TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sr.No. Contents Pg. No.

1.1 Biotechnology 2

1.1.1. Definition 2

1.1.2. Example 2

1.1.3. History 3

1.1.4 Branches 7

1.1.5. Basic techniques 11

1.1.6. rDNA 12

1.1.7. Services of biotechnology 16

1.1.8. References 22

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 1.1. BIOTECHNOLOGY

1.1.1. Definition

Biotechnology is often abbreviated to biotech. Biotecnology is the area of biology that involve the use of
living processes, organisms or systems or a part of this to manufacture different products or technology to
improve the quality of human life. Depending on the technology, tools and applications involved,
biotechnology can overlap with

 Molecular biology

 Bionics

 Bioengineering

 Genetic engineering

 Nanotechnology

Fig 1.1: Future aspects of biotechnology

https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-cloning-
tutorial/a/overview-dna-cloning

1.1.2. Example

Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology
because they involve the use of yeast, which is a living organism, to produce the desired product. Such

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processes use these living organisms in their natural form. In beer brewing, tiny fungi are introduced into
a solution of malted barley sugar, which they actively metabolize through a process which is known as
fermentation.

The by-product of the fermentation is the alcohol that is found in beer. Here, yeast is being used to make
a product for human consumption. Similarly, antibiotic penicillin is generated by certain molds.

Fig 1.2: Yeast in beer industry

https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbtthai.com%2Fsbtold%2Fimage

1.1.3. Historical events in biotechnology

Fig 1.3: History of biotechnology

https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fbetterbodychemistry.com%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F02%2Fbeta-carotene-producing

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6000 BC: Yeast was utilized to prepare beer.

4000 BC: In Egypt, a process was discovered to prepare leavened bread by means of yeast.

420 BC: Greek philosopher Socrates hypothesized on the similar characteristics between parents and
their offspring.

320 BC: Greek philosopher Aristotle theorized that all inheritance originates from the father.

1000 AD: Theory of abiogenesis based on the idea that organisms arise from non-living matter was
developed. According to this theory maggots could develop from horse hair.

1630: William Harvey explained that plants and animals are similar in their reproduction i.e. they
reproduce sexually.

1660–1675: Marcello Malpighi investigated blood circulation in capillaries using a microscope and
found that the brain is connected to the spinal cord by bundles of fibers which form the nervous system .

1673: Antonie van Leeuwenhoek was the first researcher to explain micro-organisms such as protozoa
and bacteria, and also identify that these micro-organisms play an active role in fermentation.

1701: Giacomo Pylarini found that the deliberate administration of smallpox could prevent its occurrence
later in life, especially in children.

1827: The first report of canine eggs offered a basic clue to major inventions in reproduction.

1850: Ignaz utilized epidemiological examinations to suggest the theory that puerperal fever could be
transmitted from mother to mother by physicians.

1856:Carl Ludwig discovered a procedure for keeping animal organs alive under in vitro conditions.

1859: Charles Darwin guessed that animal populations adapt their forms to ultimately best utilize the
surroundings.

1863: Pasteur discovered the method of pasteurization. Heinrich Anton de Bary established that a fungus
was responsible for potato blight

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1865: Mendel suggested the laws of heredity to the National Scientific Society.

1868: Casimir Joseph Davaine cured plants suffering from bacterial infection by a novel heat treatment.

1870: Walther Flemming discovered mitosis.

1871: During the period 1873–76 interest in DNA research began.

1880: While working on fowl cholera, Louis Pasteur explored weakened strains of micro-organisms that
might not be virulent but could prevent healthy individuals against severe forms of a similar disease.

1881:Koch explained techniques for harvesting bacterial colonies on potato slices, gelatin and agar
medium.

1884:Pasteur established a rabies vaccine.Gram described the differential staining technique for cellular
peptidoglycan-containing bacteria now known as Gram staining.

1900–1953 (Genetics):Mendel's work had given birth to genetic science.

1902: Human genetics is born

1905: X and Y chromosomes related to gender

1905–1908: William Bateson and Punnett found that several genes alter the action of other genes

1907: Thomas Hunt Morgan discovered mutation theory.

1909: Mendel's laws to animals

1910: Morgan demonstrated that carriers of genetic information are present on chromosomes.

1912: Crystallography era

1918: Herbert M Evans stated that human genetic material is made up of 48 chromosomes.

