.
Advantages of Magnetic disks: (i) Support direct/random access of data.
(ii) Data transfer rate is high.
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 (iii) Less vulnerable to data corruption.
(iv) Easy to handle & usually portable.
Disadvantages of Magnetic disks: 1. Less efficient than magnetic tapes. 2. Cost per bit of storage is
more than tapes. 3. Some disks like disk packs & Winchester disks are not easily portable.
3. Optical disks: Laser beam technology is used for recording/reading of data on the disk. So they are
also known as laser disks.
Storage capacity = No. of sectors X No. of bytes per sector
Examples of optical disk are CD-ROM, WORM disk, DVD (Digital Versatile Disk)
Advantages of optical disk :
(i) Support direct/random access of data.
(ii) Cost per bit of storage is very low.
(iii) Enoromous storage capacity (CD-Rom has capacity of about 650 MB.
(iv) Due to compact size & light weight, it is easy to handle, store & portable.
(v) More reliable storage media than magnetic disks & tapes.
DVD can store seven times more data than CD-ROM. DVD is an improved version of CD. Capacity of
DVD is about 4-7 GB.
Disadvantages of optical disk:
(i) It is a read only storage medium.
(ii) Data access speed is slower than magnetic disks.
4. Magneto-optical disks – These integrate both optical and magnetic disk technology to enable
rewritable storage with laser beam technology. They are also known as rewritable optical disks. They
have storage capacity of 1 GB.
Advantages of optical disk :
(i) It is rewritable storage device.
(ii) Support direct/random access of data.
(iii) Cost per bit of storage is very low.
(iv) Enoromous storage capacity
(v) Due to compact size & light weight, it is easy to handle, store & portable.
(vi) More reliable storage media than magnetic disks & tapes.
Disadvantages of optical disk: (i) Data access speed is slower than magnetic disks.
Difference between Primary Memory and Secondary Memory
Primary Memory Secondary Memory

16
 1.It stores data and instructions temporarily 1.It stores data and instructions permanently.
while the computer is on. 2.Storage capacity is comparatively high.
2.Storage capacity is less. 3. Cost per bit of storage is comparatively low.
3. Cost per bit of storage is high. 4. It is non-volatile in nature i.e., it can retain
4. It is volatile in nature i.e., when the power is data even when the power is switched off.
turned off, data stored is lost 5. Access time is comparatively high.
5. Access time is low i.e., time required to
retrieve the stored data is low.

RAM (Random Access Memory) – The main memory of a computer is generally referred as RAM. It is
volatile memory. It is writable memory. RAM consists of Integrated Circuit (IC) chips on motherboard.
When the power is switched off, the contents of RAM will vanish
ROM (Read Only Memory) – It is a special type of RAM which is non-volatile and read only. The data
is stored permanently & cannot be altered by the programmer. Storing data permanently in ROM is
called ‘burning in the data’.
PROM – Programmable Read only Memory; EPROM - Erasable Programmable Read only Memory;
EEPROM – Electrically Erasable Programmable Read only Memory;
UVEPROM – Ultra Violet Erasable Programmable Read only Memory;
Uses of ROM –
(i) Mainly used to store programs which do not change and are frequently used. For e.g. Program for
system booting.
(ii) Micro programs are written on ROM to aid the control unit in directing all operations of computer.
Cache memory – It is an extremely fast, small memory between CPU & Main Memory whose access
time is closer to the processing speed of the CPU. It acts as a buffer between CPU & main memory &
is used to temporarily store very active data & instructions during processing. It is a memory in hiding.
The word ‘cache’ literally means a hiding place for stores or treasure. Size is small a it is inexpensive.
Size is 64 KB, 128 KB, 512 KB or 1 MB.
Use – It is used to minimise memory-processor speed mismatch.

RAM ROM
1.It is Random Access Memory. 1. It is Read Only Memory.
2. It is volatile in nature. 2. It is non-volatile in nature.
3. Data stored is temporarily in nature. 3. Data stored is permanent in nature.

17
 THE HIERARCHY OF STORAGE
Bits: The two binary digits 0 and 1, that the system uses to store the input data is called BITS.
Character: The basic building block of data is character that consists of letters, numbers and
special characters (+, @, %, &, #...) that are represented using bits.
Field: A field is a meaningful collection of related characters. It is the smallest logical data entry
that is treated as a single unit in data processing.
Record
A record is a collection of related fields that are treated as a single unit. E.g. an employee record
would be collection of fields of one employee. These fields would include the employee code, name,
designation, salary etc.
File
A file is a collection of related records that are treated as a unit. Unit.E.g. collection of employee
records for one company would be an employee file.
Database
Collection of integrated and related master files. (Master file- File of permanent nature;
Transaction file- File containing data of temporary storage.)
Data Processing : Data processing is defined as a series of actions or operations that converts data
into useful information. Data is raw material. Information is final product. Data processing converts
data to information. Data is generally storage as hierarchy which usually consists of:

Bit is the basic unit of primary & secondary storage, where as the character is the
basic unit for human perception. Field is the smallest logical data entity that is treated as a single unit
in data processing. E.g. to process employee’s data of a company, we may have fields like employee-
code, employee-name, hour of work etc. An employee record will contain the fields containing the
data of an employee, such as employee-code, employee-name etc.

18
A collection of all employee records will be an employee file. An employee database integrate the
records of multiple employee files, such as employee salary file, employee personal information file
etc.
Database helps in minimizing data redundancy, i.e. minimizing the data requirement & serving the
purpose with minimal data.
TYPE OF FILES:
• Transaction files: Used to store input data until it can be processed .E.g.-To prepare mark
sheet of students, the transaction file contains the marks obtained in each subject by the
students & the total marks.
• Master files: It contains all the current data relevant to an application. For e.g.-In preparing
mark sheet of students, the master file will contain the permanent details about each student
(his/her name, admission no, D.O.B. etc.
• Output files: In some cases the output produced by one program is used as input to another
program. In such cases the output of the former program is stored in a file known as output
file, which is later on used by the later program.
• Report files: It holds a copy of a report generated by a data processing application in computer
–accessible form until it is convenient to print it.
• Backup files: It is a copy of a file created as a safety precaution against loss of data caused due
to corruption or inadvertent deletion of the original files.

Chapter 4
Software

Software is classified into three categories:

1. Application Software 2. System Software 3. Utility Software

1.APPLICATION SOFTWARE :-

These are the programme employed by the user to perform some specific function or specific
tasks.They are broadly categorized as

i. Word processing software-It is computerized version of type writer which allows us to make
changes and corrections easily.e.g.wordstar,wordpad,MS-word
ii. Spreadsheet software-It displays a large grid of columns and rows.The area where the
columns and rows intersect are called cells.User can input text,numbers or formulas into cells
to create a work sheet.e.g.Lotus,MS-Excel

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 iii. Presentation software-It helps to create professional looking visual aids for the
presentation.e.g.-MS-Powerpoint
iv. Multimedia software-It incorporates images,text,sound,computer animation and video.
v. Database management software(DBMS)-It assists in organizing the data and provide tools
for performing manipulation on the data such as adding,deleting or modifying the records
that meet specified criteria.e.g.MS-Access.
vi. Entertainment & education software
vii. Communication software-Used to connect the computers so that they can share
information and resource.
2. SYSTEM SOFTWARE :-
The system software consists of all the programmes,languages and the documentation supplied by
the manufacturer along with the computer.They are also known as the system packages as they are
a set of one or more programmes designed to control the operation of a computer system.They are
general programmes written text as interface between the hardware,application programmes and
the user and facilitate the use of computer system.A computer without a system software would be
very ineffective and most likely impossible to operate.The system software can be broadly classified
into two categories.

