40319347

Council for Research in Music Education
Vocal Evidence of Toddler Music Syntax Acquisition: A Case Study

Author(s): Wendy H. Valerio, Michael A. Seaman, Ching Ching Yap, Peter M. Santucci and
Ming Tu
Source: Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education, No. 170 (Fall, 2006), pp.
33-45
Published by: University of Illinois Press on behalf of the Council for Research in Music
Education
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/40319347
Accessed: 01-04-2020 05:41 UTC
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Valerio, Seaman, Yap, Santucci & Tu Toddler Music Syntax Acquisition
Vocal Evidence of Toddler Music

Syntax Acquisition: A Case Study
Wendy H. Valerlo
Michael A. Seaman
Ching Ching Yap
Peter M. Santucci
Ming Tu
University or South Carolina
Columbia, South Carolina
ABSTRACT
In this case study we addressed two questions: (a) what are the trends in to
syntax acquisition behaviors within a 6-month period during music play and
(b) how do adult tonal improvisation, rhythm improvisation, and silence each a
behaviors during music play? Each toddler performed many more non-music v
music vocal behaviors, regardless of the play session type. The toddlers perform
number of music vocal behaviors, though they displayed strikingly different m
trends. Adults may elicit more toddler vocalizations when they provide tonal p
pattern improvisation and silence during music play than when they do not.
INTRODUCTION
Though human music perception begins in utero (Lecanuet, 199
capable of detecting minute differences in tone patterns, rhythm
contours, and phrase structures during infancy, (e.g. Krumhan
Trehub, Bull, & Thorpe, 1984; Trehub, Thorpe, & Trainor, 1990)
evidence exists regarding how humans use music perception for m
tion during the first few years of life. Some researchers have theor
learning processes of very young children (Gordon, 2003a; Swan
1986), yet only a few researchers have systematically documented
young children perceive music and display vocal evidence of music s
naturalistic environments (Hicks, 1993; Holohan, 1987; Reynolds,
guided music syntax acquisition (Gordon, 2003a; Valerio, Reynold
& Gordon, 1998) researchers may gain understanding of music lea
may become better equipped to formulate interventions that enhan
music development (Valerio, 2005).
Children may participate in music syntax acquisition similar
ticipate in language acquisition. To learn language they aurally p
33
Bulletin of the Council for Research in Music Education Fall 2006 No. 1 70
formed by others and are guided through oral interactions to think and
(Vygotsky, 1978, 1981). Similarly, from birth, if not before, children a
music stimuli performed by others. If guided, they may acquire the ab
music thoughts, vocally express their music thoughts, and participate in m
tions with others. Music thoughts do not comprise words, but rather the
of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns in a myriad of styles. Through mu
humans give syntax to the relationships between tonal patterns and rhy
(Gordon, 2003b). Moreover, musically knowledgeable and skilled adult
the combinations of tonal patterns and rhythm patterns by performin
rhythm chants. They may also perform tonal pattern and rhythm pattern
using imitation and improvisation, much like they model language con
assist young children in acquiring language syntax (Gordon, 2003a; Go
Valerio, Reynolds, Taggart, Bolton, & Gordon, 1998). By modeling mu
and improvisation for young children, adults may demonstrate the dyna
of music ideas. How young children vocally respond to adults' tonal and
tern improvisation remains undocumented.
Though somewhat dated, perhaps the most extensive documentatio
children's music development in naturalistic environments was provi
Moorhead and Pond (1978) Through their descriptive studies at T
Foundation, Moorhead and Pond observed children, ages 2 to 7, in a c
ment center from 1937-1948. The researchers recorded and described t
spontaneous creation of chants and songs, and determined stages of m
ment. Though adults were present in the center, they did not offer the c
guidance designed to assist them in music syntax acquisition. The resea
that without adult music syntax guidance, young children demonstrat
between music babble and language babble, enjoy playing with music instr
create primitive songs and rhythm chants.
Miller (1986) and Shelley (1981) observed young children's music you
in naturalistic environments that included music instruments and musi
They, they found that children like to play with instruments and to liste
with music recordings. Children also like to experiment with sound c
and imitate their peers. Like Moorhead and Pond (1978), Miller (1986)