1926: Morgan published The Theory of the Gene.

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1928: Alexander Fleming studied an old culture of bacteria infected with fungal growth and found that it
did not show any bacterial growth in a radius surrounding a piece of mold in a petri dish.

1938: Proteins and DNA were studied by means of x-rays. The term 'molecular biology' was devised.

1943:Step toward plant breeding at a global level.

1943–1953: Cortisone, a pregnane steroid hormone, was first produced in great amounts. Selman
Abraham Waksman explored streptomycin.

1945–1950: For the first time, animal cell cultures were harvested in laboratories.

1953: Article based on unfolding the double-helix structure of DNA was publised.

1957: How DNA makes a protein

1966: Genetic code cracked

1967: Stanford group synthesized viral DNA.

1970: Oncogenes

1972: First recombinant DNA molecule

1972: NIH guidelines for rDNA

1973: Bruce Nathan Ames developed an investigation to distinguish chemicals that damage DNA

1976: The NIH released the first set of guidelines for rDNA experimentation.

1977: Genentech Inc. was first organization which synthesize human protein somatostatin in a
bacterium.

1978: Genentech Inc. achieved the synthesis of human insulin using rDNA technology.

1980: The US Supreme Court granted that genetically modified living organisms could be patented.

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1982: FDA allowed the first genetically engineered drug in the form of human insulin produced by
bacteria.

1983: Eli Lilly obtained a license to make and sell insulin.

1986: Chiron Corp. obtained FDA approval for the production of the first recombinant vaccine for
hepatitis.

1988: Philip Leder and Timothy A Stewart were granted the first patent based on a genetically modified
animal.

1992: The US Army started taking blood and tissue samples from all new employees as part of a genetic
dog-tag. This course of action was intended for better identification of soldiers killed in battle.

1996: Biosensor test allowed for the first time the instant detection of the toxic strain of E. coli

1997: Researchers at the Roslin Institute in Scotland announced that they had cloned a sheep called
Dolly from the cell of an adult ewe.

1998: A group of researchers succeeded in culturing embryonic stem cells.

1999: A fatal neurological disease called bovine spongiform encephalopathy was diagnosed by a new
medical diagnostic examination.

1.1.4. Branches of biotechnology

The science of biotechnology can be classified into sub-disciplines based on common uses and
applications.

 Red biotechnology

Involves medical processes such as getting organisms to produce new drugs and using stem cells to
regenerate damaged human tissues or perhaps re-grow entire organs.

Fig 1.7: Red biotechnology

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 http://eskify.com/8-dangerous-banned-biological-weapons/

 White biotechnology

Involves industrial processes such as the production of new chemicals or the development of new fuels
for vehicles.

Fig 1.5: White biotechnology

https://www.theinnovativereport.com/2019/07/26/global-white-biotechnology-market-2019

 Green biotechnology

Involve agricultural processes such as producing pest-resistant crops, disease-resistant animals and
environmentally-friendly development.

Fig 1.6: Green biotechnology

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 http://agrihunt.blogspot.com/2012/08/green-biotechnology-advanced-technique.html

 Gold biotechnology

It is lso known as bioinformatics. It is a cross between biological processes and computing that plays a
key role in biological data.

 Blue biotechnology

Includes processes in marine and aquatic environments, such as controlling the spread of noxious water-
borne organisms.

Fig 1.7: Blue biotechnology

https://www.google.com/search?
rlz=1C1CHBD_enPK856PK856&biw=1366&bih=657&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=mPnsXZeUHIyWlwS
mxJqACw&q=blue+biotechnology&oq=blue+bio

 Yellow biotechnology

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Refers to processes that aid food production, the most popular application being the fermentation of
alcohol or cheese.

Fig 1.8: Yellow biotechnology

https://explorebiotech.com/about-yellow-biotechnology/

 Violet biotechnology

Handles the compliance, law and ethical issues that arise within the field.

Fig 1.9: Violet biotechnology

https://bamakoairlines.com/3-violet-biotechnology-things-you-need-to-know/

 Dark biotechnology

References the ability to use biotechnology for weapons or warefare.

Fig 2.0: Dark biotechnology

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 http://eskify.com/8-dangerous-banned-biological-weapons/

1.1.5. Basic techniques used in biotechnology

 Genetic engineering technology

It involve use of cellular enzymes to manipulate DNA, transferring DNA between unrelated organisms.