A. Operating System (O/S)

B. Translators: Translators are categorised as
a. Compilers
b. Assemblers
c. Interpreters
A. Operating System: it is a system software that acts as an interface between user program and
computer hardware. It provides an environment in which user may execute programs. The primary
goal of an o/s is to make computer system convinient to use.
Functions of o/s:
i. Scheduling and loading of programs or subprograms in order to provide a
continuous job processing sequence.
ii. Resource management such as memory, process, i/o devices, secondary storage
devices.
iii. Handling errors when they occur and using correction routines where possible.
iv. Protecting hardware, software and data from improper use.
v. Memory management

20
 vi. CPU time management
An operating system may be single user or multiuser. Earlier the o/s were device dependent
i.e they can run only on a specific type of computer.Now device independent o/s has come
and thus we can retain existing application software and data files even if we change
computer models.

The Various Types of Operating Systems Are

• DOS (Disk Operating System)

• Windows – it is rather an operating environment. Various series of windows operating
system are windows 3.0, windows 3.1, windows 3.11, windows 95, windows NT, windows
98, windows 2000, windows xp, windows vista. (xp – experience)
B. Translators: the computer understands only the machine level language (which is in form of
binary language 0 and 1). Due to difficulting in writing MLL, the programmers use diverse HLL
software. So these HLL should be converted to MLL. This is done by translators. Thus translator
software is a system software required to convert a program written in one language (HLL) to
other (MLL).
Thus translator software is a system software required to convert a program written in one language
(HLL) to other (MLL).

Translator software is of two types :-

(i) Interpreter – IT takes one source program instruction, translates if into object code if
executes it, then takes up the next instruction, translates it & so on. Interpreters are easy
to use & takes less space.
(ii) Compiler – A complier translates a program written in HLL to an executable code written
in law level language. Compliers are comparatively more complicated to use as the
process of translation is more lengthy & occupies more space.
HLL – Interpreter/compiler - MLL
(iii) Assembler – The translator software to translate a All to MLL is Assembler
Assembler is a system software that takes as an input a program written in ALL and as an
output generates the program written in MLL which can be directly executed on the
computer.
ALL Assembler MLL

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3. Utility or service software – The service or utility programs are those that are used to provide
services to facilitate the working of the O/S. The utility software is classified into following
categories –
(i) File-defragmentation – It is used to defragment the files on the hand disk to speed up the working
of the hand disk.
(ii) Data compression – It is the ability to reduce the storage requirements of a file using mathematical
algorithms.
(iii) Backup software – It help user to copy large groups of files from hard disk to some other storage
media such as CD, Pen drive, etc.
(iv) Data recovery software – Windows O/S use recycle bin to call back files that are mistakenly deleted
by the user.
(v) Antivirus utilities – the antivirus utility software track the virus, eradicate and prevent their spread.
(vi) Screen savers – It is a program that displays moving images on the screen if no input is received
from the user for several mistakes.
Computer Virus : VIRUS – Vital Information Resources under Seize.

A computer Virus is a small software program that spreads from one computer to another computer
and that interferes with computer operation. A computer virus may corrupt or delete data on a
computer, use an e-mail program to spread the virus to other computers, or even delete everything
on the hard disk.

Functioning of viruses: viruses reside in executable files such as .COM or .EXE. Thus when PC
is switched on, the virus enters the RAM through .COM (COMMAND.COM) file and starts
destructive work of killing data and program files. Whenever the PC is switched off, they again
go back to the executable files.
More than 1000 computer viruses have been identified. They are classified as :
i) File Allocation Table (FAT) based viruses ii )Key board viruses and
ii) File based viruses

Some of the well known viruses are: Joshi, Die_Hard-2, Jerusalem, Generic, Brain, May_5th,
Gumnam, World peace etc.,
VACCINE: It is a software developed for removing the viruses.
In DOS version, there are in-built programs to guard against computer viruses. These are anti-
virus programs for both DOS and WINDOWS and a memory resident virus-safe program that
guards against the introduction of files that may be affected by virus.

22
Some of the anti-virus vaccines are: Quick heal Total security, NASHSOFT, UTSCAN, AVG, AVIRA, Mccafe
Kasper sky, Norton, etc
Software used to remove the virus – Antivirus.Worm: Worm is a small software program that
replicates itself without human intervention.

Problems caused by virus –

(i) Windows does not start because certain system files are missing.
(ii) Runs very slowly & takes much longer time to start.
(iii) Windows spontaneously restarts unexpectedly.
(iv) New programs are installed incorrectly.
(v) Distorted menus & dialog boxes are seen.
(vi) We see unused error messages.

Disk Operating System: It is a Character User Interface (CUI). It is known as MS-DOS because it has
been developed by Microsoft. DOS is a tool which allows the user to control the operation of PC. It is
a software which is written to control hardware. DOS is a 16-bit operating system (o/s) & does not
support multiple users & multitasking. It is non-graphical & is only character based. MS-DOS
development originally started in 1981. It works mostly on microcomputers. If we boot from the hard
disk, the DOS Prompt looks as C:\> .

Windows operating system- Microsoft windows is a software tool that allows us to perform many of
the tasks according to our need. It provides Graphic User Interface (GUI). Windows is a user friendly
operating system & makes us work with computers without remembering several complex
commands. The major feature of windows is the ability to be manipulated easily with little or no
instructions. Various versions of windows are WINDOWS-95, WINDOWS XP, WINDOWS NT, WINDOWS
VISTA, WINDOWS 7.0, WINDOWS- 8, WINDOWS- 8.1, WINDOWS- 10.

Basic components of windows:-

1. My Computer – This icon includes the disk drives & system folders.
2. My documents – It provides a convenient place to store our documents.
3. Recycle Bin – It stores deleted files & allows us to restore them.
4. My network places – It allows us to view the folders & files available on our network.
5. Desktop – It is a background area of the screen.
6. Start button – It provides quick access to programs and files.
7. Quick launch tool bar – Provides quick access to commonly used features.
23
8. Task bar – It is a row of buttons across the bottom of the screen. When an application is opened it
shows a button on the task bar.
9. Clock - Displays the current time.
10. Window – It is a rectangular area on screen surrounded by a window frame with a title at the top.
11. Scroll bar – A horizontal or vertical bar that contains box that looks like an elevator in a shaft. The
bar is clicked to scroll the screen in the corresponding direction, or the box (elevator) is clicked & then
dragged to the desired direction.
12. Title bar – It displays the name of an open window. The Title bar is also the handle for the window.
If you click and hold the mouse button down on the title bar, you can move it around the screen.
Linux: Linux O/S is free version of UNIX O/S. It is a networking O/S.
Basic communication with a Linux computer is through a command line terminal (no graphics) or
“shell”. That is, the commands are typed on the keyboard instead of clicking on things on the screen
with a mouse. Most modern UNIX/Linux platforms offer a graphical user interface similar to Windows
but its use over the network can be problematic. We will use the shell.
One of the advantages of using Linux and Linux shell is that we can access the computer from
anywhere through the Internet.
We will access our Linux server via secure shell (ssh) and secure file transfer protocol (sftp), which
have to be installed on our computer (PC or Mac). If we want to use our home computer for access to
our server download and install SSH 3.2.9 at http://www.sitesoft.uga.edu/ (SSH 3.2.9 includes both
ssh ad sftp, no need to install a separate sftp). For the purpose of this course you have been provided
with accounts on our lab server willow.mib.uga.edu (type it in when SSH asks you for a host name).
ssh allows you to open a Linux shell window on your desktop. In the Linux shell, you can type in
commands, run programs and manipulate files on the remote computer. ssh itself does not allow you
to move files between your computer and the remote Linux computer. That’s done by sftp.

