© CAB International 2003 Animal Health Research Reviews 4(2); 157–168

ISSN 1466-2523 DOI: 10.1079/AHRR200355

Zoonotic skin diseases of dogs and cats

Karen A. Moriello
Department of Medical Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of Wisconsin-
Madison, 2015 Linden Drive West, Madison, WI 53707, USA

Received 12 April 2003; Accepted 8 September 2003

Abstract

Although there are over 250 zoonotic diseases, only 30–40 of them involve dogs and cats.
Transmission of zoonotic infections occurs via bites, scratches or touch; exposure to saliva,
urine or feces; inhalation of particles or infectious aerosols; contact with a transport or interme-
diate host (e.g. ticks, fleas); or exposure to contaminated water, soil or vegetation. This paper
summarizes the most important common zoonotic dermatological diseases of dogs and cats.
The most common dermatological zoonoses are flea and tick infestations and the diseases they
transmit; dermatophytosis; and mite infestations (Sarcoptes and Cheyletiella). Prevention of
zoonotic infestations or infections can be accomplished easily by the use of routine flea and
tick control, screening of new pets for dermatophytosis, and routine hand-washing.

Keywords: zoonotic diseases, skin diseases, dogs, cats

Introduction increase in pet ownership, particularly of pets that live

The definition of a zoonotic disease is one that is shared
by people and animals. The reservoirs of zoonotic dis-
eases are not always animals; many zoonotic agents are
maintained in nature in the soil, water or vegetation
(Greene, 1998a). Transmission of zoonotic infections
occurs via bites, scratches or touch; exposure to saliva,
urine or feces; inhalation of particles or infectious
aerosols; contact with a transport or intermediate host
(e.g. ticks, fleas); or exposure to contaminated water,
soil or vegetation. The number of zoonotic organisms
has been estimated to be about 250 (Greene, 1998a).
Dogs and cats are the most commonly owned com-
panion animal pets world-wide. In the USA alone, it is
estimated that 60–70% of households have at least one
companion animal pet (Greene, 1998a; Tan, 1998).
There are approximately 30–40 zoonotic diseases associ-
ated with companion animals. In recent years, there has
been renewed interest in pet-associated zoonoses. There
are many possible reasons for this, but two inter-related
reasons stand out as the most important. First, changing
social–economic trends have resulted in an overall
E-mail: moriellk@svm.vetmed.wisc.edu
in and share their owner’s home. A larger number of
people are in direct daily contact with animals that
could transmit a zoonotic disease. Secondly, medical
advances have resulted in an increasing population of
immunocompromised people, many of whom live with,
or are exposed to, dogs or cats. People awaiting or who
have had organ transplants, cancer patients and those
undergoing chemotherapy, and those living with human
immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or acquired immunodefi-
ciency syndrome (AIDS) are clearly in this risk
population. The pool of immunocompromised pet own-
ers can include neonates, infants, and children with
underdeveloped immune systems; the elderly, especially
those with illnesses or living in nursing homes; people
with illnesses or medical conditions putting them at risk
of infection (e.g. pregnancy, burn patients); and people
living with devices that breach natural defense mecha-
nisms (indwelling catheters, implanted medical devices)
(Greene, 1998a).
The most intimate contact people have with their pet
is through touch, including casual contact, petting,
grooming and/or sleeping with the pet. The purpose of
this article is to review the most common dermatological
diseases of dogs and cats that can directly or indirectly
represent a zoonotic hazard to pet owners.
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Parasitic diseases
Fleas
Fleas are small wingless insects and are the most com-
mon cause of parasitic disease in dogs and cats.
Although there are over 2000 species of fleas world-
wide, only a few infest dogs and cats: Ctenocephalides
felis, C. canis, Pulex spp. and Echnidnophaga galli-
nacea. Female fleas lay their eggs on the host and these
eggs usually fall into the environment, most commonly
where the pet sleeps. The eggs develop through three
larval stages and one pupal stage. In most households,
fleas complete their life cycle within 3–4 weeks.
However, the life cycle can take up to 6 months in some
situations. Fleas cause a number of skin diseases in dogs
and cats. Most commonly they cause pruritic irritation
from their bites. This results in self-trauma with second-
ary hair loss and secondary bacterial infections. In some
cases, fleas can cause such intense pruritus as to cause
the host to create severe areas of focal self-mutilation.
Intense infestations can lead to fleabite anemia; 72
female fleas can consume 1 ml of blood a day.
Some animals develop allergic reactions to fleabites
and suffer intense pruritus from minimal flea infesta-
tions. The immunology of flea allergy dermatitis has
been studied most intensely in dogs, and the condition
is due to a combination of immediate hypersensitivity
(type 1), delayed hypersensitivity (type 4), late-phase
IgE reactions and cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity
reactions (Halliwell, 1984; Halliwell and Longino, 1985;
Halliwell and Schemmer, 1987). Fleas are the intermedi-
ate host of tapeworms (Dipylidium caninum). They can
also be vectors of a variety of infectious diseases.
Fleas have a world-wide distribution and are espe-
cially problematic in warm, moist geographical regions
as this favors their reproductive cycle. The diagnosis of
a flea infestation is made by finding evidence of the
presence of fleas and/or flea excreta. In cats and/or ani-
mals with flea allergy dermatitis the diagnosis can be
more difficult. Cats are fastidious groomers and will
mechanically remove fleas and flea excreta from their
hair coat, making it difficult to find clinical evidence. In
animals with flea allergy dermatitis, intense pruritus
occurs that is disproportionate to the number of fleas
observed on the animal as symptoms can be triggered
by a small number of parasites. Fleas are often not
found on these animals as they tend to be removed,
when possible, by grooming. The diagnosis of flea
allergy dermatitis in dogs and cats is made by a combi-
nation of intradermal skin testing with flea antigen
and/or by the response to treatment.
Fleas are of zoonotic importance for two reasons.
First, although they prefer their natural hosts, unfed
newly emerged fleas will feed upon any warm-blooded
host. Fleas in the pupal stage are stimulated to emerge
by vibrations, heat, and increases in carbon dioxide; all
Karen A. Moriello
of these stimuli are associated with the presence of a
potential host. Fleas can cause intensely pruritic lesions
in people. Children are often bitten because they spend
significantly more time on the floor, where pupae and
newly emerged adults are found. The second major rea-
son why fleas are of zoonotic concern is that they can
be vectors of infectious disease and can facilitate the
transmission of microbial organisms (see below).
Ticks
Ticks, like mites and spiders, are arachnids. They are
divided into two major groups, the argasid (soft) and
ixodid (hard) ticks, and are found world-wide. Argasid
ticks are more primitive and less parasitic, and tend to