 Protein engineering technology

It is used to improve existing/create novel proteins to make useful products.

 Antisense

It can block or decrease the production of certain proteins.

 Cell and tissue culture technology

Involved in growing cells/tissues under laboratory conditions to produce an entire organism, or to produce
new products.

 Bioinformatics technology

It involve computational analysis of biological data e.g. sequence analysis macromolecular structures.

 Blotting techniques

Involved in nucleic acid blotting.

 Sterilization techniques

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Involved in Steam sterilization, Ultraviolet sterilization, Flame sterilization, Filter sterilization, Dry
sterilization, Chemical sterilization, Alcohol sterilization.

 Gene transfer techniques

Gene transfer is transmission of DNA between different genomes. This tenchnique involve Ultrasound-
mediated gene transformation, Microinjection, Macroinjection, Liposome-mediated method, Virus-
mediated gene trasfer an bacteria mediated gene transfer.

1.1.6. rDNA

rDNA stands for recombinant DNA. DNA is the keeper of the all the information needed to recreate an
organism. All DNA is made up of a base consisting of sugar, phosphate and one nitrogen base. There are

 Four nitrogen base

 Adenine (A)
 Thymine (T)
 Guanine (G)
 And cytosine (C).

The nitrogen bases are found in pairs, with A & T and G & C paired together. The sequence of the
nitrogen bases can be arranged in an infinite ways, and their structure is known as the famous "double
helix". The sugar used in DNA is deoxyribose. The four nitrogen bases are the same for all organisms.

The sequence and number of bases is what creates diversity. DNA does not actually make the organism, it
only makes  proteins. The DNA is transcribed into mRNA and mRNA is translated into protein, and the
protein  then forms the organism. By changing  the DNA sequence, the way in which the  protein is
formed changes. This leads to either a different protein, or an inactive protein.

Fig 2.3: DNA

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 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128046593000191

DNA is, this is where the recombinant comes in. Recombinant DNA is the general name for taking a
piece of one DNA, and combining it with another strand of DNA. Thus, the name recombinant. By
combining two ormore different strands of DNA, scientists are able to create a new strand of DNA. The
most common recombinant process involves combining the DNA of twodifferent organisms.

1.1.6.1. How is Recombinant DNA made?

There are three different methods by which Recombinant DNA is made. They are

 Transformation
 Phage Introduction
 Non-Bacterial Transformation

Each are described separately below.

 Transformation

The first step in transformation is to select a piece of DNA to be inserted into a vector. The second step is
to cut that piece of DNA with a restriction enzyme and then ligate the DNA insert into the vector with
DNA Ligase.

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The insert contains a selectable marker which allows for identification of recombinant molecules. An
antibiotic marker is often used so a host cell without a vector dies when exposed to a certain antibiotic,
and the host with the vector will live because it is resistant. The vector is inserted into a host cell, in a
process called transformation. One example of a possible host cell is E. Coli. The host cells must be
specially prepared to take up the foreign DNA. Selectable markers can be for antibiotic resistance, color
changes, or any other characteristic which can distinguish transformed hosts from untransformed hosts.
Different vectors have different properties to make them suitable to different applications. Some
properties can include symmetrical cloning sites, size, and high copy number.

 Non-Bacterial Transformation

This is a process very similar to Transformation, which was described above. The only difference
between the two is non-bacterial does not use bacteria such as E. Coli for the host. In microinjection, the
DNA is injected directly into the nucleus of the cell being transformed. In biolistics, the host cells are
bombarded with high velocity microprojectiles, such as particles of gold or tungsten that have been
coated with DNA.

 Phage Introduction

Phage introduction is the process of transfection, which is equivalent to transformation, except a phage is
used instead of bacteria. In vitro packagings of a vector is used. This uses lambda or MI3 phages to
produce phage plaques which contain recombinants. The recombinants that are created can be identified
by differences in the recombinants and non-recombinants using various selection methods.

1.1.6.2. How does rDNA work?

Recombinant DNA works when the host cell expresses protein from the recombinant genes.A significant
amount of recombinant protein will not be produced by the host unless expression factors are added.

Protein expression depends upon the gene being surrounded by a collection of signals which provide
instructions for the transcription and translation of the gene by the cell. These signals include the
promoter, the ribosome binding site, and the terminator. Expression vectors, in which the foreign DNA is
inserted, contain these signals. Signals are species specific. 

