Section Oil and Gas Exploration

ADVANCED TECHNIQUES FOR DETERMINING PARAMETERS OF

INTEREST IN THE SHALE GAS EXPLORATION

Prof. Dr. Eng. Frunzescu Dumitru1

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Eng. Branoiu Gheorghe1
PhD Student Georgescu (Jugastreanu) Cristina-Maria1
PhD Student Lungu Ionut-Andrei1
1
Petroleum-Gas University of Ploiesti, Faculty of Oil and Gas Engineering, Romania

ABSTRACT
During the last years, under Schlumberger brand, several methods have been refined for
determining detailed characteristics of geological formations, as they are necessary in
the assessment of shale gas potential based on drilling core investigations, wells
diagraphies investigations, seismic investigations, and combination of all these.
The correct determination of lithofacies of the cores leads to a quality diagnosis of
shales reservoirs. The accurate mineralogy input is obtained by Litho Scanner in the
sCore lithofacies classification system which generate a log display of the classification
and the reservoir and completion quality indicators (such as porosity, total organic
carbon = TOC, fracture density and stress) overlaid on the cores ternary diagram.
Between key reservoir parameters of the shale gas assessment (thermal maturity,
reservoir thickness, TOC content, adsorbed gas fraction, free gas fraction in the pores
and fractures, and permeability), thermal maturity is measured in core analysis,
reservoir thickness is measured with well logs, and the last parameters requires an
advanced approach that implies investigation platforms logging tools of different
parameters such as Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) and Elemental Log Analysis
(ELAN). These investigation platforms provides clay content and matrix density,
quantify kerogen, porosity and gas saturation. It is necessary calibration to cores for
thermal maturity and a metric to equate TOC to adsorbed gas. The amount of adsorbed
gas is a function of kerogen content, pore pressure, and temperature. Clay
quantification, in terms of clay minerals content and petrophysical properties it is
related by aluminum content, and the solution is SpectroLith application, that sums up a
series of empirical relationships that provide clay, carbonate, pyrite, and quartz-
feldspar-micas weight percent.
Elemental Capture Spectroscopy is a geochemical log that quantifies chemical elements,
and his investigation is maximized by SpectroLith. The kerogen can be accurately
estimated through merging of a conventional triple combo log with a geochemical log
that allows the calculation of mineral content, and an estimate of key petrophysical
properties (porosity, saturation and permeability). Minerals content calculated by
SpectroLith application can be readily incorporated in a petrophysical interpretation
program named ELAN.
In the assessment of shale gas also aims to quantify the adsorbed gas as well as quantify
of free gas, depending on reservoir pressure, porosity and gas saturation obtained by
ELAN program. The gas producibility assumes besides the drilling of vertical wells,

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horizontal wells and hydraulic fracturing using of advanced methods and instruments of
shale gas analysis.
In the paper there are underlined several advanced techniques for determination of some
parameters with large applicability in the shale gas exploration.
Keywords: shale gas potential assessment, cores analysis, geophysical investigations,
geochemical investigations, platforms logging tools