infest the lairs of their hosts. The adult ticks do not feed,
but a host may be infested with large numbers of larvae
and nymphs. Ixodid ticks are more specialized, highly
parasitic, and will travel in open areas to infest hosts.
The life cycle of ticks is complex. Eggs hatch within 2–7
weeks. The diagnosis of a tick infestation is made by
finding ticks on the animal; ticks may be free-moving or,
more likely, attached to the host and feeding. In some
hosts, a hypersensitivity reaction occurs at the site of the
bite, and is characterized by a focal area of ulceration
that often progresses to a dermal nodule that lasts for
weeks to months. It has been suggested that these reac-
tions involve cutaneous basophil hypersensitivity and
type 3 and type 4 hypersensitivity reactions.
Ticks are important zoonotic parasites because they
are not host-specific and will feed on any warm-blooded
host of opportunity. Bites of ticks can cause irritation,
pain, nodular reactions and hypersensitivity reactions in
both people and animals. More importantly, ticks serve
as vectors of countless infectious diseases.
Infectious agents and diseases transmitted by ticks
and/or fleas
People are exposed to ticks and their bites in a variety
of ways. Ticks may be brought into the home by the
pet; owners and pets may travel through tick-infested
areas when exercising, hunting or working; and people
may live in or visit a tick-infested structure. The most
common source of tick-borne illnesses in people is natu-
ral exposure to ticks in their normal environment.
However, there is a risk of contracting tick-borne illness
from dogs and cats, primarily in two ways. First, unat-
tached ticks traveling on dogs and cats can transfer to
people. Secondly, people can come into contact with
tick hemolymph during tick removal; infection can occur
via small abrasions in the skin or through conjunctiva
(Senneville et al., 1991; Greene, 1998b). Exposure to
secretions from the skin or nose of infected dogs or cats
is not believed to be a source of infection.
Zoonotic skin diseases of dogs and cats
Prevention and control of all of these infections is
based on two approaches. First, people should wear
protective clothing when traveling in tick-infested areas
and should use an appropriate tick repellent (e.g. per-
methrins). Secondly, a flea and tick control program
should be used routinely for dogs and cats.
Rickettsia rickettsia
Rickettsia rickettsia, the causative agent of Rocky
Mountain spotted fever (RMSF), is found in the USA,
western Canada, Mexico, Panama, Costa Rica, Honduras,
Nicaragua, Colombia and Brazil. In the USA, RMSF is
most common in April to September, which coincides
with the most active tick season. This organism is trans-
mitted by the wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) or the
dog tick (D. variabilis) in the USA. In Mexico and South
America, Rhipicephalus spp. and Amblyomma spp. have
been implicated in the transmission of disease.
Transmission from tick bites only occurs after several
hours of attachment of the ticks. After infection, the
organisms are disseminated throughout the bloodstream
and invade and replicate in the endothelial cells of the
small blood vessels. Endothelial cell damage results in
vasculitis, increased vascular permeability, petechial
hemorrhages and organ damage.
Clinical signs in dogs include fever, anorexia, lethargy
and peripheral lymphadenopathy. In about 20% of dogs,
erythema, petechiation, edema and necrosis of the skin
and mucous membranes can occur. Limb edema is often
one of the earliest signs.
Laboratory diagnosis is made through serological test-
ing. The most commonly used tests in dogs are an
immunofluorescent antibody assay, an enzyme-linked
immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and a latex agglutination
test (Greene et al., 1993). The immunofluorescent anti-
body assay is the most commonly used diagnostic test.
The organism is susceptible to tetracycline, doxycycline
and chloramphenicol. The clinical signs in people
include, but are not limited to, fever, chills, headache,
muscle pain, meningism, photophobia and a red, mor-
billiform rash.
Ehrlichia spp.
Ehrlichosis is a tick-borne disease that has world-wide
distribution. There are no less than 13 species of
Ehrlichia that are transmitted by ticks. Several of these
(E. chaffeensis, the agent of Venezuelan human ehrli-
chiosis; E. equi, the agent of human granulocytic
ehrlichiosis; and E. phagocytophila, the agent of tick-
borne fever) have been reported to infect both dogs and
people. Currently, the role of dogs as reservoirs of infec-
tion is unknown (Neer, 1998; Tan, 1998). The organism
is an obligate intracellular parasite that infects mononu-
clear cells, leading to leukopenia, anemia and
thrombocytopenia. The immunological and inflamma-
tory mechanisms that have been proposed for platelet
destruction include increased platelet consumption,
159
decreased platelet half-life, and the development of
platelet migration-inhibition factor. The cutaneous
lesions associated with naturally occurring Ehrlichia
infections in dogs are rare, but include facial crusting,
pustular and pruritic lesions and vasculitis. Diagnosis is
made by serological testing; indirect fluorescent anti-
body testing is the most commonly used diagnostic test
in clinical laboratories. Western immunoblotting and
polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing can be used to
distinguish between various organisms (Egenvall et al.,
1996; Hegarty et al., 1997). These organisms are suscep-
tible to doxycycline. The clinical signs of Ehrlichia
infection in people are similar to those of RMSF with no
rash.
Coxiella burnetii
Query fever (Q fever) is caused by the bacterium
Coxiella burnetii. It is a world-wide zoonotic disease
except in Sweden, Norway, Iceland and New Zealand.
There are no less than 40 species of ticks and other
arthropods that act as intermediate hosts for sylvan
reservoirs. The disease in animals and people is most
often contracted via inhalation, although there have
been a few cases of transmission to people from dogs
and cats after contact with contaminated environments
or postparturient cats (Pinsky et al., 1991; Tan, 1998).
After inhalation, the lungs are the main target organ
for the disease. The bacterium tends to replicate in the
vascular endothelium of the respiratory, renal tubular
and serosal epithelia, causing widespread vasculitis and
necrotizing disease. Diagnosis is made by serological
testing and/or by isolation of the organism. Serological
testing involves measurement of either phase I antigens
(i.e. antigens from organisms isolated from the animal)
or phase II antigens (i.e. organisms isolated from eggs
inoculated with suspect material). Immunofluorescence
or ELISA tests are used for measurement of specific
immunoglobulin (IG) M to phase II antigens or of IgA to
phase I antigens (Soliman et al., 1993). PCR testing can
also be used (Stein and Raoult, 1992). Isolation of the
organism requires inoculation of tissue samples into
rodents and then examining lymphoid or serum samples
for the organism. This organism is sensitive to the same
drugs that are used to treat RMSF. The clinical signs in
people include headache, fever, chills, myalgia, nausea,
arthralgia, and possibly erythematous macules. Although
the disease is usually contracted via inhalation, respira-
tory symptoms may not be seen.
Borrelia burgdorferi