Fig 2.3: rDNA

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 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-cloning-
tutorial/a/overview-dna-cloning

In the case of E. Coli, these signals must be E. Coli signals as E. Coli is unlikely to understand the signals
of human promoters and terminators. Problems are encountered if the gene contains introns or contains
signals which act as terminators to a bacterial host. This results in premature termination, and the
recombinant protein may not be processed correctly, be folded correctly, or may even be degraded.
Production of recombinant proteins in eukaryotic systems generally takes place in yeast and filamentous
fungi.

The use of animal cells is difficult due to the fact that many need a solid support surface, unlike bacteria,
and have complex growth needs. However, some proteins are too complex to be produced in bacterium,
so eukaryotic cells must be used.

1.1.6.3. Why is rDNA important?

Recombinant DNA has been gaining in importance over the last few years, and recombinant DNA will
only become more important in the 21st century as genetic diseases become more prevelant and
agricultural area is reduced.  Below  are some of the areas where Recombinant DNA will have an impact.

 Better Crops (drought & heat resistance)

 Recombinant Vaccines (ie. Hepatitis B)

 Prevention and cure of sickle cell anemia

 Prevention and cure of cystic fibrosis

 Production of clotting factors

 Production of insulin

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 Production of recombinant pharmaceuticals

 Plants that produce their own insecticides

 Germ line and somatic gene therapy

1.1.7. Services of biotechnology

Heal the world

Biotech is helping to heal the world by harnessing nature's own toolbox and using our own genetic
makeup to heal and guide lines of research by:

 Reducing rates of infectious disease

 Saving millions of children's live
Fig 2.4: Medical biotechnology

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128046593000191
 Changing the odds of serious, life-threatening conditions affecting millions around the world.
 Tailoring treatments to individuals to minimize health risks and side effects
 Creating more precise tools for disease detection
 Combating serious illnesses and everyday threats confronting the developing world.
 DNA micro-array chip,some can do as many as a million blood tests at once.

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 Pharmacogenomics is the technology that analyses how genetic makeup affects an individual's
response to drugs
 Computer-generated image of insulin hexamers highlight the threefold symmetry.
 Biotechnology has contributed to the discovery and manufacturing of traditional small molecule
pharmaceutical drugs as well as drugs that are the product of biotechnology – biopharmaceutics.
 Genetic testing allows the genetic diagnosis of inherited diseases, and can also be used to determine a
person's ancestry.

Fuel the world

Biotech uses biological processes such as fermentation and harnesses biocatalysts such as enzymes, yeast,
and other microbes to become microscopic manufacturing plants. Biotech is helping to fuel the world by:

 Streamlining the steps in chemical manufacturing processes by 80% or more;

 Lowering the temperature for cleaning clothes

Fig 2.6: Biofuel

https://www.dw.com/en/despite-eu-palm-oil-ban-biofuel-problems-will-continue/a-42268325

 Improving manufacturing process efficiency to save 50% or more on operating costs

 Reducing use of and reliance on petrochemicals
 Using biofuels to cut greenhouse gas emissions by 52% or more
 Decreasing water usage and waste generation

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 Tapping into the full potential of traditional biomass waste products.

Feed the world

Biotech improves crop insect resistance, enhances crop herbicide tolerance and facilitates the use of more
environmentally sustainable farming practices. Biotech is helping to feed the world by:

 Generating higher crop yields with fewer inputs

 Lowering volumes of agricultural chemicals required by crops-limiting the run-off of these products
into the environment;
 Using biotech crops that need fewer applications of pesticides and that allow farmers to reduce tilling
farmland
 Developing crops with enhanced nutrition profiles that solve vitamin and nutrient deficiencies
Producing foods free of allergens and toxins such as mycotoxin
 Improving food and crop oil content to help improve cardiovascular health.
 Production of Bovine somatotropin, a growth hormone that boosts milk production in dairy cows
 Genetically modified crops are plants used in agriculture, the DNA of which has been modified with
genetic engineering techniques.

Fig 2.7 : GM crops

http://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=17739

 Examples in food crops include resistance to certain pests, diseases, stressful environmental
conditions,resistance to chemical treatments and reduction of spoilage

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 Examples in non-food crops include production of pharmaceutical agents, biofuels and other
industrially useful goods as well as for bioremediation

 Farmers have widely adopted GM technology.

