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Fundamentals Of Computers
What is Computer : Computer is an electronic device that is designed to work with
Information. The term computer  is derived from the Latin term ‘computare’, this means
to calculate or programmable machine. Computer can not do anything without a Program. It
represents the decimal numbers through a string of binary digits. The Word 'Computer' usually refers
to the Center Processor Unit plus Internal memory.
Computer is an advanced electronic device that takes raw data as input from the user and processes
these data under the control of set of instructions (called program) and gives the result (output) and
saves output for the future use. It can process both numerical and non-numerical (arithmetic and
logical) calculations.

FUNCTIONAL UNITS

In order to carry out the operations

mentioned in the previous section the

computer allocates the task between its

various functional units. The computer

system is divided into three separate

units for its operation. They are :---

ARITHMETIC LOGICAL UNIT

Logical Unit :After you enter data through the input device it is stored in the primary storage

unit. The actual processing of the data and instruction are performed by Arithmetic Logical Unit.

The major operations performed by the ALU are addition, subtraction, multiplication, division,

logic and comparison. Data is transferred to ALU from storage unit when required. After

processing the output is returned back to storage unit for further processing or getting stored.

CONTROL UNIT (CU)

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The next component of computer is the Control Unit, which acts like the supervisor seeing that

things are done in proper fashion. Control Unit is responsible  for  co ordinating various

operations using time signal. The control unit determines the sequence in which computer

programs and instructions are executed. Things like processing of programs stored in the main

memory, interpretation of the instructions and issuing of signals for other units of the computer

to execute them. It also acts as a switch board operator when several users access the computer

simultaneously. Thereby it coordinates the activities of computer’s peripheral equipment as they

perform the input and output.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT

The ALU and the CU of a computer system are jointly known as the central processing unit. You

may call CPU as the brain of any computer system. It is just like brain that takes all major

decisions, makes all sorts of calculations and directs different parts of the computer functions by

activating and controlling the operations.

Basic characteristics about computer are:

1. Speed: - As you know computer can work very fast. It takes only few seconds for calculations that
we take hours to complete. You will be surprised to know that computer can perform millions
(1,000,000) of instructions and even more per second.
Therefore, we determine the speed of computer in terms of microsecond (10-6 part of a second) or
nanosecond (10 to the power -9 part of a second). From this you can imagine how fast your computer
performs work. 
2. Accuracy: - The degree of accuracy of computer is very high and every calculation is performed
with the same accuracy. The accuracy level is 7.
determined on the basis of design of computer. The errors in computer are due to human and
inaccurate data.
3. Diligence: - A computer is free from tiredness, lack of concentration, fatigue, etc. It can work for
hours without creating any error. If millions of calculations are to be performed, a computer will
perform every calculation with the same accuracy. Due to this capability it overpowers human being in
routine type of work.  
4. Versatility: - It means the capacity to perform completely different type of work. You may use your
computer to prepare payroll slips. Next moment you may use it for inventory management or to
prepare electric bills.
5. Power of Remembering: - Computer has the power of storing any amount of informationor data.
Any information can be stored and recalled as long as you require it, for any numbers of years. It
depends entirely upon you how much data you want to store in a computer and when to lose or
retrieve these data.  
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6. No IQ: - Computer is a dumb machine and it cannot do any work without instruction from the user.
It performs the instructions at tremendous speed and with accuracy. It is you to decide what you want
to do and in what sequence. So a computer cannot take its own decision as you can. 
7. No Feeling: - It does not have feelings or emotion, taste, knowledge and experience. Thus it does
not get tired even after long hours of work. It does not distinguish between users.
8. Storage: - The Computer has an in-built memory where it can store a large amount of data. You
can also store data in secondary storage devices such as floppies, which can be kept outside your
computer and can be carried to other computers.

Different Computer Types

We have four different computer types classified according to their performance, power, and size.
A computer is an electronic device that accepts data, processes it, stores, and then produces an
output.