Borrelia burgdorferi is the cause of the most common
vector-borne disease in people—Lyme disease. It is
found in the USA, Europe and Asia. This organism does
not survive in the environment and resides in reservoir
hosts and blood-sucking hosts. The organism has been
found in many blood-sucking vectors, including ticks
(Ixodes dammini, Dermacentor, Rhipicephalus,
160
Amblyomma), mosquitoes, fleas and biting flies.
However, it is not known if organisms other than ticks
are important vectors of transmission in nature. Tick
bites, particularly those of Ixodes spp., are considered to
be the most common route of infection. The spirochete
requires 48 h of tick attachment before it is able to infect
the host through tick saliva (DeSilva et al., 1997). The
organism is believed to proliferate locally at the site of
attachment and then spread systemically. The organism
can exist extracellularly, thus evading detection and
immune clearance.
Clinical signs of borreliosis in dogs and cats are usu-
ally associated with systemic illness (fever, lameness,
anorexia and malaise), arthritis and possibly renal dis-
ease. It is the host’s inflammatory response that is
believed to be the cause of the symptoms. Unlike in
people, in dogs and cats cutaneous lesions have not
been identified conclusively, although they are sus-
pected to occur. Anecdotally, erythematous target
lesions at the site of tick bites are reported to be com-
mon in dogs and cats. The plethora of skin diseases in
dogs and cats that cause similar lesions, particularly
skin diseases requiring antibiotic therapy, coupled
with a high incidence of positive titers in endemic
areas, makes definitive confirmation of this observa-
tion difficult.
Lyme disease in people is a potentially severe multi-
system disease; the classic early lesion in people is an
annular rash known as erythema chronicum migrans at
the site of the tick bite. The diagnosis is made by detect-
ing rising antibody titers and, in veterinary medicine,
often by the response to therapy. Diagnosis in dogs and
cats is complicated by the high prevalence of seroposi-
tive animals in endemic areas and the fact that many
tests cross-react with other antigens, such as those of
Leptospira (Shin et al., 1993). ELISA and indirect fluores-
cent antibody tests are considered screening tests; true
infection is associated with high antibody titers. The
organism is sensitive to tetracycline, penicillin, amoxi-
cillin, ceftriaxone and imipenem.
Typhus
Typhus is caused by a Rickettsia. Several species of
Rickettsia cause the disease, which in people is charac-
terized by fever with severe headache, rigors,
generalized malaise, cough and a rash. One of the forms
of typhus caused by Rickettsia prowazekii is transmitted
by the human louse through its feces; people are
infected when they are irritated by louse bites and con-
taminate sites with louse feces. Lice are not the only
reservoirs of infection. In the southern USA, flying squir-
rels are reservoirs of R. prowazekii infection. Dogs can
be experimentally infected with the organism
(Breitschwerdt and Greene, 1995), although it is not
known if they can act as a reservoir of infection.
Of greater concern to public health is the fact that
rodent fleas transmit murine or endemic typhus (R.
Karen A. Moriello
typhi), which has a world-wide distribution. The disease
is transmitted to people by the mechanical spreading of
infective flea feces into pruritic wounds. Fleas can also
transmit the disease by direct bites (Greene, 1998b).
Finally, the cat flea, Ctenocephalides felis, has been
found to be a vector of R. felis, which is serologically
indistinguishable from R. typhi and R. prowazekii. C.
felis is commonly found on cats and opossums;
indoor–outdoor cats can easily transmit infected fleas
into homes (Sorvillo et al., 1993; Azad et al., 1997). As
the disease is not recognized to be clinically significant
in dogs and cats, information on diagnostic testing is not
available.
Cat-scratch disease
Cat-scratch disease was first described by Debre in 1950
but the causative agent was not identified as Bartonella
henselae until 1992 (Regnery et al., 1992). Since its
identification, numerous species of Bartonella have
been identified and associated with several clinical dis-
eases in both cats and people. Serological testing of cats
has shown that this organism is present in North
America, Europe, Japan, Scandinavia and Australia; it
probably has a world-wide distribution. These bacteria
are fastidious arthropod-transmitted organisms, and cats
appear to be the reservoir of infection. The disease can
be transmitted to people via cat bites, cat saliva, or bites
from fleas or ticks feeding on infected cats. In one sur-
vey in the USA, the prevalence of antibodies to this
organism ranged from 4 to 60% with a mean of 28%
(Jameson et al., 1995); summaries of serological testing
in other countries show a similar pattern (Breitschwerdt
et al., 1998). The organism is an intraerythrocytic bac-
terium and the exact pathogenesis of disease in cats is
unknown (Kordick et al., 1995).
In cats, this disease is considered to be a self-limiting
febrile illness of 48–72 h. Some animals will develop
neurological symptoms, anorexia and peripheral lymph-
adenopathy. Most infections in cats, however, are
subclinical. Diagnosis can identify seropositive cats but
is not useful in identifying clinically infected cats. The
latter is done by isolation of the organism from blood
and/or infected tissue. The indirect antibody test is most
commonly used to screen cats for this organism. There
seems to be a poor correlation between serological test-
ing and culture; some cats are seropositive and
culture-negative while in others the reverse is true.
Serological testing is most useful for epidemiological
studies and not clinical diagnosis. Antibiotic therapy in
cats is difficult and there is no consistently effective ther-
apeutic protocol.
The disease in people is associated with a variety of
syndromes but is highly dependent upon the immune
status of the individual. In most immunocompetent indi-
viduals, the disease is self-limiting. Approximately 1
week after exposure, a small papule develops at the site
of inoculation that is followed by the development of a
Zoonotic skin diseases of dogs and cats
regional lymphadenopathy. The infection usually
resolves within 2–6 months; as in cats there is no consis-
tent response to antibiotic therapy. More severe clinical
syndromes in people include bacillary angiomatosis,
bacillary peliosis and relapsing fever with bacteremia,
endocarditis, granulomatous hepatosplenic syndrome,
retinitis and swelling of the optic nerve, arthritis, oste-
olytic lesions and pulmonary granulomas (Breitschwerdt
et al., 1998). This disease represents a significant human
health risk in immunocompromised people. Routine and
consistent flea and tick control for cats is an important
aspect of preventing this disease in humans.
Yersinia pestis
Yersinia pestis, the agent of plague, is a facultatively
anaerobic Gram-negative coccobacillus. It is present
world-wide and the reservoirs of infection are rats; it is
endemic in the western USA. It is transmitted to dogs,
cats, people and other animals via fleabites, contact with
infected rodents or ingestion of infected animals. There
are three forms of the disease in hosts: bubonic, sep-
ticemic and pneumonic. Cats become infected most
commonly by ingesting an infected rodent and are a
common source of exposure for people, but dogs can