(1981) observed children in music activities, they agreed that children's
innate and emerging, but they did not provide specific music syntax g
children. Perhaps if adults provide specific music syntax guidance, young
demonstrate behaviors that allow insight into the nature of music synt
As Shelley (1981) stated, "The influence of the teachers interaction as b
crucial to the emergence of the child's innate musicality needs to be in
32). By investigating children's vocalizations in response to music stimu
music teachers we may document the emergence of music syntax acquis
by human interactions.
34
More recently, Berger and Cooper (2003) performed a 10-week case study o
preschool children's musical play with their parents and music teachers in a natura
group setting. That musical play primarily involved communicating about music u
language rather than using music, therefore, the researchers documented minima
dence of preschooler music syntax acquisition. The researchers reiterated, however
importance of young children s musical play with parental involvement and interac
as suggested by Fox (1989), Neelly (2001), Taggart, (2000), Tarnowski (1999), a
Trehub (1999).
Hicks (1993) and Reynolds (1995) examined guided infant and toddler mus
syntax acquisition in playful, naturalistic situations where adults provided music s
acquisition guidance by (a) vocally performing music using neutral syllables inst
words, (b) vocally performing short songs and rhythm chants in a variety of ton
and meters repeatedly, (c) vocally performing tonal patterns and rhythm pattern
(d) encouraging infants and toddlers to use music syntax without words. The resea
ers also used a silence technique by pausing between phrases of familiar songs or rh
chants. Adachi and Carlson (1995) employed a similar technique when investiga
melodic expectancy in children age 3-12 years.
Hicks (1993) and Reynolds (1995) found that some infants and toddlers displ
spontaneous kinesthetic and vocal anticipatory responses to music presented wi
words. Furthermore, infants and toddlers performed vocal music responses
anticipating tonal and rhythm patterns, especially when the researchers used the s
technique. According to Gordon (2003a) humans must anticipate music patter
predict and communicate music thought. Though Hicks and Reynolds provided
evidence that early music syntax acquisition may be encouraged vocally through m
interactions performed without words in informal music settings, researcher
additional evidence to verify and refine the understanding of music syntax ac
tion processes. Without such evidence, music syntax acquisition processes may r
unknown. With such evidence, music educators and researchers may seek to im
early childhood music education practices.
The purpose of this case study was to document vocal behaviors performed du
guided music syntax acquisition among toddlers in naturalistic environments.
coding and categorizing all toddler vocal behaviors, we used the coding and categ
tions to address two specific research questions: (a) what are the trends in toddler
music syntax acquisition behaviors within a 6-month period during music play
general play, and (b) how do adult tonal improvisation, rhythm improvisation
silence each affect toddler vocal behaviors during music play?
35
METHOD
Participants
Data for this study were collected at a public Southeastern childcare facility. The facility
has a regular enrollment of 55 children between the ages of six weeks and five years.
Thirty percent of the children are from minorities and 13% qualify for free and/or
reduced lunches.
Four music educators of the case study research team specialize in early childhood
music learning and teaching processes. The fifth member of the research team is an
educational research and measurement specialist. Three weeks prior to data collection
for this case study, two of the music educators held one 15-minute music play session in
an intact toddler class of 10 children and their two caregivers in a public Southeastern
child development center. The three other research team members observed the music
play session from an observation booth. Immediately after the initial music play session,
the research team selected two toddlers, Frank and Tony, as the most musically respon-
sive children. Of the 10 children in the intact class, Frank and Tony freely participated
most often in the initial music play session by moving and vocalizing during music and
movement activities initiated by the music educators.
Frank was 1 8-months-old and Tony was 1 9-months-old. Each is a Caucasian male
from a middle-class, two-parent family, and each has been enrolled in the child develop-