There are different computer types available depending on the number of users they can support at
any one time, their size, and power. In this hub, we are going to have a look at the difference between
supercomputers, mainframe, mini, and microcomputers.

1. Supercomputers – Supercomputers are very expensive, very fast, and the most powerful
computers we have in the world.

Supercomputers are optimized to execute a few number of programs. This makes it possible for them
to execute these few programs at a very high speed. Due to their inhibiting cost, they are used in
high end places like in scientific research centers. The supercomputer consists of thousands of
processors making it clock very high speeds measured by petaflops.

These computer types are also very large in size due to the numerous parts and components involved
in their design.

A good example of a Supercomputer is Tianhe-2: TH-IVB-FEP Cluster; National Super Computer

Center in Guangzhou, China

2. Mainframe computers  — These are large and expensive computer types capable of supporting

hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. Thus, they are mostly used by governments

and large organizations for bulk data processing, critical applications, transaction processing, census,

industry and consumer statistics among others. They are ranked below supercomputers.

3. Minicomputers  — Minicomputers are mid sized computers. In terms of size and power,
minicomputers are ranked below mainframes. A minicomputer is a multiprocessing system capable of
supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

The use of the term Minicomputer has diminished and they have merged with servers.

4. Microcomputers or Personal computers – A personal computer is a computer designed to be

used by one user at a time.The term microcomputer relates to microprocessor which is used with a

personal computer for the purpose of processing data and instruction codes. These are the most

common computer types since they are not very expensive.

What is Primary Memory?

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Primary memory, also known as the main memory, is the area in a computer which stores data and

information for fast access.

Semiconductor chips are the principle technology used for primary memory. It’s a memory which is

used to store frequently used programs which can be directly accessed by the processing unit for

further processing. It’s a volatile memory meaning the data is stored temporarily and is liable to

change or lose in case of power failure.

In simple terms, data is intact as long as the computer is running and the moment it’s off, data is lost.

Every application on the computer first loads into the random access memory (RAM) which makes is

faster to access. The term is more ambiguous, since it also refers to internal memory such as internal

storage devices.

Secondary Memory

On the contrary, secondary memory is the external memory of the computer which can be used to

store data and information on a long-term basis.

It’s a non-volatile memory which means data stays intact even if the computer is turned off. Data

cannot be directly processed by the processing unit in secondary memory; in fact, it is first transferred

into the main memory and then it’s transferred back to the processing unit.

Secondary memory refers to all external storage devices that are capable of storing high volumes of

data such as hard drives, floppy disks, magnetic tapes, USB flash drives, CDs, DVDs, etc. It’s generally

slower than primary memory but can store substantial amount of data, in the range of gigabytes to

terabytes.

Difference between Primary and Secondary Memory

1. Basics of Primary and Secondary Memory

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Memory plays a critical part in computers to store and retrieve data. Computer memory is categorized

into primary and secondary memory. While primary memory is the main memory of the computer

which is used to store data or information temporarily, whereas secondary memory refers to external

storage devices that are used to store data or information permanently.

2. Access of Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary memory holds only those data or instructions which the computer is currently processing

allowing the processor to access running applications and services that are stored temporarily in a

specific memory address. Secondary memory, on the other hand, is persistent in nature which means

instructions are transferred to the main memory first and then re-routed to the central processing

unit.

3. Data in Primary and Secondary Memory

In primary memory, data is directly accessed by the processing unit and it resides in the main memory

until processing. Information and data are stored in semiconductor chips so they have a limited

storage capacity. In secondary memory, information is stored in external storage devices and they

cannot be directly accessed by the processing unit.

4. Nature of Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary memory is volatile in nature which means data or information stored in the main memory is

temporarily which may lead to loss of data in case of power failure and it cannot be retained. On the

contrary, secondary memory is non-volatile in nature which means information is stored permanently

with no data loss in case of power failure. Data is intact unless the user erases it intentionally.