INTRODUCTION
Preliminary assessment of the petroleum potential of a geologic structure entails a
certain level of uncertainty [1] related to: (1) Methodology type (volumetric, material
balance, production decline curve for the calculation of the gas volume); (2) Quantity
and quality of input data of the calculation algorithms (necessary and mandatory
features). In the case of Romania, the data regarding shale structures hosting shale gas
accumulations are few and not of maximum quality. That is why extrapolation based on
similar geology of shale formations/plays from US (e.g. Marcellus, Barnett, Bakken,
Eagle Ford, Woodford, Niobrara, etc.) has been performed.
The initial characterization of shale formation involved a resources and reserves
estimate for the shale gas that requires knowledge of several parameters, which are to be
included in the calculation algorithms: (1) Critical parameters (thermal maturity, net
thickness, pressure of fluids present in the rocks, presence and number of natural
fractures, diagenesis level, etc.); (2) Major parameters (quantity of organic matter,
depth, mineralogy, fragility index); (3) Significant parameters (organic matter, historic
evolution of the formation, geologic hazard, in situ stress, etc.); (4) Flexible parameters
(permeability of mineral matrix, presence of natural barriers that may prevent
propagation of induced fractures, water management). The classification of such
parameters can be improved and they can be secured directly from the cores collected
from the advanced exploration wells or indirectly from the calculation of the data
secured from the seismic prospecting process or from the well geophysical diagraphies,
and most of the time through a combination of the data. [2]
The assessment process of some formations implies the availability of geological and
reservoir data that must be considered for each shale formation including the following
key items [3]: (1) Maximum prospective area; (2) Depth of top and base of shale
interval for definition of assessment unit; (3) Information on structure, including major
faults and relationships to terrane; (4) Depositional environment of mudstones; (5)
Evaluation of gross shale interval and identification of depocenters; (6) Organically rich
gross- and net-shale thickness to delineate assessment units; (7) Pressure; (8)
Temperature; (9) Porosity; (10) Permeability; (11) Total organic content (TOC); (12)
Thermal maturity (Ro); (13) Volume factor (Bg); (14) gas deviation Z-factor.
According to [3] the inputs of the sedimentation model are based on: (1) the depth and
absolute age of the stratigraphic boundaries; (2) the age and magnitude of erosion (if
any); (3) sedimentation gaps; (4) the lithological composition of each formation. The
results obtained from modelling refer to: (1) the geometry of the stratigraphic column
according to the geological history of the basin evolution; (2) the variation in burial
depth for each formation (including the source rocks); (3) the subsidence curves of the
basin. The inputs of the heat transfer model are based on: (1) the evolution of the

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surface temperature (paleoclimate); (2) the thermal flow crossing the rocks at the base
of the basin; (3) the thermal properties of the sediment. The input data of the
geochemical model require the selection of a source for the kerogen type. The resulting
modelling provides information on the maturation of the organic matter (the
transformation ratio, theoretical values of vitrinite reflectance, the quantities of
hydrocarbons generated and expelled during the geological history of the basin).

DETERMINING THE PARAMETERS FOR ASSESSING THE POTENTIAL OF

SHALE GAS
Over the last few years, the Schlumberger brand has refined the methods for obtaining
detailed formation features needed to assess the shale gas potential, basing them on drill
core investigations, log-based investigations, seismic investigations and their
combination. The correct determination of the core lithofacies leads to the quality
diagnosis of the shale reservoirs. The intervals with superior reservoir qualities are
targeted, but the so-called shales are more than fine granular sedimentary rocks with a
high organic matter content. Organic lutites (mudstones) are often a complexly
heterogeneous mineralogical association at a microscale level. A correct mineralogical
diagnosis is needed for a better understanding of the depositional conditions and for a
possible correlation between the formations (reservoirs) of the various fields or basins.
Thus, the input of a correctly quantified mineralogy by means of the Litho Scanner to
the Core Lithofacies classification system generates a presentation log of the
classification, and the quality indicator overlaps with the ternary diagram of the core
diagnosis. [4]
The classification of the cores for organic lutites (mudstones) is defined according to a
ternary diagram with three apexes representing the components in weight percentages:
clay, carbonate and quartz, feldspar and micas (QFM) (figure 1). The dominant term
designates more than 80% of a component. When the primary component is 50-80% of
the composition, lutite is described as sillicious (QFM = 50-80%), argillous (clay = 50-
80%) and carbonatic (carbonate = 50-80%). The term rich indicates a percentage
distribution of the secondary components = 20-50% of the composition. The sCores
classification is based on the mineralogical relationships within the ternary diagram
applied to organic lutites to determine the lithofacies and the indicators of the reservoir
and the completion of its quality (figure 1, figure 2 and figure 3). [4]

Fig. 1 Ternary diagram for Fig. 2 Reservoir quality Fig. 3 Completion reservoir
lithofacies classification indicator (gas-filled quality indicator (in-situ
(sCore classification) [4] porosity) [4] stress measurements) [4]

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Moreover, the eScores log, along with a correct diagnosis of the shale section
(beneficial for choosing the well location and the drilling design) also provides quality
parameters such as porosity, total organic carbon (TOC), fracture density and stress.
The parameters indicating the quality of the lithofacies are superimposed on the ternary
diagram of the core (figure 2 and figure 3). [4]