also be infected (Orloski et al., 1995). The cutaneous
lesions that can occur in dogs and cats are associated
with the bubonic form. Enlarged lymph nodes and
abscesses are common clinical findings in both dogs and
cats.
Definitive diagnosis is made by isolation of the organ-
ism from tissue, fluid or blood. Fluorescent antibody
testing on fluid specimens can also be confirmatory.
Paired serum samples collected at 10- to 14-day intervals
can be submitted for determination of antibody titers
and may also be useful. People are most likely to
acquire infection from cats by fleabites, contact with
abscesses, or by inhalation of infected particles from cats
with pneumonia. Prevention of infection is best
achieved through routine flea control in both dogs and
cats. Furthermore, pet animals should not be allowed to
roam freely in endemic regions. In the USA, there is an
increasing incidence of this disease.
Dipyliadiasis
Dipylidium caninum, the dog and cat tapeworm, is
found world-wide. Fleas and lice serve as intermediary
hosts for tapeworms and ingest the eggs. When the host
ingests fleas or lice, the infective cysticercoids in the
body of the flea or louse develop into adults and inhabit
the small intestine. Although it is a rare occurrence, peo-
ple can become infected with D. caninum; this most
commonly occurs in children that play with infected
dogs or cats (Turner, 1962). Infected people may
develop abdominal pain, anorexia, diarrhea and anal
pruritus. Diagnosis is made by finding the motile,
cucumber seed-shaped proglottids in feces. Keeping
pets free of fleas and lice easily prevents this disease.
161
Cutaneous larva migrans
Cutaneous larva migrans is also commonly known as
hookworm dermatitis or creeping eruption. This is a
parasitic zoonosis caused by the percutaneous migration
of infective larvae of the intestinal parasites Ancylostoma
braziliense, A. caninum or Uncinaria stenocephala. It is
most common in tropical and subtropical areas of the
world; however, it can occur in temperate climates dur-
ing the spring and summer. It is usually associated with
poor hygiene in kennels or contact with grass, soil, play-
grounds, crawl spaces under houses, or beaches
contaminated with infected dog feces. It is a major
zoonotic disease in third-world countries (Heukelbach et
al., 2002). In the USA, it is increasingly being seen in
dog-owners who exercise their dogs in fenced ‘dog
parks’, where animals run freely and large amounts of
feces accumulate. The parasite is contracted when infec-
tive larvae come into contact with the bare skin, usually
of the feet. People wearing sandals and walking through
dew-moistened grass are also at risk.
The larvae attach to the skin and burrow into the epi-
dermis and start creating red pruritic papules within a
few hours of contact. The larvae migrate a few millime-
tres per day and cause the classic lesions of ‘creeping
eruptions’. The lesions are intensely pruritic and diagno-
sis is usually based upon the history and clinical signs.
The larvae will eventually die, but most people request
some type of treatment for the intense pruritus; this self-
limiting disease can last several weeks. Percutaneous
entry and migration of the larvae are less of a problem
in the natural host. Dogs with hookworm dermatitis usu-
ally have a pruritic papular on the ventrum and/or
intensely chew their paws.
Fecal examination usually reveals hookworm eggs
and the host usually has a history of poor housing and
sanitation. Cleaning the environment and appropriate
anthelmintic treatments are curative. This disease is less
common now that many of the routine heartworm pre-
ventatives are protective against this parasite or contain
an anthelmintic agent. People with this disease most
often have intensely pruritic feet.
Mite infestations
The zoonotic mites of importance are microscopic
arachnids, which are obligate parasites spending their
life cycle on the host. The most common mite infesta-
tions of dogs and cats are Otodectes cynotis, Sarcoptes
scabiei and Cheyletiella spp. These mites have a world-
wide distribution. Demodex spp. mites live in the hair
follicles or on the skin of dogs and cats and are not con-
sidered zoonotic diseases. Zoonotic mite infestations can
develop in any host at any time in its life, but are most
common in puppies and kittens or newly acquired adult
dogs from animal shelters.
162
Because of the highly contagious nature of these
mites, all in-contact animals need to be treated. The life
cycle of mites is generally 3–4 weeks long and general
recommendations are to treat infested animals for at least
4–6 weeks. Because of their highly contagious nature,
these mites are particularly problematic in catteries, dog
kennels, animal shelters and research animal facilities.
Diagnosis is made by finding mites and/or by response
to treatment, as mites may be difficult to find.
Mite infestations are transmitted from animals to peo-
ple by direct contact, such as petting, holding the pet or
sleeping with the pet. Pet owners who have contracted
a mite infestation usually have done so because they did
not know the pet was infested, or they have contracted
it while treating their pet for a known or suspected
infestation. In people the most common lesions are pru-
ritic papules on the arms, legs and/or abdomen.
Ear mites
Otodectes cynotis, the ear mite of dogs and cats, lives on
the surface of the ear canal but can also migrate any-
where on the body of the pet. As the mite feeds, it
causes irritation and pruritus in the ear canal, which
eventually fills with cerumen, blood and mite debris.
Cats and kittens tend to develop large amounts of debris
in their ears. Diagnosis is made by visually observing
mites with an otoscope and/or by cytological examina-
tion of ear mite debris. These mites are not host-specific
and can cause a temporary papular eruption in people
or even a true otic parasitic infestation (Harwick, 1978;
Lopez, 1993). Ear mites are eradicated by treating all in-
contact animals with an otic parasiticidal agent and a
topical flea spray applied to the hair coat. Transmission
from animals to people is almost always the result of
poor hygiene after treatment of the pet’s ears.
Canine scabies
Sarcoptes scabiei var. canis is an intensely pruritic,
highly contagious mite that affects dogs. Dogs become
infested through direct contact with an infested dog. The
recent popularity of parks devoted to the exercise of
dogs and ‘dog day care facilities’ has resulted in a resur-
gence of this disease in the author’s practice area.
Boarding kennels, grooming facilities and dog competi-
tions are other common ways in which dogs contract
this parasite. These mites are highly contagious, partly
because they can live off of the host for up to 21 days
depending on the temperature and humidity (Arlian et
al., 1989). Scabies mites have host preferences but can
also cause disease in coyotes, foxes, cats and people.
The mite lives and burrows in the epidermis and
lesions are usually noted first in thinly haired areas (ear
margins, elbows, ventrum). The pruritus is intense and
infested dogs will scratch incessantly. In addition to
severe pruritus, the disease causes a diffuse papular
eruption and, with time, hair loss, thickening and hyper-
pigmentation of the skin. The infestation is difficult to
Karen A. Moriello
diagnose for two reasons. First, the mite is easily dis-
lodged from the skin via scratching, and secondly the