Chapter 5
Microsoft Word
MS WORD is a word processing package. Word processing is defined as an activity which involves the
use of hardware and software to create, enter, store, retrieve, save, edit, manipulate, transmit & print
text material. Various word processing packages are : MS Word, Wordstar, Pagemaker, etc.
Microsoft Word is a full-featured word processing program that helps us to create, process and
revise our document such as letters, resumes, study materials, reports, tables, etc. We can easily
include borders, shading, tables, graphics & pictures in our documents. All word files in MS Word 2003
version have extension name .doc and in MS Word l 2007 have extension name .docx.
24
 Word can detect the spelling & grammatical errors. Word can allow us to select our own font
style, font size, font colour. Also we can set the space between the paragraphs. Thus editing &
formatting of document are the main features of MS-WORD.
FEATURES
Advantages of word processing packages are:
1. Faster preparation of text or documents
2. Easier correction of typographical errors.
3. Faster revisions in the documents or text.
4. Can underline, italicise or bold the text.
5. Can correct the spelling mistakes with the help of dictionary present in the software.
6. The document remains stored in the secondary storage for further editing. There is no need
to retype the matter every time.
7. The formatting of the document can be easily changed to get the desired visual effect.
8. A neat & clean find printed document can easily be produced.
A word Processor is a software package that helps to create, format & print a document. Files created
in MS WORD has extension name .doc .
Features of Word Processing Package
1. Creating a document – It involves specifying the page size, margins, font type , font size, line
spacing, tab stops, etc. All word processing software provides at least some basic capabilities
to help us create, edit and format documents.
2. Editing and Formatting the text - We can insert, delete or rearrange words, sentences,
paragraphs or entire sections. We can use the find feature to locate all occurrences of a
particular character, word or phrase. This feature can be used in combination with the replace
feature to substitute existing character, word or phrase with new ones. A wide range of
formatting features are available like (i) modify font (ii) Line width specifications (iii) page
breaks & section breaks (iv) vertical alignment (v) paragraph alignment (vi) centering text (vii)
Identing paragraphs (viii) underlining, Bold & Italicise a text (ix) Line spacing (x) Inserting
header & footer, page number, (xi) Specifying font size, font style & font colour.
3. Spelling & Grammar checking – MS WORD has a spell checker command in the Tools Menu
that looks at each word document or selected portion & gives us options for correcting the
misspell words. There is also provision for Grammar checking in tools menu
4. Thesaurus - It is a list of words with synomonym & antonyms. One can use the thesaurus to
find synonyms, definitions and antonyms for words typed in a document.

25
 5. Creating Table - Table is a grid of horizontal rows and vertical columns into which one can
enter data. The rectangular area at the intersection of a column and a row in a table, into
which we enter data, is called a cell. MS WORD offers a very powerful feature of making tables
with any no. of rows and column. Tables in MS WORD are very flexible and with lots of built-
in features. User can enter text as well as graphics into the cells of table. Steps to create a
table are:
(i) The document is opened and the cursor is moved to the location where we want to create the
table.
(ii) Then we select the insert table command from the table menu and enter the no of column
and no of rows in the respective boxes in the insert table menu. Now the table with desired
no. of columns and rows in created. We can also edit the text in a table can also add/delete
rows and columns in the table. we can also merge cells.
6. Printing the document file - The completely typed, formatted and edited document can be
printed. First we click on file menu. Then from the drop down menu we click on print. Then a
print dialog box opens. Then we specify the page (s) & no. of copies and paper size. Then click
OK button to print the document. The print dialog box can also be opened by clicking on the
print button in the standard tool bar.
Before printing the document, a print preview is made for the document to see on the monitor, how
the printed document will look like . Print Preview can be opened directly by clicking on print preview
button on standard tool bar.

How to start MS WORD :

1. Click on the Start button. The start menu will appear.
2. Click on All programs.
3. In all programs submenu, click on microsoft office word .
The word window will appear and it displays many items such as :-
(1) Title bar - It shows the name of the displayed document.
(2) Menu bar - It is a special tool bar that displays the word menu names. Each menu contains a
list of commands, which we can use to perform tasks such as retreiving storing, printing & formatting
data in our document.
(3) Standard Tool bar - It has buttons that we can use to select common commands, such as save,
print, open, cut, copy, paste, etc.
(4) Formatting Tool bar - It has buttons than we can use to select common formatting commands,
such as Bold and Italic.
26
(5) Ruler - It allows us to change tab and indent settings for our computer.
(6) Insertion Point - It is a flashing line on the screen that indicates where the text we type will
appear.
(7) Document view - It provides four different views of our documents. They are normal view,
print layout view, web layout view.
(8) Scroll bars - They allow us to browse through a document.
(9) Status bar - it provide the screen and the position of the insertion point.
Standard Tool bar and formatting tool bar are two built-in toolbars.
A new document can be opened by click on New in the file menu or from standard tool bar.
Then the matter is entered in the document and saved with a name by clicking save in file menu or
from standard tool bar.
To open a saved document, we click on open in the file menu or from standard tool bar. The
open dialog box appears which shows the name of the documents we want to open. We then click on
the name of the document which we want to open & then click on open to open the document.
For spelling & grammar checking we click on the tools menu. Then click on spelling & grammar
check option of tools menu. If a word is misspelt & it is in the dictionary of the application, then that
word will be underlined in red. The correct spelling will be substituted on its place by clicking change
button. Now the red color underline will varnish. The red underline in misspelt words will not appear
when we print the document without substituting that word with correct spelling.
An opened file can be closed by clicking on file in the menu bar & then click on close in the file
menubar.
To exit word, click on file & then click on Exit in the file menu.
Selecting text :
(i) A particular portion of the document can be selected by dragging the mouse over that portion
with the left button of mouse kept pressed with our finger.
(ii) A word can be selected by double-click on that word. A click outside the word will deselect it.
(iii) To select a sentence, click the sentence we want to select by holding the ctrl key pressed.
We can make the text of a document Bold, Italic, Underline by clicking on B, I, U respectively
on the formatting tool bar.
There are also shortcut keys for different menus, such as, ctrl + N for New; Ctrl + O for Open; Ctrl + S
for Save; Ctrl + B for Bold; Ctrl + I for Italicise; Ctrl + U for Underline; Ctrl + L for Left align; Ctrl + E for
Centre align; Ctrl + R for Right align; Ctrl + J for Justify; Ctrl + A for Select All; Ctrl + Shift + + for
Superscript; Ctrl + = for Subscript; Ctrl + V for Paste; Ctrl + Z for Undo; Ctrl + Y for Redo; Ctrl + > for