NEW EVALUATION TECHNIQUES FOR GAS-BEARING SHALE

RESERVOIRS
Being among the key parameters for evaluating gas-bearing shales (1. thermal maturity;
2. thickness of the reservoir; 3. TOC; 4. percentages of adsorbed gas; 5. percentages of
free gas in pores and fractures; 6. permeability), thermal maturity is measurable from
core analyses, the thickness of the reservoir is determinable from the well log, while the
other parameters require an advanced approach involving Elemental Capture
Spectroscopy (ECS) and Elemental Log Analysis (ELAN). These are platform tools for
investigating the various parameters that provide clay content and matrix density,
namely kerogen quantification, porosity calculation and gas saturation. The full
evaluation of the investigation requires calibration on cores for thermal maturity and for
the order of magnitude of the TOC equivalence to the percentage of adsorbed gas. The
problems are solved by using the Langmuir isotherm (gas content/pore pressure chart)
(figure 4). [5-6]
In gas-bearing shales, gas occurs both as a free phase in pores and fractures, and as
adsorbed gas on organic matter. Generally, gas-bearing shales are characterized by 4-6
pu porosity, TOC ≥ 4 % and low permeability (10-4-10-8 mD). The presence of density,
natural continuity and open fractures is critical for increasing the permeability system
and, for the development stage, it requires hydraulic fracturing to connect natural
fractures to the wellbore. Shales with an economic potential of gas reservoir are
relatively rare. Generally organic-rich gas shales have log features such as: very high
gamma-ray activity, very high resistivity, low permeability and low volume density.
The characteristic response of the investigation curves (especially for gamma-ray) is
related to the high kerogen concentration (which, as a reducing medium, facilitates the
precipitation of uranium); a mandatory property is volume density ranging from 0.95 to
1.05 g/cm3. High gamma-ray activity is variable according to pH, Eh, temperature T,
pressure P, Ur4+/Ur6+ isotope relations, variations in cations and anions. The resistivity
of the gas-bearing clays is high due to the low water saturation, usually irreducible,
which also results from the expulsion of hydrocarbons. The petrophysical characteristics
of kerogen are listed in table 1. [5-6]
Table 1 Petrophysical properties of kerogen [5]
Parameter
Bulk density 1.0 – 1.1 g/cm3
U 0.18 – 0.24
Neutron porosity 50 – 65 pu
Gamma ray activity 500 – 4000 gAPI
Sonic slowness 160 µs/ft

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Kerogen quantification / TOC

The amount of adsorbed gas is based on the kerogen content (TOC), pore pressure and
temperature. The quantification of the kerogen content, typically defined as TOC, is a
necessary step in the evaluation of shale gas. There are numerous papers on the use of
the conventional geophysical log to evaluate and quantify kerosene in shales, viewed
both as a source rock and as a potential rock reservoir. Conventional algorithms are
based on density and/or sonic logs to differentiate kerosene. Both types require a fair
estimate of the matrix properties. This estimate can be difficult due to the variable
mineralogy of the non-clay components (such as the pyrite content and/or calcite
concretions). Conventional logs provide only the kerogen content without the TOC
conversion and without calculating the adsorbed gas. [5-6]
Clay quantification may become problematic due to the different types of clay minerals
present and because of variability in terms of petrophysical properties within the clay
types (such as gamma ray activity, neutron porosity and sonic attenuation). There is a
tendency to consider the clay content a function of the gamma ray activity but contrary
data also suggest that the gamma ray activity depends on the variable kerogen content
as well. A correct indicator of clay is linked to the aluminum content and the diagnosis
(solution) for clay is the SpectroLith application, which sums up a series of empirical
relationships that calculate as a percentage the amount of clay, carbonate, pyrite and
quartz-feldspar-micas. [5-6]
Elemental Capture Spectroscopy (ECS) is a geochemical investigation which measures
Si, Ca, Fe, Ti, S, Gd and other elements, and which is maximized by Spectrolith.
Nevertheless, kerogen is predominantly composed of C, H and O, elements that are not
used for the estimation of the mineralogical composition by Spectrolith. Thus, ECS
provides an estimate of the clay which, however, is not associated with the
petrophysical parameters referring to the kerogen content. Kerogen can be correctly
estimated by associating a triple combo log (3 curves) with a geochemical log that
allows the mineralogical composition (i.e. the type and content of clay) to be calculated,
as well as an estimate of the key petrophysical properties (porosity, saturation and
permeability). [5-6]
A petrophysical interpretation program such as ELAN (Elemental Log Analysis) can be
used to obtain these parameters (figure 5). By means of SpectroLith (combinations of
empirical relationships), the amount of clay, carbonate, pyrite, quartz, feldspar and
micas can be calculate as percentages. The SpectroLith mineral parameters can easily be
incorporated into ELAN (kerogen may be attributed to the volume of quartz, feldspar
and mica). Once the volume of kerogen is estimated, the next step is to calculate the
volume of adsorbed gas. The volume of kerogen must first be converted to TOC (taking
into account the conversion factors related to the stages of diagenesis). The conversion
is based on the equation 1 [5]:

TOC= (1)

where: TOC = total organic carbon (lbf/lbf); Φker = kerogen volume (vol/vol); ρker =
kerogen density (g/cm3); ρb = bulk density (g/cm3); k = kerogen conversion factor.
The conversion factors of kerogen to TOC are shown in table 2.

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Table 2 Conversion factors for kerogen to TOC [5]

Stage kerogen type I kerogen type II kerogen type III
Diagenesis 1.25 1.34 1.48
End of catagenesis 1.20 1.19 1.18

Curve 2 in figure 5 compares the TOC calculated from logs to the one from the core. It
should be noted that in curve 2 the TOC data from the core and the log are comparable.
The analyses of the gas desorption in the core in curve 3 can also be compared
favourably with the adsorbed gas log. Each dark horizontal line represents 10 feet.

Fig. 4 Langmuir isotherm (gas content / Fig. 5 SpectroLith, TOC, and

pore pressure chart) [5] adsorbed gas log of conventional
and gas shale [5]
Adsorbed gas quantification
The adsorbed gas (methane) at the surface of kerogen is in equilibrium with methane in
the gas phase. The Langmuir isotherm (figure 4) was developed to describe this type of
equilibrium at a specific temperature (equation 2) [5]:

gc= (2)

where: gc = gas content (scf/ton); Vl = Langmuir volume (scf/ton); p = reservoir

pressure (psia); Pl = Langmuir pressure (psia).
A core analysis is required in order to generate a Langmuir isotherm. Equation 2 also
shows that the Langmuir volume and the Langmuir pressure + the reservoir pressure
must be known at some point.
Free gas quantification
Free gas quantification is also necessary for characterizing gas-bearing shales. Figure 6
shows the gas content (freely and totally adsorbed) related to pressure for a shale, in
samples of investigated logs: it is noted that adsorption is more efficient at storing low

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pressure gas, while free gas represents the dominant amount of gas at a higher pressure.
The percentage of free gas in the shale gas fields varies from 15% to 80%, depending on
the reservoir pressure, porosity and gas saturation. The total and effective porosity +
gas saturation can be calculated for gas-bearing shales using a petrophysical
interpretation of the ELAN program. The curve of the square dots in figure 6 indicates
the adsorbed gas content, the curve of the circular dots indicates the free gas in the
porous space and the curve of the black dots indicates total gas. Sorption is a very
efficient way of storing gas at low pressures; however, if pressures increase, free gas
probably represents the most part of the gas. Crossing is a function of effective porosity,
water saturation and pressure. [5]
Gas production capacity (Producibility)
Permeability in compact shales is a key factor in stimulating and predicting production.
Two permeabilities, of the matrix and of the system, are necessary. The matrix
permeability of a shale is typically 10-4-10-8 mD and can be measured directly from the
core analysis, or can be estimated through the log evaluation if a local calibration can be
developed. The system permeability is equivalent to the permeability of the matrix plus
the contribution of open fractures. The Fullbore Formation Microimager (FMI) tool is
usually preferred to identify and chart the fractures that intersect the wellbore. The
openings of the fractures can also be estimated. These parameters are used to determine
where the shale formation should be perforated and to predict the azimuth of the
fracture development. This parameter determination also appears to be a desideratum
for the implementation of the minimal exploration program. Besides carrying out
vertical and horizontal drilling as well as hydraulic fracturing operations, the process of
producing gas from source rocks requires many other operations. Reference is made to
advanced methods and tools for shale analysis. Gas-bearing shales are fine granular
rocks made by compaction of silt and clay particles. Shales are laminitic and sheet-like,
and depending on their diagenesis and mineralogy, they may be easier or more difficult
to fracture. The organic matter associated with shales evolves slowly and partially into
kerogen as insoluble matter from which hydrocarbons can be generated (oil and gas).
Different organic materials generate different types of kerogen. During the maturation
and burial processes, kerogene passes through an increasing range of temperatures and
pressures and generates specific products (figure 7). [5-6]
Burial and conversion processes of organic matter as well as hydrocarbon generation
processes (figure 7) can be summarized in three steps: (1) Diagenesis: characterized by
T< 50°C, conversion of organic matter to kerogen. Bacteria can digest and convert any
organic matter into biogenic methane; (2) Catagenesis: it generally occurs if advanced
burial leads to increased pressure and temperature (in the range of 50-150°C) causing
the chemical chains to break within the shale and kerogen; (3) Metagenesis: the final
stage in which heat and chemical changes convert kerogen into carbon. At this stage,
ultimate methane or dry gases are formed along with other gases including CO 2, N2,
H2S. Some hydrocarbons produced in earlier stages may eventually convert into
methane. Temperatures reach 150-200°C and more. [6-7]
Shales rich in organic matter and subjected to temperatures and pressures under the
conditions of the dry gas window are prime targets for shale gas exploitation. Using
geochemical, petrophysical and geomechanical properties, deduced from a variety of
sources, it is possible to determine the possibility of exploring the gas-bearing shale.