mite causes a hypersensitivity reaction in the host, and
only a few mites are needed to produce intense pruritus
(Arlian et al., 1996). Studies on the humoral immune
response suggest that this is a type 1 hypersensitivity
reaction (Bornstein and Zakrisson, 1993). When mites
are suspected but cannot be found, the diagnosis is con-
firmed by the response to treatment (e.g. topical lime
sulfur, ivermectin, selamectin).
In people, canine scabies causes an intensely pruritic
papular eruption, most commonly on the hands, arms
and abdomen. The eruption can become generalized if
the infested dog sleeps with the owner and/or if the
infestation in the pet goes undiagnosed. Canine scabies
mites have been shown to live on humans for up to 6
days and to produce ova during that time. The author
has seen several cases where the owner and pet have
suffered from severe pruritus of several years’ duration
that resolved after the dog was treated for suspected
scabies.
Cheyletiellosis
Cheyletiella spp. is also known as the walking dandruff
mite. It is a highly contagious mite that can infest dogs,
cats, rabbits and other small mammals. It is particularly
problematic because it can infest a host and cause no
clinical signs, yet be a source of infestation for other
pets and people. The most common clinical signs of
infestation are mild scaling and pruritus. Diagnosis can
be made by finding the mites on skin scrapings, by
combing of the hair coat with a fine metal comb (flea
comb), or by direct visual examination using magnifica-
tion. The mites obtained their nickname of ‘walking
dandruff’ because they are large and can be observed
moving when placed on dark paper. These mites, like
scabies mites, can live for a short period (up to 10 days)
off their host (Cohen, 1980).
This infestation is easily eradicated with 4–6 weeks of
miticidal treatment; therapies for fleas or scabies are
very effective against Cheyletiella spp. The author
prefers topical therapies because, unlike ear mites and
scabies, this mite lays its eggs on hair shafts. In people,
Cheyletiella mite infestations cause erythematous mac-
ules on the arms, trunk and buttocks. The papules
develop rapidly into yellow-crusted lesions that are
moderate to intensely pruritic. Owners may develop
lesions or symptoms of infestation within days to weeks
after contact with an infested host.
Lice: blame not the pet!
Dogs and cats are commonly blamed as the source of
louse infestations in children. It is important to note that
lice are species-specific and the family pet is not the
source of a human louse infestation.
Zoonotic skin diseases of dogs and cats
Fungal diseases
Dermatophytosis
Dermatophytosis (ringworm) is a superficial fungal skin
disease of both animals and man that involves the hair
and skin. It is also one of the most common and impor-
tant zoonotic skin diseases and is present world-wide,
but is most common in warm, humid climates. At least
20 species of dermatophytes have been isolated from
dogs and cats, including species that are primarily
human pathogens; however, the most commonly iso-
lated species are Microsporum canis, M. gypseum and
Trichophyton mentagrophytes. Of these three organisms,
M. canis is probably the most important pathogen.
Infection occurs via direct transmission of infective
spores to a susceptible host. Disease prevalence is
unknown as this is not a reportable disease in most
countries in the world. It has been estimated that der-
matophytosis accounts for approximately 2% of all skin
infections; however, prevalence of the disease tends to
be more common in warm tropical and subtropical cli-
mates and/or where there are large numbers of feral
animals. Reservoirs of infection for both people and ani-
mals include contaminated environments and objects,
animals with subclinical or clinical infections, and ani-
mals that are mechanical carriers of the spores on their
hair coat (Moriello et al., 1995).
The clinical signs of this disease in dogs and cats are
highly variable, but most commonly include combina-
tions of pruritus, hair loss, scaling and crusting. Any
animal can contract this disease; however, animals at the
extremes of age, particularly individuals with concurrent
illnesses, are at greatest risk. In the author’s experience,
newly acquired pets of any age, especially those from
multiple animal facilities (shelters, catteries, kennels,
strays), are usually the source of a dermatophyte infec-
tion. Children are often the first to develop lesions when
the family gets a new pet. This is probably because they
are the ones who engage in more aggressive physical
contact with the new pet (i.e. hugging, carrying them
around, playing with them). Early lesions in people
present as areas of circular pruritic dermatitis but can
spread if left untreated.
Dermatophytosis in animals is most commonly diag-
nosed through fungal culture (Moriello, 2001). It can be
confirmed by finding infected hairs via direct examina-
tion of hairs and scales; however, this is not a very
reliable technique and results in large numbers of both
false positives and false negatives. Newly acquired pets,
animals at risk or suspected of being exposed, and ani-
mals undergoing treatment are most easily screened for
fungal growth by a technique called ‘toothbrush cultur-
ing’. In this technique, a newly purchased toothbrush is
aggressively combed over the hair coat and embedded
in fungal culture medium. This technique is particularly
useful because it can identify both infected animals and
163
those that are mechanical carriers of infective material.
Treatment of dermatophytosis involves many steps.
First, aggressive decontamination of the environment is
necessary (Moriello and DeBoer, 1998). This needs to be
continued until the infection is eradicated. Secondly, all
in-contact animals need to be screened and prophylactic
topical treatment with lime sulfur or enilconazole
sponge-on rinses needs to be given serious considera-
tion. This is strongly suggested when many animals are
involved or the infection is present in a multiple-animal
facility, especially since the final results from screening
cultures can take up to 3 weeks to arrive. Finally,
infected animals need to be treated until they are cul-
ture-negative at least three times at weekly intervals.
This usually involves clipping some or all of the hair
coat, topical antifungal sponge-on dips (miconazole,
lime sulfur, enilconazole) and systemic antifungal ther-
apy. To date, research studies on the use of fungal
vaccines and chitin inhibitors (i.e. lufenuron) have not
shown them to be efficacious (DeBoer and Moriello,
1994, 1995; DeBoer et al., 2002, 2003).
Malassezia dermatitis
Malassezia spp. is a lipophilic, common, non-mycelial
yeast that is found on normal and abnormal skin of
dogs, cats, man and other species and is present world-
wide. Inflammation of the skin and overgrowth of this
organism are required for clinical symptoms to develop.
The organism is part of the normal fungal flora of dogs
and cats and clinical disease is believed to be associated
with overgrowth of the organism and release of yet
unidentified inflammatory mediators (Bond, 2002).
Malassezia dermatitis can cause a wide range of symp-
toms but the most common complaint is pruritus. The
disease is most commonly diagnosed in small animals
by cytological examination of skin and/or ear swabs.
This disease can be treated successfully with topical
and/or systemic antifungal agents (e.g. ketoconazole,