27
Grow font; Ctrl + < for Shrink font; Ctrl + Shift + C for Format Painter; Ctrl + F for Find; Ctrl + H for
Replace; Ctrl + Return for Page break
Chapter 6
Microsoft Excel
Microsoft Excel is a powerful spreadsheet program that allows us to organise data, complete
calculations, make decisions, graphical presentation of data..
A spreadsheet program is an application software package that is used to organize, calculate and
analyse numerical data.
Examples of various spreadsheet packages are MS-EXCEL, Lotus 1-2-3.
Parts of Excel
The major parts of Excel are :-
(i) Worksheet or spreadsheet - It allows us to enter, calculate, manipulate and analyse data such
as numbers and text.
(ii) Charts - They pictorially represent data.
(iii) Databases - They manage data. Once data is entered into the worksheet, excel can sort the
data, search for specific data & select data that satisfy a criteria.
Features of Excel:
(i) Each excel file is a workbook that can hold many worksheets. By default, each workbook contains
3 worksheets. The worksheet is a grid of columns and rows. The intersection of columns and rows is
called cell. All excel files in MS Excel 2003 version have extension name .xls and in MS Excel 2007 have
extension name .xlsx. Each worksheet or spreadsheet works like an electronic file where we can save,
modify and retrieve the electronic file anytime according to our requirement.
(ii) Each cell has a cell address. There are 65536 rows and 256 columns in MS Excel 2003 version. The
rows are numbered from 1 to 65536. The columns are named as A,B,….,Z,AA,AB,…AZ,BA,BB,….BZ & so
on. The first column is A and the last column is IV. Thus the total no. of cells = 65536 X 256 = 16,777,
216. The cell address contains the column and the row whose intersection gives rise to the cell. For
example, the cell address E4 means this cell is the result of intersection of column E and row 4. In MS
Excel 2007 and MS Excel 2010 version there are 1048576 no.s of rows and 16384 no. of columns. Thus
total no. of cells = 1048576 x 16384 = 17179869184.
(iv)Various formatting tool bars are also available in excel.
(v) Charts and graphs can also be created.
(vi) There are several functions such as mathematical, statistical, financial and several other functions
available in excel. These functions enables us to work out various mathematical, statistical, financial
problems, etc. Each function has a formula associated with them. We can directly use the function or
28
enter the formula for that function in the cell and use that function. For using any function/formula
we have to select/mention the range of data entered in the cells with the help of cell address.
How to start MS Excel
Click on start. The start menu will appear. Then click on All Programs. Click on Microsoft Excel
in the All Program submenu.The Microsoft Excel appears after few moment.
An empty work Book titled Book 1 will be displayed in the Excel Window.
Excel also has menubar, standard tool bar & formatting tool bar.
An Excel work book has several worksheets. By default, there are 3 sheets in a work book. We
can also delete or add new sheets. Also we can rename the sheets. All these can be done by keeping
the mouse pointer over the sheet tabs & then right clicking the mouse & selecting the action which
we want to perform (delete or add new sheets or rename the sheets) by left clicking over the action.
We can add up to a maximum limit of 255 sheets.
The active cell is identified in 3 ways :
(i) A heavy border surrounds the cell;
(ii) The active cell reference is displayed immediately above column A in the Name box
(iii) The column heading and row heading of the selected cell is highlighted.
The horizontal and vertical lines representing the rows and columns on the worksheet are called
gridlines.
The mouse pointer has the shape of a block plus sign. The mouse pointer is displayed as a block
plus sign, whenever it is located in a cell on the worksheet. Whenever we move the mouse
pointer outside the worksheet, the mouse pointer turns into a block arrow.
A work sheet window allows us to view the portion of the worksheet displayed on the screen.
Below and to the right of the worksheet window are scroll bars, scroll arrows and scroll boxes,
which we can use to move the window around to view different parts of the active worksheet.
The menu bar, standard tool bar and formatting tool bar and formula bar are displayed at the
top of the screen, just below the title bar.
Menu bar is a special tool bar that includes the menu names. Each menu name represents a
menu of certain commands that we can use to open, save, print and format data on the
worksheet. If we point to a command on the menu with an arrow to its right a submenu is
displayed from which we can choose a command.
The standard tool bar and the formatting tool bar contain buttons and list boxes that allow us to
perform tasks more quickly than using the menu bar.
Formula bar appears below the standard and formatting tool bars. Whenever we type data, it
gets displayed in the formula bar.
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 A cell can be made active cell by just left clicking on it. We can enter data in the active cell by
typing the data. If we make a typing mistake while entering data, we press the Backspace key
from keyboard to remove the incorrect data. Then type the correct data. Then we press the Enter
key to enter the data and move down one cell. Also we can enter the data and move one cell in
any direction by pressing the Arrow keys from keyboard.
To select a Row, we click on the number of the row we want to select.
To select a column, we click on the letter of the column we want to select.
To create a new workbook we click on New button on the standard tool bar.
To save a workbook, we click on save button in the standard tool bar.
To open a workbook, we click on the open button on the standard tool bar.
We can change column width by placing the mouse pointer over the right edge of the column
heading. The mouse pointer changes to (). Then we drag the column edge until the dotted line
displays the column width we want.
We can change row height by placing the mouse pointer over the botton edge of the row
heading. The mouse pointer changes to (). The we drag the row edge until the dotted line displays
the row height desired.
To Insert a row, we first click on the row number, then we click on Insert in the menu bar. The
insert menu will appear. We then click on Rows in the insert menu. The new rows appears and
all the rows that follow, shift downward.
To Insert a column, we first click on column letter, then we click on Insert in the menu bar. The
insert menu will appear. We then click on columns in the insert menu. The new columns appears
and all the columns that follow, shift to the right.
To insert a cell, select the cell or cells where we want to insert new cells. Then we click on insert.
The insert menu will appear. We then click on cells in the insert menu. The insert dialog box will
appear. Then we click on the radio button of an option to shift the surrounding cells to the right
or down to make room for the new cells. Then click on OK to insert the cells. New cells will be
inserted and the surrounding cells will be shifted in the direction we specified.

Formulas and Functions:

Formula: A formula is a mathematical expression which contains one or more operators.
Arithmetic operator (+, -, x, /, %, ^) and comparison operator (=, =, < = , %, < >)
Formula are expressions which help us to calculate and analyse the data in our worksheet. A
formula in the worksheet always begins with an equal sign (=).

30
 Functions: A function is a ready - to - use formula that we can use to perform calculation on
the data in our worksheet. Example of some commonly used functions are SUM, AVERAGE, STDEV,
MAX, COUNT, MODE, MEDIAN.
Suppose the range of cells A1 to A10 contain data. The following formulas can be used to find
sum, average, mode, median, etc.
=Sum(A1:A10) - Finds sum of the numbers entered in cells A1 to A10

=Average(A1:A10) - Finds average of the numbers entered in cells A1 to A10

=Mode(A1:A10) - Finds mode of the numbers entered in cells A1 to A10

=Median(A1:A10) - Finds median of the data entered in cells A1 to A10

=Stdev(A1:A10) - Finds standard deviation of the data entered in cells A1 to A10

=Max(A1:A10) - Gives the maximum value of the data entered in cells A1 to A10

=Min(A1:A10) - Gives the minimum value of the data entered in cells A1 to A10

=Count(A1 : A10) - Counts number of observations from cells A1 to A10

=sumsq(A1:A10) – counts the sum of squares of the observations from A1:A10

Utility of excel:
• Upon changing the numeric information, the worksheet programs will automatically
recalculate & give results according to the new information entered in it. We can also print
the whole worksheet or a part of our worksheet in a desired format.
• Worksheet or spreadsheet is used in payroll slip preparation, yearly or monthly budget,
planning, prepare annual reports in commercial organizations, for scientific calculations,
create bills & control inventory & in other similar areas.
• Worksheet is also used widely to store journal articles, ledgers and trial balance sheets of a
company.
• Also used in hospital and hotel management.
• Used in marketing and advertisement.