5. Devices for of Primary and Secondary Memory

Primary memory can also be referred to as RAM, short for Random Access Memory, because of the

random selection of memory addresses. RAM holds data in a uniform manner and it can be lost when
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power fails. Secondary memory refers to external storage devices such as hard disk, optical disk,

compact disk, flash drives, magnetic tapes, etc. They are high-storage devices with substantial storage

capacities, in the range of gigabytes to terabytes.

6. Speed of Primary and Secondary Memory

In primary memory, applications and instructions are stored in the main memory which makes them

relatively faster to access via data bus. Processor is able to retrieve data faster than it does with

secondary memory, which acts more like a backup memory to store data in external storage devices.

Types of Computer Memorys:

Memory is the best essential element of a computer because computer can’t perform
simple tasks. The performance of computer mainly based on memory and CPU. Memory is
internal storage media of computer that has several names such as majorly categorized into
two types, Main memory and Secondary memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory.

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory.

1. Primary Memory / Volatile Memory:

Primary Memory also called as volatile memory because the memory can’t store the data
permanently. Primary memory select any part of memory when user want to save the data
in memory but that may not be store permanently on that location. It also has another
name i.e. RAM.

Random Access Memory (RAM):

The primary storage is referred to as random access memory (RAM) due to the random
selection of memory locations. It performs both read and write operations on memory. If
power failures happened in systems during memory access then you will lose your data
permanently. So, RAM is volatile memory. RAM categorized into following types.

 DRAM
 SRAM
 DRDRAM

2. Secondary Memory / Non Volatile Memory:

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Secondary memory is external and permanent memory that is useful to store the external
storage media such as floppy disk, magnetic disks, magnetic tapes and etc cache devices.
Secondary memory deals with following types of components.

Read Only Memory (ROM) :

ROM is permanent memory location that offer huge types of standards to save data. But it
work with read only operation. No data lose happen whenever power failure occur during
the ROM memory work in computers.

ROM memory has several models such names are following.

1. PROM: Programmable Read Only Memory (PROM) maintains large storage media but
can’t offer the erase features in ROM. This type of RO maintains PROM chips to write data
once and read many. The programs or instructions designed in PROM can’t be erased by
other programs.
2. EPROM : Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory designed for recover the
problems of PROM and ROM. Users can delete the data of EPROM thorough pass on
ultraviolet light and it erases chip is reprogrammed.
3. EEPROM: Electrically Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory similar to the EPROM
but it uses electrical beam for erase the data of ROM.
Cache Memory: Main memory less than the access time of CPU so, the performance will
decrease through less access time. Speed mismatch will decrease through maintain cache
memory. Main memory can store huge amount of data but the cache memory normally
kept small and low expensive cost. All types of external media like Magnetic disks, Magnetic
drives and etc store in cache memory to provide quick access tools to the users.

The difference between an interpreter and a compiler is given

below:

Interpreter Compiler

Scans the entire program and translates it as a

Translates program one statement at a time. whole into machine code.

It takes less amount of time to analyze the It takes large amount of time to analyze the
source code but the overall execution time is source code but the overall execution time is
slower. comparatively faster.

Generates intermediate object code which

No intermediate object code is generated, further requires linking, hence requires more
hence are memory efficient. memory.

Continues translating the program until the It generates the error message only after
first error is met, in which case it stops. Hence scanning the whole program. Hence debugging
debugging is easy. is comparatively hard.
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Programming language like Python, Ruby use Programming language like C, C++ use
interpreters. compilers.