ment center since the age of 6-weeks. Tony was born one month prematurely and most
often participated in activities with children who were at least one month younger than
he in chronological age.
Procedures
After identifying the two specific toddler participants, the music educators led music
play and general play sessions two weeks prior to data collection. To make data collec-
tion as naturalistic as possible, two music educators familiarized the intact toddler class
with 15-minute periods of music play and 15-minutes of general play in the toddlers'
classroom, twice per week. That classroom is approximately 30' x 40' feet in dimension
and is supplied with child-sized equipment including a tiled eating area with two tables,
each with five chairs, and a carpeted area with several activity centers that contain books,
climbing apparatuses, art supplies, kitchen materials, drama supplies, and blocks.
The remaining two music educators operated video cameras during the familiariza-
tion period and throughout the study. One music educator continuously videotaped
Frank and the other continuously videotaped Tony during each music play and gen-
eral play session. Each video camera operator used a handheld Sony Digital 8 DCR-
TRV310 video camera. A third stationary Panasonic OmniMovie PV-960VHS was
used to record the two music educators' stimuli presentations. Permission to videotape
the children was granted through the researchers' university Internal Review Board.
Parents of all child participants agreed to and signed letters of informed consent.
36
Valerio, Seaman, Yap, Santucá & Tu Toddler Music Syntax Acquisition
All 10 children became acclimated to the music educators and the video camera
operators by the end of the two-week familiarization period. That is, after the four
music play periods and four general play periods held during the familiarization period,
the children did not seem to notice the presence of the video cameras and their opera-
tors during music play and general play.
After the two-week familiarization period, researchers began a six-month data col-
lection period. Twice-per-week, on Tuesdays and Thursdays, the researchers conducted
1 5-minute sessions of music play immediately followed by 1 5-minutes of general play.
The order of music play and general play was switched for each consecutive session
to minimize the effects of stimuli presentation order. Sessions were held from June
through December, except during vacation and holiday breaks when the child develop-
ment center was closed, for a total of 32 sessions. Frank missed two and Tony missed
three data collection sessions.
Conditions
During music play and general play sessions, two early childhood caregivers from the
child development center participated in, but did not lead, activities. They attended to
individual children, as needed, and watched, imitated, or joined in the activities per-
formed and led by the music educators during music play and general play.
Each of the toddlers, including Frank and Tony, chose whether or not to partici-
pate in the music play and general play activities presented or encouraged by the music
educators. Toddlers who did not actively engage in those activities were free to observe
those activities or play independently at the various learning centers in the classroom.
On average, four to six children were actively engaged with the music educators, one to
four children were being attended to by the early childhood caregivers, and one to four
children were playing independently. No children in the intact classroom appeared to
be intimidated by the presence of the music educators during data collection. Following
are descriptions of conditions specific to music play and general play sessions.
Music play.
During music play sessions music educators performed vocal stimuli designed to guide
music syntax acquisition, and they spoke no language. Music play session vocal stimuli
were limited to short songs, tonal pattern imitation and improvisation, short rhythm
chants, and rhythm pattern imitation and improvisation as found in Jump Right in:
The Early Childhood Music Curriculum (Valerio, et al., 1998). The music educators
only performed music using neutral syllables such as bum or bah, and they included a
variety of tonalities and meters during each music play session. They did not attempt
to teach songs, tonal patterns, rhythm chants, or rhythm patterns to the toddlers in a
traditional manner. They also repeatedly demonstrated tonal pattern and rhythm pat-
tern imitation, as well as the exchange of music ideas through tonal pattern and rhythm
37
lonal Pattern Imitation
fl ^ ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2
ff/".,. fl ^ i., .I---II---I...II. .>■>■>. i-