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Fig. 6 Gas content in scf/ton versus Fig. 7 Maturation stages in hydrocarbon

pressure for gas shale [5] generation [6]

Geochemical analyses
They are typically determined from core data, but some properties can be measured with
sensors lowered into the wellbore. Petrophysicists process and provide measurements
from the borehole by calibrating the log data to the core data. The geochemical
properties necessary for an appropriate characterization of shale gas resources include:
TOC, the volume and capacity of gas production, thermal maturity, permeability and
mineralogy.
Total organic carbon content (TOC): Exploration targets typically have TOC values
in the range of 2-10% weight (table 3). Rocks with TOC > 10% are too immature for
the development stage. Total carbon in a shale sample includes both inorganic and
organic carbon. The quantification of organic carbon is obtained by means of the
combustion technique. Organic carbon is oxidized to form CO2. The measured gas
(CO2) volumes are converted into TOC measurements and recorded as weight
percentages of the rock. TOC values may vary considerably for a given section of the
resevoir. Since it is not feasible to acquire and analyse cores from long borehole
intervals, geochemical investigation (conventional logging) is usually used to quantify
the kerogen volume in the rock and then to calculate the TOC values from these data.
To validate the parameters used for the TOC measurement, petrophysical data are
calibrated with values derived from the cores (table 3). [6]
Table 3 Relationship between TOC, S2 and EOM and resource potential [6-7]
TOC, weight % Pyrolysis S2, mg EOM, % Resource
hydrocarbons/g rock potential
< 0.5 <2 < 0.05 very poor
0.5 to 1 2 to 3 0.05 to 0.1 poor
1 to 2 3 to 5 0.1 to 0.2 fair
2 to 4 5 to 10 > 0.2 good
4 to 10 > 10 very good
> 10 unknown