Chapter 7
Microsoft PowerPoint
Microsoft PowerPoint is a complete presentation graphics that allows us to create professional
presentations. A PowerPoint presentation is also known as a slide show. In PowerPoint, as in most
other presentation software, text, graphics, movies & other objects are positioned on individual pages
or “slides”. MS PowerPoint is an integrated software package for an effective communication &

31
provides many different ways to deliver a presentation job. All powerpoint files in MS powerpoint
2003 version have extension name .ppt and in MS powerpoint 2007 have extension name .docx
Facilities provided by PowerPoint:
(i) To create presentation slides using graphical objects.
(ii) To create handouts, speaker’s notes & outlines.
(iii) To apply text with varying fonts & styles alongwith animation & sound effect.
(iv) Galleries of images and sound.
(v) Video slide show on the computer screen and multimedia projector.
(vi) Printed outline of a presentation.
(vii) Colour transparencies for the overhead projector.
Elements of PowerPoint package: Different elements of PowerPoint package are-
(i) Templates – They include no. of slide styles with varying colours and design. They decide the colour
scheme, frame, font style, size and no. of other characteristics that alter a slide appearance.
(ii) Wizards- They provide step by step approach to perform a variety of tasks.
(iii) Views- PowerPoint gives the flexibility of switching between no. of views during the creation of
slides. In slide view user can work on one slide at a time.
(iv) Colour scheme – PowerPoint provides the facility to change the colour of shadows, title text, lines,
boxes, fills backgrounds, accents by using the colour scheme.
Uses of Power Point :
(1) It allows us to create dynamic presentation easily that include multimedia features; such as sound,
movies and pictures.
(2) The Table Draw Tool is available in Power Point to draw tables.
(3) It makes easier for us to share presentations & collaborate on those presentations.
Starting Power Point : (1) Click on the Start button. The start menu will appear. (2) Point to All Progam
on the start menu. (3) Click on Power Point in the All Programs submenu. A blank presentation titled
Presentation 1 is displayed in the Power Point window.
Features of Power Point : A slide, which contains objects, such as the title, text, table, charts and
drawings, is the basic unit of a power point presentation.
There are 3 main views of power point. They are normal view, slide sorter view and slide show
view. View means the mode in which the presentation display the screen. At a time any one view can
be used. When a presentation is created, one generally uses normal view and slide sorter view.
Normal view is composed of three working areas that allows us to work on various aspects of
a presentation simultaneously. Normal view allows us to view the tabs pane, slide pane and notes
pane at the same time. Tabspane is on left side of the screen, that consists on outline tab & a slides
32
tab that alternate between views of the presentation in an outline of the slide text and a thumbanil,
or miniature, view of the slides. Slide pane displays a large view of the current slide on the right side
of the window. We can enter text, graphics, animations and hyperlinks directly in the slide pane.
Notes pane is an area at the bottom of the window where we can type speaker notes & additional
information.
Slide sorter view displays thumbnail versions of all slides in a presentation. It allows to see all the slides
in the presentation simultaneously. We can rearrange the order of the slides, also add transitions &
timings to switch from one slide to the next in a presentation, add and delete slides and preview
animations.
Slide show view displays the slides as an electronic presentation on the full screen of our computer’s
monitor.
Basic components of PowerPoint window:
(i) Status bar : Immediately above the window task bar at the bottom of the screen is the status bar.
It consist of a message area and a presentation design template identifier.
(ii) Menu bar: PowerPoint menu name are in the special tool bar called the menu bar. Each menu
name represents a menu of commands that we can use to perform tasks such as retreiving, storing,
printing & manipulating objects in a presentation. It includes different options, such as, File, Edit, View,
Insert, Format, Tool.
A menu is basically a list of commands. If we point to a command on a menu that has an arrow to its
right edge, a submenu displays another list of commands.
(iii) Standard, Formatting & Drawing tool bar
To perform frequent tasks more quickly & efficiently than the menu bar, the standard tool
bar, formatting tool bar & drawing tool bar are used.
Standard Tool Bar- It includes different icons for frequently used operations such as, creating new
presentation, opening a presentation, saving a presentation, etc.
Formatting Tool Bar- It includes different icons for formatting text, colour, fonts, etc.
Drawing tool bar- It includes icons for different drawing tools.
(iv) View buttons: It includes different icons for view of a slide. There are 4 types of views: Normal
view, Slide sorter view, Slide show and Notes page
Presentation Slide: A Presentation slide has the following components – (i) Title place holder – used
to hold the title of a slide. (ii) Text Place holder – used to hold any text description that has to be
displayed on a slide. (iii) Object place holder – used to hold graphs & other objects that have to be
displayed on a slide.
How to prepare the presentation slides :
33
1.We click on the New button on the standard tool bar to create a blank presentation. It is slide 1.
2.In slide 1, we click on the title text place holder box which is labelled “Click to add title”. Then the
title text is entered in that box with the help of key board.
3.We click on the subtitle text place holder box which is labelled “Click to add subtitle”. Then the
subtitle text is entered in that box with help of key board.
4.Then we click on New slide button on the formatting tool bar. A new slide will be opened. Then slide
layout task pane appears for us to choose the layout of the slide.
5.Then we click on the title text place holder box which is labelled “click to add title”. Then the text
for title is entered by using key board.
6.Then we click on the add text place holder box which is labelled “click to add text”. We write the
text in this box by using key board.
Steps 4 to 6 are repeated for every addition of slides according to our requirement.
All the text entered in the slides can be formatted such as font colour, size, style, Bold, Italic, Underline,
etc. by using the formatting tool bar.
Saving a presentation: (i) Click on save button on the standard tool bar to save the presentation. (ii)
Type a name for the presentation file. (ii) Click on save button to save your presentation.
Starting a slide show: Once a presentation is designed, a slide show is used to actually show or to view
the slide presentations. By clicking on slide show on the menu bar, the slide show menu will appear &
from it clicking on view show submenu, the slide show will occur. Also we can press the F5 Function
key to start the slide show. This show is used to check final sizes, colours, animation effects, transition
between slides, sounds, other controls and effects.

Chapter 8
Computer programming
Algorithm: It is the step by step decision of how to arrive at the solution of the given problem. It refers
to the logic of the program.
Program: It is the step by step instructions given to the computer for performing a particular task or
for solving a problem.
When an algorithm is represented in form of a programming language, it becomes a program.
Qualities of a good algorithm: 1. Should require less time 2. Should require less memory 3. Should be
more accurate 4. Should be generalised i.e. can handle a range of data.
Qualities of a good program: A good program should be simple, natural, efficient, concise, suitable to
its environment.
Various Programming Languages are: BASIC, C C++, ALGOL, FORTRAN, COBOL,etc.
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Flow Chart or Flow Diagram: It is the pictorial representation of an algorithm.
Basic Flow chart Symbols:
1. It is the terminal symbol used to indicate beginning (START) and ending (END) in
the program logic flow.
2. It is the Input/Output symbol. It denotes any function of I/O device
3. Processing symbol i.e. carrying on the processing job.