Generations of Computer
Introduction: 
A computer is an electronic device that manipulates information or data. It has the ability to store,
retrieve, and process data.
Nowadays, a computer can be used to type documents, send email, play games, and browse the
Web. It can also be used to edit or create spreadsheets, presentations, and even videos. But the
evolution of this complex system started around 1946 with the first Generation of Computer and
evolving ever since.
There are five generations of computers.
1. FIRST GENERATION
 Introduction:
1. 1946-1959 is the period of first generation computer.
2. J.P.Eckert and J.W.Mauchy invented the first successful electronic computer
called ENIAC, ENIAC stands for “Electronic Numeric Integrated And Calculator”.
 Few Examples are:
1. ENIAC
2. EDVAC
3. UNIVAC
4. IBM-701
5. IBM-650
…
 Advantages:
1. It made use of vacuum tubes which are the only electronic component
available during those days.
2. These computers could calculate in milliseconds.
 Disadvantages:
1. These were very big in size, weight was about 30 tones.
2. These computers were based on vacuum tubes.
3. These computers were very costly.
4. It could store only a small amount of information due to the presence of
magnetic drums.
5. As the invention of first generation computers involves vacuum tubes, so
another disadvantage of these computers was, vacuum tubes require a large cooling
system.
6. Very less work efficiency.
7. Limited programming capabilities and punch cards were used to take inputs.
8. Large amount of energy consumption.
9. Not reliable and constant maintenance is required.

2. SECOND GENERATION
 Introduction:
1. 1959-1965 is the period of second-generation computer.
2. 3.Second generation computers were based on Transistor instead of vacuum
tubes.
 Few Examples are:
1. Honeywell 400
2. IBM 7094
3. CDC 1604
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4. CDC 3600
5. UNIVAC 1108
… many more
 Advantages:
1. Due to the presence of transistors instead of vacuum tubes, the size of
electron component decreased. This resulted in reducing the size of a computer as
compared to first generation computers.
2. Less energy and not produce as much heat as the first genration.
3. Assembly language and punch cards were used for input.
4. Low cost than first generation computers.
5. Better speed, calculate data in microseconds.
6. Better portability as compared to first generation
 Disadvantages:
1. A cooling system was required.
2. Constant maintenance was required.
3. Only used for specific purposes.

3. THIRD GENERATION
 Introduction:
1. 1965-1971 is the period of third generation computer.
2. These computers were based on Integrated circuits.
3. IC was invented by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby In 1958-1959.
4. IC was a single component containing number of transistors.
 Few Examples are:
1. PDP-8
2. PDP-11
3. ICL 2900
4. IBM 360
5. IBM 370
… and many more
 Advantages:
1. These computers were cheaper as compared to second-generation
computers.
2. They were fast and reliable.
3. Use of IC in the computer provides the small size of the computer.
4. IC not only reduce the size of the computer but it also improves the
performance of the computer as compared to previous computers.
5. This generation of computers has big storage capacity.
6. Instead of punch cards, mouse and keyboard are used for input.
7. They used an operating system for better resource management and used
the concept of time-sharing and multiple programming.
8. These computers reduce the computational time from microseconds to
nanoseconds.
 Disadvantages:
1. IC chips are difficult to maintain.
2. The highly sophisticated technology required for the manufacturing of IC
chips.
3. Air conditioning is required.

4. FOURTH GENERATION
 Introduction:
1. 1971-1980 is the period of fourth generation computer.
2. This technology is based on Microprocessor.
3. A microprocessor is used in a computer for any logical and arithmetic
function to be performed in any program.
4. Graphics User Interface (GUI) technology was exploited to offer more comfort
to users.
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 Few Examples are:

1. IBM 4341
2. DEC 10
3. STAR 1000
4. PUP 11
… and many more
 Advantages:
1. Fastest in computation and size get reduced as compared to the previous
generation of computer.
2. Heat generated is negligible.
3. Small in size as compared to previous generation computers.
4. Less maintenance is required.
5. All types of high-level language can be used in this type of computers.
 Disadvantages:
1. The Microprocessor design and fabrication are very complex.
2. Air conditioning is required in many cases due to the presence of ICs.
3. Advance technology is required to make the ICs.