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Gas volume and production capacity: Gas is either adsorbed on the kerogenic surface
of the shale or is freely distributed in the primary and secondary porosity of the shale.
Total gas in place (= GIP) is the combination of adsorbed gas and free gas. Depending
on the initial pressure of the reservoir, if free gas is produced and the pressure in the
pores decreases, adsorbed gas can be released or desorbed from the kerogen surface.
The volume of the gas adsorbed by the rock sample is described by a Langmuir
isotherm (figure 4 and figure 6). The Langmuir isotherm (yellow on the left) is derived
from samples of broken rock and the quantification of the rock storage capacity. The
Langmuir volume VL (the red line) is the theoretical limit for gas adsorption at infinite
pressure. The storage capacity at a given pressure p can be determined from the
drawing. The Langmuir pressure PL (the vertical blue line) is the pressure at a half
Langmuir volume. Using the Langmuir isotherm, total GIP = total gas in place (purple
on the right) for a specific reservoir can be determined as a pressure function. Total gas
is the adsorbed gas onto kerogen (yellow) and the free gas stored in the pores (blue). At
a low pressure, adsorption is a gas storage mechanism. If the pressure increases, the gas
in the pores increases accordingly. The productivity of most developed (accessed)
bituminous shales is given = mainly driven by the volume of gas in the pores.
Desorption occurs if the bottom-hole flow pressure drops. Once a Langmuir isotherm is
established, the storage capacity of the rock can be determined by reference to the pore
pressure, which is representative of the in situ reservoir pressure. The Langmuir
isotherms from the core data are used to calculate the adsorbed gas from the log
derrived TOC data. We calculate the free gas volumes from the effective porosity and
the gas saturation deduced from the log, after subtracting the calculated pore volume,
occupied by the adsorbed gas. A correct evaluation requires a geochemical and
petrophysical input including the clay content and type, matrix density, formation and
bound water resistivity, effective porosity and gas saturation. [5-6]
Thermal maturity: Thermal maturity is a function of the deposition history. If kerogen
is subjected to progressively increasing temperatures over time, vitrinite – the cell wall
material and the tissue of the plant preserved in the rock - undergoes an irreversible
alteration and gains increased reflectance (Ro). The measurement of vitrinite
reflectance (Ro) was initially developed to assess the degree of maturity of coals. Ro is
determined by microscope measurements of reflectance on at least 30 vitrinite granules
in a rock sample. Ro values typically range from 0 to 3% (table 4). Ro < 0.6% indicates
that kerogen is immature and has not been exposed to sufficient thermal conditions for a
time appropriate to the conversion of organic matter into hydrocarbons. [6-7]
Table 4 General classification of hydrocarbon fluid type within source rock based on
observations of vitrinite reflectance percentage, Ro% [7]
Fluid type Ro
None (immature rock) < 0.6 %
Oil 0.6 – 0.8 %
Wet Gas 0.8 – 1.1 %
Gas (with oil-generating tendency) 1.1 – 1.5 %
Dry Gas > 1.5 %

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Permeability: Gas permeability is one of the most difficult properties to quantify when
characterizing shale and ranges from 10 -2 to 10-7 mD. Permeability is a function of
effective porosity, hydrocarbon saturation and mineralogy. Conventional reservoirs
have permeabilities of hundreds of mD, several orders of magnitude larger than in
shales (unconventional reservoirs). The permeability of conventional reservoirs is
measured by forcing the fluid through the cores and then by measuring the fluid and the
flow rate through the sample. This conventional approach does not apply to the very
low permeabilities of shale. To quantify ultra-low permeability in unconventional
formations, a pyrolysis analysis technique for compact rocks (Tight Rock Analysis =
TRA) has been developed by TerraTek. This technique also offers other parameters
such as volume density, granular density, total porosity, effective porosity, water and
hydrocarbon saturation, gas filling porosity, bound hydrocarbon saturation and volume
of bonded water in clay. Moreover, the reservoir permeability can be estimated from the
short-term drop tests of the nitrogen injection into the wellbore. These tests can provide
systemic permeability and take into account not only the permeability of the matrix but
also the influence of natural fractures. [6]
Mineralogy: Gas-bearing shales can have a complex mixture of minerals. Relative
concentrations of the mineralogical constituents have the capacity to increase or damage
the potential of the field resources. Core samples can provide a wealth of information
about geochemistry and mineralogy, but they are limited to the location specific to the
sampling depth. Consequently, mineralogy is often deduced from the petrophysical data
which are gathered from the down hole logging tools and which are calibrated to the
core data. [6]
Petrophysical data: The primary data for the petrophysical analysis of shale formations
are similar to those used for conventional reservoirs: gamma ray, resistivity, porosity
and acoustic logs, and data from neutron capture spectroscopy. In addition,
unconventional reservoirs have specific features. The petrophysical analyses of shales
begin with the gamma ray log. It may provide information about the greater amount of
organic matter (possibly having higher contents of radioactive materials), represented
by gamma ray values > 150 g API. An appropriate technique for evaluating organic
matter is the triple combined one (triple-combo tool strings) of Platform Express.
Platform Express has integrated logging curves to provide resistivity and porosity
parameters. It proposes a geostatistic approach in which the algorithm for the
conventional alteration of wait is used for the electrofacies analysis in combination with
the TOC values known from various well locations of a shale layer. [6]
Seismic prospecting: The correct evaluation of the objective of interest is achieved by
the detailed analysis of all factors influencing the mechanical properties of the rock. The
values of the elastic parameters are determined on the basis of the propagation velocity
of the transverse (S) and compression (P) waves recorded during the seismic acquisition
or through acoustic logging. The use of the relationships between Vp,Vs and density
enables the calculation of Young’s modulus and the Poisson coefficient. A low value of
this coefficient suggests low sensitivity and efficiency for developing artificial fractures
and low efficiency in hydraulic fracturing. The change of the Poisson coefficient
reflects a lithological change in the sedimentary basin and may even help to shape its
structural evolution and its depositional environments. One of the major challenges of
unconventional shale reservoirs is to understand the effects of the organic (TOC) and
mineralogical content, and the influence of microfissures, pore shapes and the effective