4. Decision symbol
5. Flow Lines with arrow heads indicating the flow of operation.

6. Connectors- connects one part of the flow chart to other part in the next page

Flow Chart Rules:

1. Words used in the flow chart symbols should be common statements and easy to understand.
2. Be consistent in using names and variables in the flow chart.
3.Go from left to right and top to bottom.
4. Keep flow charts as simple as possible.
Advantages of flowcharts:
1. As it is a pictorial representation of the program, it is easier for a programmer to explain the logic
of a program.
2. It serves as a roadmap to the programmers.
3. Helpful in detecting, locating and removing mistakes (called bugs) in a program.
Limitations:
1.Very time consuming and laborious to draw with proper symbols and spacing, especially for large
complex programs.
2.As symbols are used, so any changes in the program logic will usually require a completely new flow
chart.
Some Programs in BASIC :
Mean, variance, standard deviation & C.V. of first ten natural numbers
10 REM mean, var, S.D & C.V. of first 10 natural no.s
20 CLS
30 For i = 1 to 10
40 sum = sum + i
35
50 ssq = ssq + i^2
60 NEXT i
70 m = sum/10
80 k = ssq/10
90 v = k - m^2
100 s = v^0.5
110 cv = s/m x 100
120 PRINT “mean =”; m
130 PRINT “variance =”;v
140 PRINT “S.D.=”; s
150 PRINT “C.V. =”; cv
160 END
2. Mean, var, S.D & C.V. of first n natural no.s.
10 REM mean, var, S.D. & C.V of first n natural no.s
20 CLS
30 PRINT “No. of Obs.=”
40 INPUT n
50 FOR i = 1 to n
60 sum = sum + i
70 ssq = ssq + i^2
80 NEXT i
90 m = sum/n
100 k = ssq/n
110 v = k - m^2
120 s = v^0.5
130 cv = s/m x 100
140 PRINT “mean =”; m
150 PRINT “variance =”; v
160 PRINT “S.D. =”; s
170 PRINT “C.V =”; cv
180 END
3. Mean, var, SD, CV of n numbers
10 REM mean; var, SD & CV of n numbers
20 CLS
36
30 PRINT “no. of obs. =”
40 INPUT n
50 PRINT “please enter the numbers”
60 FOR i = 1 to n
70 INPUT num
80 sum = Sum + num
90 ssq = ssq + num^2
100 NEXT i
110 m = sum/n
120 k = ssq/n
130 v = k - m^2
140 s = v^0.5
150 cv = s/m x 100
160 PRINT “mean =”; m
170 PRINT “variance =”; v
180 PRINT “S.D. =”; s
190 PRINT “CV =”; cv
200 END
4. To find out whether number is odd or even
10 REM odd or even
20 CLS
30 PRINT “Enter the number”
40 INPUT n
50 IF n mod 2 = 0 THEN GOTO 80
60 PRINT “The number”; n; “is odd”
70 GOTO 90
80 PRINT “The number”; n; “is even”
90 END
5. To find out factorial of a given number
10 REM Factorial of a number
20 CLS
30 PRINT “Enter the number”
40 INPUT n
50 f = 1
37
60 FOR i = 1 to n
70 f = f x i
80 NEXT i
90 PRINT “factorial of”; n; “=”; f
100 END

Chapter 9
Internet
Internet and E-mail
The internet is a network of computer networks that makes it possible for any computer connected
to it to send and receive data from any other computer connected to it.
History of internet- The internet began in 1969 as a network called ARPANET, designed for the
Advanced Research Projects Agency of the U>S> Department of Defence.
How internet works – Computers connected to the internet work together to transfer data and
information around the world using servers and clients.
Server - Server is the computer which is responsible for the management of the resources on a
network by providing a centralised storage area.
Client is the computer which was an access to the contents of the storage area on the server.
When we transfer data across the internets various networks a router checks where our data goes
and decides in which direction to send the data according to the address which is known as internet
protocol (IP). Just like the postal system, the internet uses an addressing system to send data to a
computer at a fired or specific destination.
IP address & Domain name:- An IP address is a unique address that computer uses in order to identify
& communicate with other computer on a network utilising the internet protocol standard (IP).
The IP address has four groups of number and is separated by a period (.). Since it is difficult to
remember and use these all – numeric IP addresses, the internet favours the use of a text name that
represents one or more IP address. The text version of an IP address is the domain name. The domain
name system (DNS) is the system on the internet that stores the domain names and their
corresponding IP addresses.
Every domain name contains a top-level domain (TLD) abbreviation that identifies the type of
organisation which is associated with the domain.
Original TLD Type of Domain
.com Commercial
.net gateway or last
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.org non-profit organisation
.gov Government
.edu Educational and research
Equipment needed for internet
6. Computer- Any computer can be used to connected to the internet
7. Programs – Special programs are used on the internet which are given free of cost by
most service providers.
8. Modem- A modem services in exchanging information between a computer and the
internet
9. Speakers – Allow user to hear voice generated by computer
10. ISP (Internet Service Provider) – It is a company that provides access to the internet
like VSNL, Satyam, etc.
An Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company that gives us access to the internet for a fee.
Modem – It is a device that allows a computer to communicate through telephone lines. The word
modem is derived from a combination of the words, modulate (to change into an analog signal) and
demodulate ( to convert an analog signal into a digital signal) Both sending and receiving ends of a
communication channel must have a modem for data transmission to occur.
ISDN – Integrated Services Digital Network ;WWW- World Wide Web; URL- Uniform resource Locator
Website – It is a collection of web pages maintained by a college , university, company, government
agency, individual or organization.
Search Engine is a software program that you can use to find websites, web pages and internet files.
Advantages of the Internet – The internet offers many things to do. They are :-
1. E-mail- with E-mail, messages can be exchanged with people around the world.
2. Information- We can get information on any topic of interest
3. Entertainment- On internet different forms of entertainment can be gained
access to.
4. Programs –Many programs such as word processors, drawing programs, games,
etc. are found in internet.
5. On-line shopping- Goods and services can be bought and sold on the internet.
6. Chat – A chat can be held with a person or a group of persons at the same time
HTTP- Hyper Text Transfer Protocol; HTML- Hyper Text Markup Language;
LAN- Local Area Network; WAN- Wide Area Network
There are various types of internet sites. They are :- Government Sites, Education Sites, News sites,
Non-profit sites, Business / marketing sites, Personal web pages
39
Networks are broadly classified into two types: 1. LAN and WAN

LAN (Local Area Network) WAN (Wide Area Network)

1. Restricted to a limited geographic coverage of 1. Extend over several thousand kilometers.
a few kilometres. 2. Data comparatively lower.
2. Data transmission rate is higher. 3. Experience more error.
3. Experience fewer error. 4. Communication links used are telephone
4. Communication links used are twisted pair, lines, satellite channels, microware links
co-axial cable, fibre optics.
MAN – Metropolitan Area Network – It usually covers a wider geographic area (upto 50 kmin
diameter) than LAN and frequently operate at speeds very close to LAN speeds. It interconnects LAN
located in an entire city.
E-mail (Electronic mail) - The transmission of messages and files via a computer network is knows as
E-mail.
Advantages of E-mail:
1. Speed – To send, exchange and receive messages immediately, e-mail is the best medium
2. Cost- No fee for sending message only we have to pay for the internet connection to the ISP.
3. Convenience – An e-mail message can be sent any time from any where.
E-mail address – It is a combination of users name and domain name that identifies the user so that
he or she can receive message
It consists of two parts separated by ‘@’ symbol. The two parts are user ID & domain name. Ex-
arun_sahu@yahoo.com
Part of E-mail message:
From- A person who is sending the e-mail message, his email ID is written in this section
To- A person who is receiving the e-mail message his e-mail ID is written in this section.
Cc- It stands for carbon copy. The term is now commonly used in reference to e-mail. When we send
an e-mail message, we typically type the recipient's address in the "To:" field. If we want to send the
message to one or more other recipients, we can use the "Cc:" field to add additional addresses. This
will send the e-mail to the address in the "To:" field and to each address listed in the "Cc:" field as well.
The "Cc:" option is often used in business communications when a message is intended for one person,
but is relevant to other people as well. For example, a retail employee may e-mail another employee
saying he can work for him on a certain day. He might include his manager's and assistant manager's
e-mail addresses in the "Cc:" field to let them know he is taking the work shift. Similarly, a team