 Food derived from GM crops poses no greater risk to human health than conventional food

 GM crops also provide a number of ecological benefits, if not used in excess.

Biotechnology and the environment

 Environmental problems such as pollution control, the depletion of natural resources for non-
renewable energy, conservation of biodiversity, etc, are being dealt with using biotechnology.

 For example, bacteria are being utilized for the detoxification of industrial effluents, for treatment of
sewage and for biogas production.

 Biopesticides offer an environmentally safer alternative to chemical pesticides for control of

 insect pests and diseases.

Industries and biotechnology

 It includes the practice of using cells such as microorganisms to generate industrially useful products
in sectors such as chemicals, food and feed, detergents, paper and pulp, textiles and biofuels.

Fig 2.8: Industrial biotechnology

http://cdn.yourarticlelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/clip_image00229.jpg

 Genetically modified organisms enhanced the diversity of application of industrial biotechnology.

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Personal identification

 This is the idea of keeping everyone's DNA on a computer as a bar code.

 It is very unlikely to become a system in general use. Photo identification cards and social security
numbers, for instance, are much more efficient methods of identification and are not likely to
change.

Paternity and maternity

 This is also a well-known application of DNA fingerprinting.

 This is the test used to find out who is the father of a baby or child. Every individual has a variable
number tandem repeat pattern which is inherited from their parents. The pattern in each individual is
different but it is similar enough to reconstruct the parents' VNTR.

 This method can also be used to ascertain the real biological parents of an adopted child or
determine legal nationality. Individuals should be careful when using a test like this because it may
have surprising results that could cause distress.

Criminal identification and forensics

 This is a very famous field of DNA fingerprinting. It has become popularly known because of the hit
TV series CSI.

Fig 2.9: DNA fingerprint

https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Fingerprinting

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 It is a very important use of DNA fingerprinting because it can prove an individual's innocence or
guilt of committing a crime. To be used, a sample of DNA has to be obtained from the scene of the
crime and matched with the suspect in question. The two pieces of DNA are then compared through
VNTR patterns

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References

 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-cloning
tutorial/a/overview-dna-cloning (Browsed on December 8, 2019 at 4:50 PM)

 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sbtthai.com%2Fsbtold%2Fimage
(Browsed on December 8, 2019 at 9:40 PM)
 https://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=https%3A%2F%2Fbetterbodychemistry.com%2Fwp-
content%2Fuploads%2F2012%2F02%2Fbeta-carotene-producing (Browsed on December 7, 2019 at
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 http://eskify.com/8-dangerous-banned-biological-weapons/ (Browsed on December 6, 2019 at
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rlz=1C1CHBD_enPK856PK856&biw=1366&bih=657&tbm=isch&sa=1&ei=mPnsXZeUHIyWlwSmxJqA
Cw&q=blue+biotechnology&oq=blue+bio(Browsed on December 8, 2019 at 3: 27 PM)
 https://explorebiotech.com/about-yellow-biotechnology/(Browsed on December 8, 2019 at 4:50 PM)
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 http://eskify.com/8-dangerous-banned-biological-weapons/ (Browsed on December 8, 2019 at 4:50
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 https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/biotech-dna-technology/dna-cloning-
tutorial/a/overview-dna-cloning (Browsed on December 6, 2019 at 3:16 PM)
 https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128046593000191 (Browsed on December
5, 2019 at 6:13 PM)
 https://www.dw.com/en/despite-eu-palm-oil-ban-biofuel-problems-will-continue/a-42268325
(Browsed on December 7, 2019 at 5:49 PM)

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 http://www.isaaa.org/kc/cropbiotechupdate/article/default.asp?ID=17739(Browsed on December 8,
2019 at 7:06 PM)
 http://cdn.yourarticlelibrary.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/clip_image00229.jpg (Browsed on
December 7, 2019 at 3:13 PM)
 https://www.genome.gov/genetics-glossary/DNA-Fingerprinting (Browsed on December 6, 2019 at
4:10 PM)
 https://www.britannica.com/science/recombinant-DNA-technology/Creating-the-clone (Browsed on
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 https://iopscience.iop.org/book/978-0-7503-1299-8/chapter/bk978-0-7503-1299-8ch1#bk978-0-
7503-1299-8ch1s1-5 (Browsed on December 7, 2019 at 4:50 PM)

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