5. FIFTH GENERATION
 Introduction:
1. The period of the fifth generation in 1980-onwards.
2. This generation is based on artificial intelligence.
3. The aim of the fifth generation is to make a device which could respond to
natural language input and are capable of learning and self-organization.
4. This generation is based on ULSI(Ultra Large Scale Integration) technology
resulting in the production of microprocessor chips having ten million electronic
component.
 Few Examples are:
1. Desktop
2. Laptop
3. NoteBook
4. UltraBook
5. Chromebook
… and many more
 Advantages:
1. It is more reliable and works faster.
2. It is available in different sizes and unique features.
3. It provides computers with more user-friendly interfaces with multimedia
features.
 Disadvantages:
1. They need very low-level languages.
2. They may make the human brains dull and doomed.

 What does Operating System (OS) mean?

An operating system (OS), in its most general sense, is software that allows a user to run other
applications on a computing device. While it is possible for a software application to interface directly
with hardware, the vast majority of applications are written for an OS, which allows them to take
advantage of common libraries and not worry about specific hardware details.
The operating system manages a computer's hardware resources, including:

 Input devices such as a keyboard and mouse

 Output devices such as display monitors, printers and scanners
 Network devices such as modems, routers and network connections
 Storage devices such as internal and external drives
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The OS also provides services to facilitate the efficient execution and management of, and memory
allocations for, any additional installed software application programs.
Types of Computer Operating systems

Computer Operating systems can be broadly classified into two types:

1. Normal Operating System

2. Real Time Operating System
1. Normal Operating System

The normal operating system is further classified into two types:

 Character User Interface Operating System

 Graphical User Interface Operating System
Character User Interface Operating System (CUI)

The CUI operating system is a text-based operating system, which is used for interacting with the
software or files by typing commands to perform specific tasks. The command line operating system
uses only keyboard to enter commands. The command line operating systems include DOS and
UNIX. The advanced command line operating system is faster then the advanced   GUI operating
system.

Graphical User Interface Operating System (GUI)

The graphical mode interface operating system is a mouse-based operating system (Windows
Operating System, LINUX), wherein a user performs the tasks or operations without typing the
commands from the keyboard. The files or icons can be opened or closed by clicking them with a
mouse button.

In addition to this, the mouse and keyboard are used to control the GUI operating systems for several
purposes. Most of the embedded-based projectsare developed on this operating system. The
advanced GUI operating   system is slower than the command line operating system
.
3. Real-time Operating System

Real-time operating systems are also known as multitasking operating systems. The
normal operating system is responsible for managing the hardware resources of a
computer. The RTOS perform these tasks, but it is especially designed to run
applications at a scheduled or precise time with high reliability.

Real-time operating system is designed for real-time applications, such as embedded systems,
industrial robots, scientific research equipments and others. There are different types of operating
systems in real time, such as soft real-time operating systems and hard real-time operating systems.

Examples of RTOS
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 RTLinux
 VxWorks
 TRON
 Windows CE
Important functions of an operating System:
1. Security –
The operating system uses password protection to protect user data and similar other
techniques. it also prevents unauthorized access to programs and user data.

2. Control over system performance –

Monitors overall system health to help improve performance. records the response time
between service requests and system response to have a complete view of the system health.
This can help improve performance by providing important information needed to troubleshoot
problems.

3. Job accounting –
Operating system Keeps track of time and resources used by various tasks and users, this
information can be used to track resource usage for a particular user or group of user.

4. Error detecting aids –

Operating system constantly monitors the system to detect errors and avoid the malfunctioning
of computer system.

5. Coordination between other software and users –

Operating systems also coordinate and assign interpreters, compilers, assemblers and other
software to the various users of the computer systems.

6. Memory Management –
The operating system manages the Primary Memory or Main Memory. Main memory is made
up of a large array of bytes or words where each byte or word is assigned a certain address.
Main memory is a fast storage and it can be accessed directly by the CPU. For a program to be
executed, it should be first loaded in the main memory. An Operating System performs the
following activities for memory management:

7. Processor Management –
In a multi programming environment, the OS decides the order in which processes have access
to the processor, and how much processing time each process has. This function of OS is
called process scheduling. An Operating System performs the following activities for processor
management.
Keeps tracks of the status of processes. The program which perform this task is known as
traffic controller. Allocates the CPU that is processor to a process. De-allocates processor when
a process is no more required.