itraconazole).
This disease has recently been recognized as a
zoonosis. It was reported to be the cause of an out-
break of exfoliative dermatitis in a neonatal intensive
care unit (Chang et al., 1998). The organism was cul-
tured from an intravenous lipid emulsion being used in
the facility. The infection was reportedly traced back to
a health-care worker’s pet dogs. Exposure to ‘normal’
colonies on the skin of dogs and cats is not considered
a human health risk. In addition, there is probably little
risk to healthy people treating symptomatic animals if
owners wash their hands after treating animals with
Malassezia otitis and/or generalized dermatitis. The
author prefers to use a combination of topical and sys-
temic therapy in patients with severe Malassezia otitis
and/or dermatitis because of the recently recognized
zoonotic risk.
164
Sporotrichosis
Sporotrichosis is a subcutaneous fungal infection caused
by a dimorphic fungus, Sporothrix schenckii. The organ-
ism is found world-wide and grows as a saprophyte in
the soil and in dead organic debris. However it may be
more common in warm moist regions. Cats are increas-
ingly being recognized in some regions of the world as
major reservoirs of the organism (Schubach et al., 2002).
In addition to being isolated from suspect wounds,
Schubach and colleagues were able to isolate the organ-
ism from nail-beds and the oral cavity. The organism
was also isolated from the testis of a cat presented for
castration. It can also be found in barberry and rose
bush thorns, sphagnum moss, tree bark and timber.
Outbreaks of the disease have been associated with the
sphagnum moss that is used in horticulture to pack
seedlings, young trees and hanging decorative flower
baskets. The organism does not grow on living moss,
but rather on dead, decaying moss (Zhang and
Andrews, 1993). The handling of stored bales of hay has
also been associated with disease (Rosser and Dunstan,
1998). Sporotrichosis is also known as rose-grower’s dis-
ease.
The disease is acquired by traumatic inoculation of
infectious material into tissue. In dogs, the disease is
associated with puncture wounds from thorns, and the
author has treated one dog with generalized sporotri-
chosis that was presumably due to an alligator bite. In
cats, the disease is most common in cats that are
allowed to roam outdoors where puncture wounds
and/or cat-bite wounds become infected from exposure
to the fungus.
There are three forms of sporotrichosis: cutaneous
(solitary draining nodules), cutaneous–lymphatic (multi-
ple nodules developing along lymphatics and lymph
nodes) and disseminated (involving internal organs). In
dogs and cats the most common clinical presentations
are draining nodular lesions. The disease is particularly
problematic in cats because it can resemble two com-
mon skin diseases of cats: cat-bite abscesses and
eosinophilic plaques (self-induced pruritic lesions, often
from flea infestations). Cats, more than dogs, are consid-
ered to be the greatest public health concern because
their lesions shed large numbers of organisms.
The disease is diagnosed most commonly by demon-
stration of the organism by cytology and/or
histopathology. The disease can also be diagnosed by
direct fluorescent antibody testing. Less commonly it is
diagnosed by fungal culture. This disease is easily
treated with systemic antifungal drugs (i.e. itraconazole).
Cases of transmission from cats to people in the USA
have been primarily limited to veterinary health-care
workers coming into contact with infected exudates;
however, this is not the case in other parts of the world
(e.g. Brazil) (Schubach et al., 2002). In some instances,
infection has occurred after non-traumatic exposure,
Karen A. Moriello
suggesting that the cat form is particularly virulent and
can gain entry into the skin through microscopic breaks
in the skin. People handling cats with abscesses should
wear disposable gloves and thoroughly wash their
hands and arms with chlorhexidine or povidone-iodine
scrubs. In most cases, this disease is very responsive to
oral itraconazole.
Deep fungal infections
Blastomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis, coccid-
iomycosis, rhinosporidiosis, aspergillosis, penicilliosis
and protothecosis are the most important fungal organ-
isms in dogs and cats that can cause disseminated
disease (skin, lung, intestines, brain and eyes). Owners
with infected pets are always concerned about possible
zoonotic transmission. To date, there is no public health
concern about transmission from animals to humans.
Concurrent infections in people and their pets occur
from common sources of exposure, particularly in the
case of blastomycosis, cryptococcosis, histoplasmosis
and coccidiomycosis. Infections in animals should be
seen as sentinel signs of an environmental reservoir of
infection. However, there are rare reports of accidental
local infections of Blastomyces organisms due to inocu-
lation from necropsy knives or needles used to do fine
needle aspirates (Ramsey, 1994; Côté et al., 1997).
Bacterial diseases
Dog and cat bites are not contagious zoonotic skin dis-
eases, but will be briefly described because infections
from their bites are due to the normal oral flora. They
are problematic world-wide. The numbers of dog and cat
bites that occur each year are unknown but such bites
have been conservatively estimated to account for at
least 1% of all visits to emergency medical facilities in the
USA (Tan, 1998). Infections due to dog bites are caused
by a number of organisms, including Staphylococcus,
Streptococcus, Corynebacterium, Pasteurella and various
anaerobic species. Cat bites are much more likely to
become infected than dog bites, probably because the
wounds tend to be deep puncture wounds. Infections
due to cat bites are due to the same bacteria as those in
dogs, with the exception of Bartonella henselae. Animal
bites are particularly dangerous in immunocompromised
people and, in all situations, medical attention should be
sought immediately. Immediate first-aid after an animal
bite should include thorough washing of the skin and
bite area with a povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine scrub.
In the absence of one of these, bar soap will suffice; the
important thing is to wash the area and rinse the wound
copiously. This may help minimize the risk and/or sever-
ity of infection. Detailed discussions of this zoonosis and
strategies for prevention can be found in papers by
Zoonotic skin diseases of dogs and cats
Greene et al. (1998), August (1988), Tan (1997), and
Morrison (2001).
L-form bacteria
L-forms of bacteria are cell wall-deficient bacteria that
are very similar to Mycoplasma. The distribution of these
organisms is unknown at present but is probably world-
wide. These organisms have been isolated from cats
with fever, persistent draining lesions, spreading celluli-
tis and synovitis, especially of the extremities (Carro et
al., 1989). The diagnosis is difficult because the organ-
isms are difficult to culture and detect on routine
histopathological examination of tissues. These infec-
tions are very responsive to tetracycline. The infections
are rare in people. There are anecdotal reports that
infection has been transmitted to veterinarians handling
infected cats. In addition, there is also a report of L-form
bacteria at the site of an indwelling catheter in a person;
the same strain was isolated from the person’s dog