40
member working on a product design may e-mail his boss with the latest design revisions and may
"Cc:" the other members of his team to let them know the e-mail has been sent.
Bcc- It stands for blind carbon copy. Stands for "Blind Carbon Copy." When we send an e-mail to only
one person, we type the recipient's address in the "To:" field. When we send a message to more than
one person, we have the option to enter addresses in the "Cc:" and "Bcc:" fields. A Carbon Copy, or
"Cc" message is an e-mail that is copied to one or more recipients. Both the main recipient (whose
address is in the "To:" field) and the “Cc:” recipients can see all the addresses the message was sent
to. When a message is blind carbon copied, neither the main recipient nor the Bcc recipients can see
the addresses in the "Bcc:" field.
Blind carbon copying is a useful way to let others see an e-mail we sent without the main recipient
knowing. It is faster than sending the original message and then forwarding the sent message to the
other recipients. It is also good netiquette to use Bcc when copying a message to many people. This
prevents the e-mail addresses from being captured by someone in the list who might use them for
spamming purposes. However, if it is important that each recipient knows who our message was sent
to, use carbon copy (Cc) instead.
Subject: A very short content of our message is written in this section.
One major demerit of e-mail is the spreading of virus through e-mail. Most of the doubtful e-mail
messages spread viruses. They come in form of files attached with them. The virus spreads to the
computer when an e-mail attachment with a virus is opened.
Chapter 10
Audio-Visual Aids

Audio Visual Aids are also called instructional material. Audio literally means “hearing” and “visual”
means that which is found by seeing. So all such aids, which endeavor to make the knowledge clear to
us through our sense are called “Audio Visual Aids” or Instructional Material. All these learning
material make the learning situations as real as possible and give us firsthand knowledge through the
organs of hearing and seeing. Therefore, any device which can be used to make the learning
experience more concrete and effective, more realistic and dynamic can be considered audio visual
material.

We learn through our sense organs. Senses are the ways of knowledge. All the sense organs help us
in understanding the environment. Most of the knowledge, which we acquire from the school, comes
through our ears and eyes.

41
Audio Visual Aids Definition
According to Burton. These are sensory objectives and images which stimulate and emphasis on
learning process. Carter V. Good. It is a trainable (motivation, classification and stimulation) process
of learning.
Objectives of Teaching Aids
1. To enhance teachers skills which help to make teaching-learning process effective
2. Make learners active in the classroom
3. Communicate them according to their capabilities
4. Develop lesson plan and build interest
5. To make students good observer
6. Develop easy and understandable learning material
7. Follow child cornered learning process
8. Involve intimation in objectives
9. To create interest in different groups
10. To make teaching process more effective
Types
It can be classified simply on the bases of sensory experience. Because human beings derive their
experiences mainly through direct sensory contact. Keeping this in view, it can be classified in to
three main groups:
1. Audio Aids examples are Radio, Tape-recorder, Gramophone, Linguaphone, Audio cassette
player, Language laboratory
2. Visual Aids examples are Chart, Black and while board, Maps, Pictures, Models, Text-books,
Slide projector, Transparency, Flash-cards, Print materials etc.
3. Audiovisual Aids examples are LCD project, Film projector, TV, Computer, VCD player,
Virtual Classroom, Multimedia etc.
Advantages
1. Its helps to make learning process more effective and conceptual.
2. Its helps to grab the attention of students
3. It builds interest and motivation teaching students learning process
4. It enhance the energy level of teaching and students
5. It is even better for over burden classrooms
6. It provides students a realistic approach and experience
Disadvantages
1. Technical Problems 2. Students Distractions 3.Expensive 4. Time consuming 4. Need Space
42
 5.Convenience
Characteristics
1. Relevancy. 2.Useful and purposeful teaching 3. Accuracy 4. Interest 5. Minimize verbalism
6.Comprehensibility 7. Motivation 8. Realism

Criteria for selection and evaluation of audio-visual aids:

The extent to which the audio-visual aid.....
1.Represents a true picture of the topic 2. Has the ability to draw attention of the audience
3. Can arouse interest of the audience. 4. contributes towards meaningful understanding of the
topic 4. is likely to bring desirable change in the attitude of the audience. 5. is appropriate to the
level of the audience. 6. is worth the time and effort involved .

Chapter 11
Communication Process
It is a process of creating and sharing ideas, information, views, facts, feelings, etc. among the
people to reach a common understanding. Communication is the key to the Directing function
of the management.
Communications Process
Communications is a continuous process which mainly involves three elements viz. sender, message,
and receiver. The elements involved in the communication process are explained below in detail:
1. Sender
The sender or the communicator generates the message and conveys it to the receiver. He is the
source and the one who starts the communication
2. Message
It is the idea, information, view, fact, feeling, etc. that is generated by the sender and is then intended
to be communicated further.
3. Encoding
The message generated by the sender is encoded symbolically such as in the form of words, pictures,
gestures, etc. before it is being conveyed.
4. Media
It is the manner in which the encoded message is transmitted. The message may be transmitted orally
or in writing. The medium of communication includes telephone, internet, post, fax, e-mail, etc. The
choice of medium is decided by the sender.

43
5. Decoding
It is the process of converting the symbols encoded by the sender. After decoding the message is
received by the receiver.
6. Receiver
He is the person who is last in the chain and for whom the message was sent by the sender. Once the
receiver receives the message and understands it in proper perspective and acts according to the
message, only then the purpose of communication is successful.
7. Feedback
Once the receiver confirms to the sender that he has received the message and understood it, the
process of communication is complete.
8. Noise
It refers to any obstruction that is caused by the sender, message or receiver during the process of
communication. For example, bad telephone connection, faulty encoding, faulty decoding, inattentive
receiver, poor understanding of message due to prejudice or inappropriate gestures, etc.

Importance of Communication
1. The Basis of Co-ordination
The manager explains to the employees the organizational goals, modes of their achievement and also
the interpersonal relationships amongst them. This provides coordination between various employees
and also departments. Thus, communications act as a basis for coordination in the organization.
2. Fluent Working
A manager coordinates the human and physical elements of an organization to run it smoothly and
efficiently. This coordination is not possible without proper communication.
3. The Basis of Decision Making
Proper communication provides the information to the manager that is useful for the decision making.
No decisions could be taken in the absence of information. Thus, communication is the basis of taking
right decisions.
4. Increases Managerial Efficiency
The manager conveys the targets and issues instructions and allocates jobs to the subordinates. All
these aspects involve communication. Thus, communication is essential for the quick and effective
performance of the managers and the entire organization.

44
5. Increases Cooperation and Organizational Peace
The two-way communication process promotes co-operation and mutual understanding amongst the
workers and also between them and the management. This leads to less friction and thus leads to
industrial peace in the factory and efficient operations.
6. Boosts Morale of the Employees
Good communication helps the workers to adjust to the physical and social aspect of work. It also
improves good human relations in the industry. An efficient system of communication enables the
management to motivate, influence and satisfy the subordinates which in turn boosts their morale
and keeps them motivated.
Types of Communication
1. Formal Communication
Formal communications is the one which flows through the official channels designed in the
organizational chart. It may take place between a superior and a subordinate, a subordinate and a
superior or among the same cadre employees or managers. These communications can be oral or in
writing and are generally recorded and filed in the office.
Formal communication may be further classified as the Vertical communication and Horizontal
communication.
Vertical Communication
Vertical Communications as the name suggests flows vertically upwards or downwards through formal
channels. Upward communication refers to the flow of communication from a subordinate to a
superior whereas downward communication flows from a superior to a subordinate.
Application for grant of leave, submission of a progress report, request for loans etc. are some of the
examples of upward communication. Sending notice to employees to attend a meeting, delegating
work to the subordinates, informing them about the company policies, etc. are some examples of
downward communication.
Horizontal Communication
Horizontal or lateral communication takes place between one division and another. For example, a
production manager may contact finance manager to discuss the delivery of raw material or its
purchase.
2. Informal Communication
Any communication that takes place without following the formal channels of communication is said
to be informal communication. The Informal communication is often referred to as the ‘grapevine’ as
it spreads throughout the organization and in all directions without any regard to the levels of
authority.
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The informal communication spreads rapidly, often gets distorted and it is very difficult to detect the
source of such communication. It also leads to rumors which are not true. People’s behavior is often
affected by the rumors and informal discussions which sometimes may hamper work environment.
However, sometimes these channels may be helpful as they carry information rapidly and, therefore,
may be useful to the manager at times. Informal channels are also used by the managers to transmit
information in order to know the reactions of his/her subordinates.