8. Device Management –
An OS manages device communication via their respective drivers. It performs the following
activities for device management. Keeps tracks of all devices connected to system. designates
a program responsible for every device known as the Input/Output controller. Decides which
process gets access to a certain device and for how long. Allocates devices in an effective and
efficient way. Deallocates devices when they are no longer required.

9. File Management –
A file system is organized into directories for efficient or easy navigation and usage. These
directories may contain other directories and other files. An Operating System carries out the
following file management activities. It keeps track of where information is stored, user access
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settings and status of every file and more… These facilities are collectively known as the file
system.

Purpose of an OS :
 Managing Resources: Programs that manage the resources of a computer such as the
printer, mouse, keyboard, memory and monitor.
 Providing User Interface: Graphical user interface (GUI) is something developers
create to allow users to easily click something without having to understand how or why
they clicked an icon. Each icon on a desktop represents code linking to the spot in which
the icon represents. It makes it very easy for uneducated users.
 Running Applications, is the ability to run an application such as Word processor by
locating it and loading it into the primary memory. Most operating systems can multitask
by running many applications at once.
 Support for built-in Utility Programs: This is the program that find and fixes
errors in the operating system.
 Control Computer Hardware: All programs that need computer hardwaremust go
through the operating system which can be accessed through the BIOS (basic input output
system) or the device drivers

Need of Operating System:

 OS as a platform for Application programs: Operating system provides a platform, on top

of which, other programs, called application programs can run. These application programs help
the users to perform a specific task easily. It acts as an interface between the computer and the
user. It is designed in such a manner that it operates, controls and executes various
applications on the computer.
 Managing Input-Output unit: Operating System also allows the computer to manage its own
resources such as memory, monitor, keyboard, printer etc. Management of these resources is
required for an effective utilization.The operating system controls the various system input-
output resources and allocates them to the users or programs as per their requirement.
 Consistent user interface: Operating System provides the user an easy-to-work user
interface, so the user doesn’t have to learn a different UI every time and can focus on the
content and be productive as quickly as possible. Operating System provides templates, UI
components to make the working of a computer, really easy for the user.
 Multitasking: Operating System manages memory and allow multiple programs to run in
their own space and even communicate with each other through shared memory. Multitasking
gives users a good experience as they can perform several tasks on a computer at a time.

Directory
A directory is a location for storing files on your
computer. Directories are found in a hierarchical file
system, such as Linux, MS-DOS, OS/2, and Unix.

Drive
A drive is a location (medium) that is capable of
storing and reading information that is not easily
removed, like a disk or disc. All drives
store files and programs that are used by your
computer. For example, when you write a letter in
a word processor the program is loaded from you hard
drive and when you save the document it is saved to
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the hard drive or other disk or drive. The picture is an

example of different drives listed in Microsoft
Windows My Computer.

Functions of Accounting Software

Accounting software describes a type of application software that records and

processes accounting transactions within functional modules such as accounts
payable, accounts receivable, journal, general ledger, payroll, and trial balance. It functions as
an accounting information system. It may be developed in-house by the organization using it,
may be purchased from a third party, or may be a combination of a third-party application
software package with local modifications. Accounting software may be on-line based, accessed
anywhere at any time with any device which is Internet enabled, or may be desktop based. It
varies greatly in its complexity and cost.