(Greene, 1998c).
Staphylococcal infections
The primary staphylococcal pathogen of dogs is
Staphylococcus intermedius. It is present world-wide
and is commonly isolated from normal dog skin.
Bacterial pyodermas in dogs occur secondarily to any
type of skin inflammation and/or hypersensitivity reac-
tions. It is characterized by any combination of papules,
pustules, scales, erythema, hair loss and/or pruritus. This
is not considered of major zoonotic importance. S. inter-
medius has been isolated from dog-bite wounds,
indwelling catheters and contaminated surgical sites.
Recently, this organism was isolated from the ear fluid
of a patient with otitis externa, and molecular phyloge-
netic testing revealed that the isolate was the same as
one recovered from the owner’s pet (Tanner et al.,
2000).
Protozoal diseases
Leishmaniasis
Leishmaniasis is a protozoal infection caused by one of
a variety of Leishmania species, and is one of the most
rapidly emerging world-wide zoonoses. The disease is
common in dogs and cats in areas of the world where it
is endemic. The prevalence of the disease has recently
been shown to be underestimated when PCR is used
instead of the usual serological testing to identify
infected dogs (Solano-Gallego et al., 2000). Dogs may
be a major reservoir of infection for people (Slappendel
and Ferrer, 1998). Disease is transmitted to humans and
165
animals via blood-sucking sandflies. The incubation
period in dogs and cats can vary from 3 months to 7
years. It has been estimated that 90% of infected animals
have cutaneous lesions. These consist of progressive
alopecia; scaling; ulcerations on the ears, nose and face;
mucocutaneous ulcers; crusting of the footpads; long,
brittle nails; and cutaneous ulcers. Systemic signs may
include weight loss and muscle atrophy. Tissue damage
is due to granulomatous inflammation and immune
complex deposition.
Finding the organism cytologically in bone marrow
samples or other exudates and/or by histopathological
examination of tissues establishes a definitive diagnosis.
Serological testing is also available; although animals
can have a positive titer in the absence of clinical signs,
this finding is compatible with infection as animals do
not clear the disease spontaneously. The diagnostic tests
available include immunofluorescent antibody assay,
ELISA, dot ELISA and PCR, with PCR considered the
most accurate method of diagnosis (Saridomichelakis et
al., 2000). The disease is difficult to treat in dogs and
cats and it is rarely completely eliminated. There are two
major forms of the disease in people: cutaneous and
mucocutaneous, and visceral. Depending upon the par-
ticular species of Leishmania involved, dogs may or
may not be involved in the spread of the disease. Dogs
seem to be the major reservoir of infection of visceral
leishmaniasis.
Viral diseases
Viral infections that primarily affect the skin of dogs and
cats are rare. There are, however, a number of systemic
viral infections of small animals that have concurrent
cutaneous manifestations; an example is hard pad or
hyperkeratosis of the footpads of dogs with canine dis-
temper virus infections. Because of the public’s
awareness of HIV and AIDS, it is important to note that
feline immunodeficiency virus is a feline pathogen.
There is no evidence that it can infect people and it is
not considered to be of public health significance
(Sellon, 1998). Poxvirus infections, although rare in dogs
and cats, are the only two viral infections of zoonotic
importance. People contact these infections by contact
with lesions on cats or dogs, with infective material
(poxvirus particles are very stable in the environment),
or with the reservoir hosts.
Feline cow poxvirus infection
There are at least three poxvirus infections that have
been reported in cats: Orthopoxvirus (cowpox), and
uncharacterized poxvirus infections found in cats in
India and North America (Czerny et al., 1991; Baxby and
Bennett, 1994; Bennett et al., 1998). Feline poxvirus
166
infections are most commonly observed in Eurasia and
they are rare in North America. Voles, wood mice,
ground squirrels and gerbils are considered the reservoir
hosts of pox infections. The incidental hosts of these
poxvirus infections include cats, cattle, captive exotic
mammals, people and, rarely, dogs. Cats are presumed
to contract pox infections via bites or wounds from
reservoir hosts. The incubation period varies from 1 to 3
weeks. Many infected cats will show no signs of disease.
Cats that do develop the disease initially show solitary
lesions that spread into a generalized papular-crusted
eruption; however, some cats can develop large
abscesses or cellulitis. Systemic illness is uncommon, but
some cats may become febrile, anorexic and depressed.
Lesions are usually present on the head, neck and legs.
Hair loss is common at the sites and there may or may
not be regrowth. Because many cats with the disease
are outside and in association with large animals, symp-
toms of cowpox in cattle may be present.
A major differential diagnosis would be feline der-
matophytosis. Diagnosis is made via skin biopsy with
concurrent immunohistochemical staining and virus iso-
lation. Cats generally recover with supportive care.
Transmission can occur from cat to cat, from cat to
human, and from cat to dog. Cowpox infections in peo-
ple cause painful nodular skin lesions and systemic
illnesses; many people require hospitalization (Czerny et
al., 1991). Although human cowpox is rare, cats are
believed to be involved in at least 50% of the docu-
mented cases (Baxby et al., 1994). There is increasing
evidence that this may be an unrecognized disease, as
many primary care physicians do not normally consider
this differential diagnosis (Steinborn et al., 2003).
Contagious viral pustular dermatitis
Contagious viral pustular dermatitis (orf, contagious
ecthyma) is caused by a Parapoxvirus. It is found most
commonly in sheep and goats and is only incidentally
found in dogs and cats. The disease is present world-
wide. There is one well-documented case of feline
parapoxvirus infection (Hamblet, 1993). A group of
hunting dogs was reported to have contracted this dis-
ease after eating contaminated sheep carcasses
(Wilkinson, 1970). The dogs developed multifocal areas
of acute dermatitis, ulceration and crusts. This disease is
rare in dogs and the association with infected sheep or
goats would be a prerequisite for suspicion. Diagnosis is
via skin biopsy and/or viral isolation; PCR can also be
used to diagnose the infection (Torfason and Gunadottir,
2002). In people the disease is most commonly con-
tracted by contact with infected sheep or goats or with
scabs. Active vaccination programs using live vaccine
are another source of infection. Lesions in people begin
as a macule that progresses through a papular, nodular
and papillomatous stage. Lesions are usually benign but
Karen A. Moriello
can include generalized lymphadenopathy, lymphadeni-
tis, secondary bacterial infections and, rarely, systemic
disease. Lesions resolve spontaneously.
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 Animal Health and
Welfare in Organic
NEW BOOK
Agriculture
INFORMATION
From
CABI PUBLISHING Edited by M Vaarst, Danish Institute of Agricultural
Sciences, Tjele, Denmark, S Roderick, Duchy College,
Cornwall, UK, V Lund, Swedish University of Agricultural
Sciences, Skara, Sweden, and W Lockeretz, Tufts
University, Massachusetts, USA