Tonal Pattern Improvisation
^ ^ ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 ME 1 ME 2 MEI ME 2
<8l,.-IL..|«'.||..-l,. ^ ^ II-, I-., II,

Rhythm Pattern Imitation
MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .
■■^püt wr tar
Rhythm Pattern Improvisation
MEI ||ME2 ,ME 1 ..ME 2 ,ME 1 , ,, ME 2 , ,

iifff Wrrrrr - r rrr Wrr rr \r r r r \rrrrr - \\r r r r rrr
Figure 1 . Music Educator Tonal Pattern and Rhythm Pattern Imitation and Im
Examples (Note. ME 1 = One Music Educator, ME 2 = The Other Music Educa
pattern improvisation. Examples of tonal pattern and rhythm patt

improvisation are presented in Figure 1 .
The music educators made no attempt to force children to particip
as a group or as individuals. When the music educators entered the
they simply began performing music stimuli without language and a
(Adachi, 1994) in child-directed functional play, constructive play,
(Smilansky, 1968) with each other and with any children present w
between among the children at learning centers in the classroom.
The music educators further attempted to guide toddler music s
by responding with tonal patterns or rhythm patterns to each tod
during music play sessions. Moreover, they spontaneously varied t
music activities and frequently employed the silence technique de
and Carlsen (1995), Hicks (1993), and Reynolds (1995). During som
of songs and rhythm chants the music educators performed silence i
tonal pattern, rhythm pattern, final pitch, or final duration. Choksy
that technique as "hiding the song" (p. 36) or parts of the song.
General play.
During the general play sessions the music educators acted as co-
1994) in child-directed functional play, constructive play, and dra
the traditional toddler toys and books in the classroom. During
sessions the music educators communicated with the children, care
38
using language, but they performed no music. The music educators made no atte
to teach concepts in a formalized manner or force children to participate in activit
they simply played and conversed with the children, and with each other, while fr
moving around the classroom among the children at learning centers.
Instrumentation
To create a timeline of all music activities performed by the two music educators during
each music play session, two members from the research team (one music educator and
one video recording operator) independently viewed all video recordings and coded all
music activities as (a) songs, (b) tonal pattern imitation, (c) tonal pattern improvisation, (d)
rhythm chants, (e) rhythm pattern imitation, (g) rhythm improvisation. Songs and rhythm
chants were also coded as (a) without silence or (b) with silence. To ensure the reliability
of the timeline, when they disagreed, the researchers reviewed the tapes and adjusted their
coding until they reached 100% agreement on the music educators' music activities.
All researchers viewed video recordings of Frank and Tony made during the two-
week familiarization phase to develop an initial behavior coding system. They revised
the coding system three times by discussing their observations and agree on the final
toddler vocal behavior coding system that could be used to categorize all recorded vocal
behaviors (Table 1). To ensure coding system reliability, three researchers independently
Table 1
Toddler vocal behavior category and occurrence definitions
Vocal Behaviors and Definitions

Occurrence Types
Non-music Speaking, coughing, crying, laughing, raspberries, screams

Rhythm pattern Changes of duration and inflection performed in
meter and without definite pitch
Tonal pattern At least 2 definite pitches performed in tonality

and keyality and without rhythm
Melodic pattern Simultaneous performance of a tonal pattern and a

rhythm pattern
Song Repetition of a melodic pattern or performance of a series

of melodic patterns
Rhythm chant Performance of a rhythm pattern series or repetition of

rhythm patterns
During adult improvisation Toddler's vocalization occurred during adult's tonal pattern
improvisation series or rhythm pattern improvisation series
During adult silence Toddler's vocalization occurred during adult's performance