Application of accounting software

1. Simplification. Accounting systems put finance control in the hands of a
non-accounting audience, designed to give numbers a meaning while
performing automated calculations. With little to no training at all, the
business owner can complete all accounting operations and comply with
legal standards from a desktop computer or a mobile device, and without
paying an external party to keep budget in the loop.
2. Cost savings. Accounting and finances systems automate core calculations
and administrative procedures and take control of your revenue framework
so that you won’t have to outsource finance management to an external
expert. In parallel, they also reduce costs related to printing and
distributing documentation and store sensitive data in secure and monitored
locations.
3. Full financial transparency. From an accountant’s or an auditor’s point of
view, the highlight of good accounting systems is that they prevent costly
and recurring human errors. Calculating inaccurate sums or failing to report
data in time can easily lead to a business crisis, and that’s where
automating calculations is most useful.
4. Accurate forecasting. It’s one of the main advantages of accounting
software. Understanding in detail the patterns and trends of your financial
performance is something that would take ages to complete without a solid
system. Accounting software gives numbers a meaning, helping you
understand where to cut expenses or where to invest more. With a clear
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overview of your current financial status, you will find it easier to develop
smart strategies and allocate resources the right way.
5. Productivity. Should a business owner have to choose a single suite of
digitized services to improve performance, his first option should definitely
be accounting software. These systems drill deep inside the most
cumbersome, day-to-day tasks of companies, collect, organize, and analyze
their most sensitive data, and what is most important, make smarter use of
their money.
6. Tax compliance. Many of today’s top accounting systems are dedicated to
payroll assistance and reporting and adhere to tax regulations
automatically. Once you’ve activated them, they become your number one
source of tax and audit information; they store all the important details for
you to maintain a transparent workflow.

What can be done with help of windows explorer

Windows Explorer is the file management application in Windows. Windows Explorer can be used
to navigate your hard drive and display the contents of the folders and subfolders you use to
organize your files on your hard drive. Windows Explorer is automatically launched any time you
open a folder in Windows XP.

Input devices
An input device can send data to another device, but it cannot receive data from another device.
Examples of input devices include the following.

Keyboard and Mouse - Accepts input from a user and sends that data (input) to
the computer. They cannot accept or reproduce information (output) from the
computer.

Microphone - Receives sound generated by an input source, and sends that

sound to a computer.

Webcam - Receives images generated by whatever it is pointed at (input) and

sends those images to a computer.

Output devices
An output device can receive data from another device and generate output with that data, but
it cannot send data to another device. Examples of output devices include the following.

Monitor - Receives data from a computer (output) and displays that information
as text and images for users to view. It cannot accept data from a user and send
that data to another device.
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Projector - Receives data from a computer (output) and displays, or projects,

that information as text and images onto a surface, like a wall or a screen. It
cannot accept data from a user and send that data to another device.

Speakers - Receives sound data from a computer and plays the sounds for
users to hear. It cannot accept sound generated by users and send that sound to
another device.

Input Vs Output

The difference between input and output devices is simple. As the names suggest,
input devices allow data to be pulled into a computer, and output devices share data
with the outside world. Whether a computer is a smart phone, desktop, laptop or
mainframe, it typically has both input and output devices.

Input devices are necessary for a computer to receive commands from its users and
data to process. Output devices are necessary for a computer to share its results
and prompt users for more information and commands.

Examples of Input Devices:

Digital camera, Gamepad, Joystick, Keyboard, Microphone, MIDI keyboard, Mouse

(pointing device), Scanner, Webcam, Touchpads, Pen Input, Microphone, Electronic
Whiteboard, OMR, OCR, Punch card reader, MICR (Magnetic Ink character reader),
Magnetic Tape Drive, etc.

Examples of Output Devices:

Monitor (LED, LCD, CRT etc), Printers (all types), Plotters, Projector, LCD Projection
Panels, Computer Output Microfilm (COM), Speaker(s), Head Phone, Visual Display
Unit, etc.

The working principle of the computer system

Computers do the work primarily in the machine and we can not see, a control center that
converts the information data input to output.This control center, called the central
processing unit (CPU), How Computers Work is a very complex system.