ISBN 0 85199 668 X

December 2003 448 pages
Hardback £65.00 (US$120.00)

Readership
Students, researchers and practitioners in animal science, behaviour and welfare, veterinary
medicine and organic research.
Description
The rapid growth of organic farming has been amongst the most remarkable changes in global
agriculture in recent decades. Initially, more attention was paid to the crop side of organic sys-
tems, but that has now changed and there is greater recognition of the need to understand
animal health and welfare better.
This book will further the understanding of organic animal husbandry, demonstrating practical
solutions and innovative methods, and drawing mainly on research and practical experience
with organic farming in Europe.

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CABI Publishing
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 Poultry Feedstuffs:
Supply, Composition
NEW BOOK
INFORMATION
and Nutritive Value
From
J McNab, Roslin Institute (Edinburgh), Midlothian, UK,
CABI PUBLISHING and N Boorman, University of Nottingham, UK
ISBN 0 85199 464 4
July 2002 448 pages
Hardback £75.00 (US$140.00)

Readership
Researchers in animal science and in the animal feed industry, especially those in poultry nutri-
tion.

Description
Presents the proceedings of the 26th Poultry Science Symposium, held in Peebles, Scotland.
Papers have been edited, revised and updated since the Symposium.

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Postage & Packing: For pre-paid orders CABI Publishing, CABI Publishing North America
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book and 60p for each additional book Oxfordshire, OX10 8DE 7th Floor, Cambridge
ordered (up to max. of 10). For pre-paid UK MA 02138, USA
orders elsewhere, please add £4.00 for the Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 61 7 395 4056
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packing will be charged according to the
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CABI Publishing
A division of CAB International
 Principles of Cattle
Production
NEW BOOK
INFORMATION
From
CABI PUBLISHING C J C Phillips, Department of Clinical Veterinary
Medicine, University of Cambridge, UK
ISBN 0 85199 438 5
December 2000 288 pages
Paperback £22.50 (US$40.00)

Readership
University and college students in agriculture, animal science and veterinary science.

Description
Cattle farming is under considerable public pressure for creating possible health risks (e.g.
BSE), for inadequate attention to animal welfare and for having adverse affects on the envi-
ronment. This book outlines the latest methods of farming with dairy and beef cattle,
particularly those that provide for optimum production combined with appropriate consider-
ation of the animal's welfare. Topics covered include housing requirements, cattle diseases,
reproduction, nutrition, milk quality and grazing systems. A separate section is devoted to the
impact of cattle farming on the environment. This book is a textbook for university and col-
lege students in agriculture, animal science and veterinary science, and anyone working in the
cattle farming industry.

To view full contents or to order online please visit

www.cabi-publishing.org/bookshop

Postage & Packing: For pre-paid orders CABI Publishing, CABI Publishing North America
in the UK, please add £2.75 for the 1st Wallingford, 875 Massachusetts Avenue
book and 60p for each additional book Oxfordshire, OX10 8DE 7th Floor, Cambridge
ordered (up to max. of 10). For pre-paid UK MA 02138, USA
orders elsewhere, please add £4.00 for the Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 61 7 395 4056
1st book and £1.00 for each additional Fax: +44 (0)1491 829292 Fax: +1 61 7 354 6875
book. For orders not pre-paid, postage and Email: orders@cabi.org Email: cabi-nao@cabi.org
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CABI Publishing
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 Sheep Nutrition
NEW BOOK
INFORMATION
Edited by M Freer and H Dove, CSIRO Plant Industry,
From Canberra, Australia
CABI PUBLISHING ISBN 0851995950
September 2003 400 pages
Hardback £75.00 (US$140.00)

Readership
Advanced undergraduates, postgraduates and researchers in animal nutrition and ani-
mal science.

Description
Written by the world's leading experts, from Australia, New Zealand, Spain, the USA
and the UK, this book provides a review of the current state of knowledge on all
aspects of sheep nutrition. The main emphasis is on sheep grazing in systems that
range from intensively utilized sown pastures to extensive rangelands but the book is
relevant to anyone working in this field.

Not available from CABI in Australia and New Zealand. Contact CSIRO Publishing, PO Box 1139, Collingwood,
Victoria 3066, Australia.

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in the UK, please add £2.75 for the 1st Wallingford, 875 Massachusetts Avenue
book and 60p for each additional book Oxfordshire, OX10 8DE 7th Floor, Cambridge
ordered (up to max. of 10). For pre-paid UK MA 02138, USA
orders elsewhere, please add £4.00 for the Tel: +44 (0)1491 832111 Tel: +1 61 7 395 4056
1st book and £1.00 for each additional Fax: +44 (0)1491 829292 Fax: +1 61 7 354 6875
book. For orders not pre-paid, postage and Email: orders@cabi.org Email: cabi-nao@cabi.org
packing will be charged according to the
weight of the book.
CABI Publishing
A division of CAB International