Practical Example of Shannon-Weaver model of communication :

Thomson made call to his assistant “come here I want to see you”. During his call, noise appeared
(transmission error) and his assistant received “I want” only. Again Assistant asked Thomson
(feedback) “what do you want Thomson”.
1. Sender: Thomson
2. Message :
3. Encoder: Telephone of Thomson
4. Channel: Cable
5. Decoder: Telephone of Assistant
6. Receiver: Assistant.
7. Feedback
8. Noise: Distraction in voice

Barriers to Communication
The communication barriers may prevent a communication or carry incorrect meaning due to which
misunderstandings may be created. Therefore, it is essential for a manager to identify such barriers
and take appropriate measures to overcome them. The barriers to communication in the
organizations can be broadly grouped as follows:
1. Semantic Barriers: These are concerned with the problems and obstructions in the process of
encoding and decoding of a message into words or impressions. Normally, such barriers result due to
use of wrong words, faulty translations, different interpretations etc. For example, a manager has to
communicate with workers who have no knowledge of English language and on the other side, he is
not well conversant with the Hindi language. Here, language is a barrier to communication as the
manager may not be able to communicate properly with the workers.
2. Psychological Barriers: Emotional or psychological factors also act as barriers to communication.
The state of mind of both sender and receiver of communication reflects in the effective
communication. A worried person cannot communicate properly and an angry recipient cannot
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understand the message properly. Thus, at the time of communication, both the sender and the
receiver need to be psychologically sound. Also, they should trust each other. If they do not believe
each other, they cannot understand each other’s message in its original sense.
3. Organizational Barriers: The factors related to organizational structure, rules and regulations
authority relationships, etc. may sometimes act as barriers to effective communication. In an
organization with the highly centralized pattern, people may not be encouraged to have free
communication. Also, rigid rules and regulations and cumbersome procedures may also become a
hurdle to communication.
4. Personal Barriers: The personal factors of both sender and receiver may act as a barrier to effective
communication. If a superior thinks that a particular communication may adversely affect his
authority, he may suppress such communication. Also, if the superiors do not have confidence in the
competency of their subordinates, they may not ask for their advice. The subordinates may not be
willing to offer useful suggestions in the absence of any reward or appreciation for a good suggestion.
5.Physiological barriers: Inability to receive the message of communication due to fault in receiver’s
hearing problem or some technical problem in the communication channel

Berlo’s model: In 1960, David Berlo expanded Shannon and Weaver's linear model of

communication and created the Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) Model of

Communication, which separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by
other scholars. Berlo described factors affecting the individual components in the
communication making the communication more efficient.
Berlo's Model was first published in 1960 in the book entitled El Proceso de la Comunicación or the
process of communication. The model includes four components to describe the communication
process: sender, message, channel and receiver, each of the them are affected by many factors. The
model also focuses on encoding and decoding, which happens before sender sends the message and
before receiver receives the message respectively.
David Berlo's Model of Communication explains the various components in the communication
process. The four basic components are sender (or source), message, channel and receiver.
S-Sender
Sender is the source of the message or the person who originates the message and sends it to the
receiver. The sender transfers the information by using following factors:
• Communication Skills (ability to read, write, speak, listen etc.) directly affects the
communication process.

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An individual must possess excellent communication skills to make his communication effective and
create an impact on the listeners. He should know how to speak and how pronounce a word correctly,
where to take pauses and where to repeat and so on. Similarly, to the receiver. If he can not
understand the message, the communication will be ineffective.
• Attitudes towards the audience, subject, etc.
The attitude of the sender and the receiver effects of the message. The person's attitude towardsl the
receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the message.
• Knowledge
In this context knowledge is not the level of education. It is the clarity of the information which sender
wants to convey to the receiver. Familiarity with the subject of the message makes it easier to
understand it.
• Social Systems.
Values, beliefs, religion, laws, rules and general understanding of society affect the sender's way of
communicating the message.
• Culture
Culture refers to the cultural background of the sender or receiver.
M-Message
The step of creating a message (also called encoding) is the transformation of thoughts into words
that sender sends to receiver. It can be in the form of voice, audio, text, video or other media. Any
message comprises the following elements:
• Content is the thing, which the whole message from beginning to end contains.
• Elements are the non-verbal basics like language, gestures, body language etc. Content is
accompanied by some elements.[6]
• Treatment is the way in which the message is transferred to the receiver. Treatment also
effects the feedback of the receiver.
• Structure of the message is the way it has been structured into various parts or arranged. It
influences the effectiveness of the message.
• Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text, video,
etc.
C-Channel
Channel refers to the medium used to send the message. In mass communication technical machines
might be used as a channel like telephone, internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses
of a human being is the channel for the communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of the
channel:
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 • Hearing - We receive the message through hearing.
• Seeing - We perceive through seeing. We also get non-verbal messages by seeing.
• Touching - Many of the non-verbal communication happens from touching like holding hands.
• Smelling - We collect information from smelling.
• Tasting - Taste also provides the information to be sent as a message.
R-Receiver
Receiver is the person who gets the message and tries to understand what the sender actually wants
to convey and then responds accordingly. This is also called as decoding. Berlo's model believes that
the effective communication can be achieved if the sender and the receiver are on the same level. The
message might not have the same effect as intended if the receiver and sender are not similar.
The receiver must also have a very good listening skill.
Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model
1. There is no concept of feedback, so the effect is not considered.
2. There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers in communication process.
3. It is a linear model of communication, there is no two way communication.
4. Both of the people must be similar (on same level for communication) according to all the
factors mentioned above. Thus, the model is not practical in real life.
5. Main drawback of the model is that the model omits the usage of sixth sense as a channel
which is actually a gift to the human beings (thinking, understanding, analyzing etc.).[7]
Berlo's model was further developed in 1973 by W. Schramm, who used relational model instead of
linear. Schramm also used the effects and effects analysis components from Berlo's model and
suggested Interaction component in relation with active, selective and manipulative audience. He
argued that the most dramatic change in the communication theory in the last 40 years has been the
abandonment of the idea of passive audience. Audience is a full partner in the process of
communication.
Reference Books:

1. ICTs for Agricultural Extension: Global Experiments,Innovations and Experiences- Saravanan, R. ed.

2. Computer Studies – a First course – J. Shelly and R. Hunt.

3. Programming in BASIC – E.Balagurusamy.

Expt No. 1 –Binary number system- to be done in class

Expt No. 2 – Flowchart: page –35 to 36
Expt. No. 3- MS Word: page – 25 to 28

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Expt. No. 4- MS Excel: page – 28 to 32
Expt. No. 5- MS PowerPoint: page – 32 to 35
Expt No. 6 BASIC Programs: Page – 36 to 38
Expt. No. 6- Internet applications : page – 38 to 42
Expt. No. 7- Audio visual aids: Page- 42-44

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