Broad set of electronic circuitry that executes stored program instructions.All computers,
large and small, must have a central processing unit.Central processing unit consists of two
parts: the control unit and arithmetic / logic unit.Each part has a specific function.

Before we discuss the control unit and arithmetic / logic unit in detail, we need to consider
the data storage and its relationship with the central processing unit.Computers use two
types of storage: primary and secondary storage.
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CPU interacts closely with the primary storage or main memory, it refers to both instructions
and data.For this reason this section will discuss the reading of memory in the context of the
central processing unit.

The basic components of a digital computer

 Input devices (keyboard, mouse, etc).
 Memory board.
 Central Processing Unit (processor).
 Output devices (video terminal, printer, etc.)

Software

Software is a set of instructions, data or programs used to

operate computers and execute specific tasks. Opposite of hardware,
which describes the physical aspects of a computer, software is a generic
term used to refer to applications, scripts and programs that run on a
device. Software can be thought of as the variable part of a computer and
hardware the invariable part.
Software is often divided into two categories.

1 ) System Software - It is a base for application software which responsible for
managing hardware.

In other words we can say that system software is a intermediator between user and
hardware. system software is also known as Operating System

Example - MS-Windows, UNIX, Linux, Sun Solaris

2) Application Software - or simply applications, are often called productivity

programs or end-user programs because they enable the user to complete tasks, such as
creating documents, spreadsheets, databases and publications, doing online research,
sending email, designing graphics, running businesses, and even playing games!
Application software is specific to the task it is designed for and can be as simple as a
calculator application or as complex as a word processing application.

What does Computer Network mean?

A computer network is a group of computer systems and other computing hardware
devices that are linked together through communication channels to facilitate
communication and resource-sharing among a wide range of users. Networks are
commonly categorized based on their characteristics.
Types of Networks in Use Today
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1. Personal Area Network (PAN)

The smallest and most basic type of network, a PAN is made up of a wireless
modem, a computer or two, phones, printers, tablets, etc., and revolves around
one person in one building. These types of networks are typically found in small
offices or residences, and are managed by one person or organization from a
single device.

2. Local Area Network (LAN)

We’re confident that you’ve heard of these types of networks before – LANs are
the most frequently discussed networks, one of the most common, one of the
most original and one of the simplest types of networks. LANs connect groups of
computers and low-voltage devices together across short distances (within a
building or between a group of two or three buildings in close proximity to each
other) to share information and resources. Enterprises typically manage and
maintain LANs.

Using routers, LANs can connect to wide area networks (WANs, explained below)
to rapidly and safely transfer data.

3. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN)

Functioning like a LAN, WLANs make use of wireless network technology, such as
WiFi. Typically seen in the same types of applications as LANs, these types of
networks don’t require that devices rely on physical cables to connect to the
network.

4. Campus Area Network (CAN)

Larger than LANs, but smaller than metropolitan area networks (MANs,
explained below), these types of networks are typically seen in universities, large
K-12 school districts or small businesses. They can be spread across several
buildings that are fairly close to each other so users can share resources.

5. Wide Area Network (WAN)

Slightly more complex than a LAN, a WAN connects computers together across

longer physical distances. This allows computers and low-voltage devices to be
remotely connected to each other over one large network to communicate even
when they’re miles apart.
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Advantages and disadvantages of networks

Advantages
 Sharing devices such as printers saves money.
 Site (software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone licences.
 Files can easily be shared between users.
 Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
 Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone machines.
 Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

Disadvantages
 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
 Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network manager usually
needs to be employed.
 If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible. Email might
still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used but are isolated.
 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
 There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security procedures are
needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.
 Why do we use accounting software?

Accounting software is a class of computer programs that enable you to manage your business's
financial transactions. ... Using accounting software helps companies to use the resources in
their accounting departments efficiently, and can reduce costly bookkeeping mistakes.
What are some examples of accounting software? 
 HDPOS Smart
 Quickbooks
 Xero
 Freshbooks
 Wave Accounting
 Zoho Books
 ProfitBooks