of a song or rhythm chant with an omitted phrase, tonal
pattern, rhythm pattern, final note, or final duration
39
viewed additional sample video recordings of Frank and Tony in music play
play sessions and coded each vocal behavior occurrence using the categor
sented in Table 1. If two of the three researchers agreed on the exhibited v
type and the time of occurrence, that behavior was recorded as an agree
two researchers disagreed about either the behavior type or the time of
that behavior was recorded as a disagreed behavior. The three researchers
approximately 70% of toddler vocal behaviors were agreed behaviors.
After training, two research team members independently viewed all v
ings of Frank and Tony and used the stimuli presentation timeline to c
behaviors performed by the toddlers during music play and general pl
third research team member viewed and coded selected video recording
third and fifth months of data collection to ensure that the coding sys
ity maintained near or greater than 70% agreement. Throughout the s
researcher agreement for toddler vocal behaviors ranged from 64% to 86
900 ;
800 j f
700 ■ /
600 ; jS S^
: y/^ y/^ - ♦- Frank, Non-music
500 [ *^^^>^^- " - ~* -«-Frank,
^qq -_ *^~ - ' " ^ - A - Tony, Non-music
\ - -#- Tony, Music
300 :
0 E
12 3 4
Quarter
Figure 2. Frank's and Tony's Music Vocal Behavior and Non-music Vocal Behavio
40
Valerio, Seaman, Yap, Sanhjcci & Tu Toddler Music Syntax Acquisition
RESULTS
Toddler Music Vocal Behavior and Non-Music Vocal Behavior
Frequency Trends
To examine Frank s and Tony's vocal behavior frequency trends the researchers combined
rhythm patterns, tonal patterns, melodic patterns, rhythm chants, and songs as music
vocal behaviors. Non-music vocal behaviors comprised all other recorded vocal behaviors.
The researchers also divided the data collection period into quarters with each quarter
comprising eight music play sessions and eight general play sessions (Figure 2).
Each toddler performed many more non-music vocal behaviors than music vocal
behaviors throughout the study. Though Frank performed more non-music vocal
behaviors (2,336) than did Tony (1,941) during the data collection period, the toddlers
exhibited similar non-music vocal behavior trends. Frank exhibited a 68% increase and
Tony exhibited a 56% increase of non-music vocal behaviors. Though the toddlers
performed nearly the same number of music vocal behaviors during the data collection
period (Frank performed 527, and Tony performed 501), their music vocal behavior
trends were strikingly different. Frank exhibited a slight decrease (21%), and Tony
exhibited a great increase (388%) of music vocal behaviors.
The researchers compared Franks and Tonys vocal behavior frequency trends within
each play type (Figure 3). Frank and Tony each performed more non-music vocal behav-
iors than music vocal behaviors, regardless of the play session type. Frank performed
many more music vocal behaviors during music play sessions than during general play
sessions and Frank's music vocal behavior frequencies during music play remained almost
constant throughout the study. Frank performed non-music vocal behaviors with fluctu-
ating frequency between quarters, but increased those behaviors during music play ses-
sions (76%) and during general play sessions (65%) from the first to the fourth quarters.
Moreover, Frank decreased music vocal behaviors during general play sessions (58%).
Unlike Frank, Tony demonstrated a marked music vocal behavior frequency
increase (1,119%) during music play sessions throughout the study. Tony also increased
non-music vocal behaviors during music play sessions (139%) and during general play
sessions (31%). Like Frank, Tony performed many more music vocal behaviors during
music play than during general play sessions. Moreover, Tony decreased music vocal
behaviors during general play (44%).
Toddler Vocalizations During Music Educators9 Improvisation

and Silences
We examined the frequency of each toddler's vocal behaviors performed during music
educators' tonal pattern and rhythm pattern improvisation and silences. For this
investigation, music vocal behaviors and non-music vocal behaviors were combined as
vocalizations for those comparisons.
The music educators performed 181 tonal patterns or rhythm patterns with
improvisation and 465 tonal patterns or rhythm patterns without improvisation when
41
600 t
500 -j y/
! / ♦ Music Play,
400 ■; / Non-Music
: A^ ^/* -«-Music Play,

■ ^^-+^ ^^* MuSÌC
9nn • ^^"^ A General Play,
■ ^_- - - W Non-Music
I oo - : ■
; Music
12 3 4
Quarter
600 r
500 ■
♦ Music Play,
400 ■ A Non-Music
jS - ■ - Music Play,
300 - A
■
200 ■ ^^^
! s' s^ - • - General Play,

loo ■ ^ m
0[ É<» , » , t ,
12 3 4
Quarter
Figure 3. Frank's and Tony's Music Play and General Play Vocal Behavior T
42
Frank was present. Frank responded with vocalizations to 80 (44%) of the patter
with improvisation and 148 (32%) of the patterns without improvisation. The m
educators performed 175 tonal patterns or rhythm patterns with improvisation and
tonal patterns or rhythm patterns without improvisation when Tony was present. T
responded with vocalizations to 69 (39%) of the patterns with improvisation and
(28%) of the patterns that did not include improvisation. Thus, Frank and Tony
responded with approximately 12 percentage points more vocalizations to the m
educators' tonal patterns and rhythm patterns that included improvisation than
responded to the tonal patterns and rhythm patterns that did not include impro
tion. Using a chi-square analysis the researchers determined that these differences
statistically significant for both Frank, £2(1, N = 646) = 8.73, p < .01, and Tony,
7V=652) = 7.98,/x.01.
The music educators presented Frank with a combined total of 238 familiar so
and rhythm chants with pitch, duration, pattern, or phrase silences and a comb
total of 844 familiar songs and rhythm chants without silences. Frank responded vo
during 1 1 1 (47%) of the songs and rhythm chants with silences and during 223 (2
of the songs and rhythm chants that were presented without silence. The music ed
tors presented Tony with a combined total of familiar 246 songs and rhythm ch
with pitch, duration, pattern, or phrase silences, and a combined total of 838 fam
songs and rhythm chants without silences. Tony responded vocally during 98 (40
the songs and rhythm chants with silences and to 1 82 (22%) of the songs and rhyt
chants that were presented without silences. Thus, Frank and Tony each respon
with approximately 18 percentage points more vocalizations during music educa
presentations of songs and rhythm chants that included silences than they did dur
songs and rhythm chants that did not include silences. Using a chi-square analysi
researchers determined that these differences are statistically significant for both F
X2(\y N= 1082) = 31.01, /> < .01, and Tony, £2(1, 7V= 1084) = 32.59, p< .01.
CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