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stress on the elastic properties. Generating petrophysical parameters, such as TOC and
the quantification of total and organic porosity, and generating a consistent
petrophysical pattern are vital. Density, which is an essential parameter in determining
total porosity, is estimated as a function of the TOC value and its maturity level.
Compression wave (P-wave) velocity is mainly controlled by the variations in TOC, the
mineralogical content, and the pore shape. The propagation velocity of shear (S) waves
in organic shales is also a function dependent on the compressional (P) waves and the
amount of TOC. Estimating elastic parameters, such as shear wave velocity and density,
has become crucial to characterizing a reservoir. Recent improvements in the
acquisition and processing of multicomponent data have proved to be extremely useful
for estimating lithology and the fluid content. The use of AVO techniques and
”pre/post-stack attributes” to extract information about lithology and the nature of the
fluids from seismic data and well logs ensures a correct delimitation of the reservoir and
the relationship between lithologies which are predominantly sandy or clayey. [6]

CONCLUSIONS
In the context of the dispute between Chevron and Romania’s National Agency for
Mineral Resources, regarding the non-observance of the minimum program approved
by the oil concession agreement, it was necessary to enumerate the parameters for
evaluating the potential of shale gas whose determination had to be assumed under the
concession agreement.
On the basis of the primary information obtained from cores, well logs and seismic
surveys, the paper presents complex determinations of evaluation parameters as well as
new assessment techniques, mainly refined as working methods under the Schlumberger
brand. Thus, the correct determination of the core lithofacies (with implications in the
quality diagnosis of the shale reservoirs) is carried out by inputting the mineralogy
quantified by the Litho Scanner program onto the Core Lithofacies classification
system. A log presenting the classification is generated and the quality indicator
overlaps the ternary diagram of the core diagnosis (lithofacies and reservoir indicators
such as porosity, total organic carbon (TOC), fracture density and stress).
With regard to the advanced evaluation techniques for shale gas formations, the paper
presents log-based investigation platforms, such as Elemental Capture Spectroscopy
(ECS) and Elemental Log Analysis (ELAN). Based on these platforms, the following
aspects are considered: (a) kerogen quantification/ TOC; (b) adsorbed gas
quantification; (c) free gas quantification; and (d) gas production capacity
(producibility). The geochemical properties necessary for characterizing the shale gas
potential aim at calibrating the log and core data, and at determining: TOC, volume and
gas production capacity, thermal maturity, permeability and mineralogy. Petrophysical
analyses require the use of the following types of logs: gamma ray, resistivity, porosity,
acoustic logging, and neutron capture spectroscopy data. The paper presents the gamma
ray log and the technique for evaluating organic matter by using the analysis of
electrofacies and TOC values based on the integration of some logs (triple-combo tool
strings) of the Express Platform.
Based on the data from the seismic prospecting, the calculation of the elastic parameters
(Young’s modulus or Poisson’s coefficient) is mentioned taking into account the
relations between the velocity of the longitudinal and transverse seismic waves, with
implications in the analysis of fractability and efficiency in hydraulic fracturing. The

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 19th International Multidisciplinary Scientific GeoConference SGEM 2019

processing of the multicomponent data with efficiency in the estimation of the lithology
and fluid content considers the use of the AVO techniques and the “pre/post-stack
attributesˮ with the purpose of determining the lithology and the nature of fluids from
seismic data and well logs.

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[7] McCarthy, K., et al., Basic Petroleum Geochemistry for Source Rock Evaluation,
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