Due to the exploratory and case study nature of this study, specific
be generalized to a larger population. Nor should these findings b
lute evidence for the points of our discussion. Although the relati
among toddler vocalizations and music play make sense to us based
with such play and our understanding of music syntax acquisition, m
tions will be needed in order to determine if results are consisten
replicate our findings.
The two toddlers in this study performed music vocal behaviors t
different from non-music vocal behaviors, especially when adult mo
without words. Vygotsky (1987, 1981) proposed that thought deve
with language development. Simlarly, toddlers may develop musi
43
conjunction with the acquisition of music's unique syntax. Moreover, th

vocal music vocabularies that are different from other aural/oral comm
vocabularies, especially when adults vocally provide interactive music
models without words.
When adults incorporate tonal pattern improvisation, rhythm patte

tion, and silence during music play sessions, they may elicit toddler vo
than when they do not (Adachi & Carlsen, 1995; Hicks, 1993; and R
Moreover, toddlers may recognize the difference between tonal patt
pattern imitation and improvisation. They may be inclined to parti
interactions that allow them to create patterns different from a model
tions may increase when toddlers are not expected to replicate adult m
Though the percentage of non-music vocal behaviors for each to
over the course of the study, that trend may be due to maturation. T
may be evidence that music play activities without language do not det
music vocal behavior development, including language.
Finally, though all young children have the potential to acquire mu
young child must not be expected acquire music in the same way or
(Gordon, 2003a, 2003b). Though Frank and Tony were the toddlers s
study, other toddlers in the classroom also performed syntax acquisitio
to the exploratory and case study nature of this study other toddlers' b
documented and examined. Moreover, the number of music vocal behav
by the toddlers may have been affected by group size and setting.
Researchers should replicate this study and continue to develop
vocal behavior coding systems. Researchers should also examine the e
imitation, music improvisation, and silence techniques on music syn
among children of varying ages in a variety of naturalistic settings, lo
cross-sectionally.
This research was supported by grants from The Texaco Foundation and The Pr
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Council for Research in Music Education

Vocal Evidence of Toddler Music Syntax Acquisition: A Case Study

Vocal Evidence of Toddler Music

lonal Pattern Imitation

ff/".,. fl ^ i., .I---II---I...II. .>■>■>. i-

<8l,.-IL..|«'.||..-l,. ^ ^ II-, I-., II,

MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .MEI ME 2 .

MEI ||ME2 ,ME 1 ..ME 2 ,ME 1 , ,, ME 2 , ,

pattern improvisation. Examples of tonal pattern and rhythm patt

Vocal Behaviors and Definitions

Non-music Speaking, coughing, crying, laughing, raspberries, screams

Tonal pattern At least 2 definite pitches performed in tonality

Melodic pattern Simultaneous performance of a tonal pattern and a

Song Repetition of a melodic pattern or performance of a series

Rhythm chant Performance of a rhythm pattern series or repetition of

During adult silence Toddler's vocalization occurred during adult's performance

Toddler Vocalizations During Music Educators9 Improvisation

: A^ ^/* -«-Music Play,

! s' s^ - • - General Play,

CONCLUSIONS AND DISCUSSION

conjunction with the acquisition of music's unique syntax. Moreover, th

When adults incorporate tonal pattern improvisation, rhythm patte

Choksy, L. (1981). The Kodaly method. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.

Miller, L. B. (1986). A description of children's musical behaviors: Naturalistic. Bulletin of the

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