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    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    75 views41 pages

    Wireless Technologies

    Uploaded by

    Sweta Umrao
    wireless technologies notes

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
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    of 41
    or ed experiments, Marconj bas guia ful homeBOr™ cross the Allartic Ocean owing 4 end mess wert than any Previous; “ rs idea of § im re . cessed wilt at as 100 ae jand. He also con a ing sau Sense pot EAB sper 12, 1901, Marcaml Feceiveg «2° November dlan this achievernent cor around the Jora’s, NeWOO™ an. NewS OF ag scientists, cnduding Thoutape fo 75 bY USA father of radio” ade was coal snows ‘san unbounded technology disco, ‘Thus, Ma pati wireless? Samp nol sn the form of the ne, ah ander being used. Wireless technology © wide, as we will discuss in wise anera when yaa é was) ly ann tee develop aoa probiferate world .s (transmits) electrical ener =antenna is to convert ele conductor (in a receiver), or both. “Kado tr ion, a radiating antensia converts an electric cure: inloan electromagnetic wave or field, whi ates through anc. conducting medium sucltas air or space idcast radio channel are: amomnidirecional antenna radiates a transmitted signal over a wide seniz area This canbe Mustrated by your local radio station fransmi eel patier from a radio tower with a radio transmitter mounted he summit, a$ oppose do oint-to-point radio channel transmission in whic ‘ein hee ; u e wave intola nam Tarte Tee then specifically directedstoward a single receiver. Iné 5 magnetic wave transmitted through the Y a remote receiving antenna and My a Teconverted to an elettric current. ma Characteristics “= * als, The size anes Heh b ansitist eon ote te age Ie dishes receiving sate First asa rule al. ~Sitenna depends on thé frequency ago? & the Tanger Saathub the lower tis =< Tadio stations Hrs Must be ee S . ‘ai setae eR ee teauncy the antenna mis! Meh, Whereas cei tae ean Ope ay broad SWhich g re He at 900 MHz, have ante” 1 of Wireless: Technologies Technical Foundation airbor ifthe objective bs to transmit or receive signals in an omnid nna will have a different shap Joss than 6 inches loys, Direction of th i jennas directional antennas require more power for users to receive directional ante shan ‘amnidicetional antennas, Bae Oe OMT” omnidirectional antenna ( divide: the energy into many “slices,” to cover the tional antenna which transmits in only one direction. radio stations begin to fade: “Therefore, a directonaran- a smaller area will havea greater signal range iain ionalantenna wilh the ‘sare.output power (Weisman 2000) ‘anlennae and Frequency idizectional antenna ny same distance as a dir velocity, the wavelength, anda quantity Frequency measures. the quantity.of waves passing a given nd; The relationship is given by-the following simple equation. frequency = velocity of light / wavelength : { For light, the frequency is 3% 108 m/s divided by 0.000001 m, which gives 3 21014 waves (or by-the-band- seen in frequency hopping width and frequency of the carrier, as seen in Figure 3-6 Let us look at some of the advantages of using unffeensed spread spec- trum technology. First, no FCC site license is required, The FCC will granta one-time license on the radio product. After that license is granted, the Product can be sold anywhere in the United States. Second, spread spec- trum radios are inherently more immune to noise and interference than core ventional radios; thus, they operate with a higher efficiency than conventional technology. Conventional radios operate on a specific fre- AWency controlled by a matched crystal oscillator. The specific frequency is allocated as a part of the FCC site license, and the equipment must remain on that frequency (except for very low power devices such as cordless Phones). Lastly, spread Spectrum data radios offer the opportunity to have multiple channels which can be dynamically changed. This allows for many “plications such as repeaters, redundant base stations, and overlapping antenna cells, a CHAPTERS 4 * Frequency Hopping ey Hopping = CHANNELS: SPREAD SPECTRUM AND CELLULAR ao The FCC Frequency Allocation Chart, which lists all the frequencies and, they are allocated, shows a significant portion devoted to what is called “xs mobile.” This frequency band between 806 MHz. and 902 MHz.is more con. monly zeferred to as the cell phone region. Until about 1984, this was anis frequently used area of the public spectrum; however, starting that yex advances in integrated circuits and other hardware technology enabled ae log wireless communications device usage to grow at a rapid rate. More re cently, the advent of digital cellular phone service, concurrent wit improvements in the power, performance, and features of cellular phone has caused a veritable explosion in phone proliferation and usage. As coul! be expected, the age-old problem of limited bandwidth has resurfaced. Aste ‘number of users exceeds the amount of bandwidth available in a given ge Braphical area, instantaneous communication is no longer possible. Cales must continue to redial until they Y access an available channel. fend -have been developed to deal with the important frequency dvision icali : es smulliple access on ie ime division multiple av : access (TOMA) the following sections, fice Hature of the problem in_order.to sta : h a ode division muttiple apter 6, eles S. ill be explained in more detail! © PaGblemake calls atany and all Geese he Technical Foundation of Wireless Technologies 115 dition, one or man links can be active s fiaccess communi a¥-be-activaled at any moment, while several sly: Let us now tum to the three types of mull DMA fom ‘Frequens Phone Service (AMPS)the eS copulesrearphone system in North Americaralthousifee, ze dumbing in popularity(With FDMA, each charnet can be assigned to onh meuser at atime. FDMA usedin the 2 ication Sys= tem (TACS) pce Figure 3-7 for a graphical epresentation of FDMA, gra: creer ; FDMA, but adds time division multiple access to get three channels for each FDMA channel, thus tripling the number of calls that can be handle channel. This obviously provides a large performance improvement. hone systems work. Here, every user is assij ed a certain frequer and and can use that art ofthe spectrum to communicate he system capacity is direc ly rel: ee ‘the number of channels the all cae width er ifonly ve active, then only part of the allocate: dona small number of users are quency spectrum is used. Assignment of the channels i done einer py ere, 7 ingin e mobile unit (random access or by centrally cont assis ent. 12.5 MHz CHAPTER 3 16 ares di je Jd AMA ek ay pe phzti-o! Jase -U = . (Gireivsion multiple access is digital transmission technology thata \; number of users to access a single RF channel witho “Cating uni i “Zalibe unique time slots jo.eaghauserwithin. cach channel, TDMA digta ‘pansmission design multiplexes three signals over a single channel. Theat aan Standard Tor cellular divides a-singple channel into six time g \with-each signal using tivo slots, providing a 3-to-1 gain in capacity = AMES) Each caller's power delay index dist => distance between the transmitter and the receiver k => number of floors in which the signal must travel us ‘smaller than the wavelength of the propa-, \ wo dd ator P00 yao (Harti signa \ sing \ aun) sotto poet OF F100 p04 gy racolved 10! compart’ ‘Opon aroa pw gon titanic #0 urban ar oF [Doietance | ; or te ncronse 9 OHI decreases 1.» loss per floor No > number of walls the signal must travel Wa > loss per indoor wall Poop ple moving around (varies) «Solar activity. Severe activity by the sun also can affect radiobes:| is solar activity can affect communications » jatitudes. This solar activity ge communications. TH only in Noth Americ, but also at al vere fluctuations in signals, and propagation may ta elevision and FM radio stations are as typical radio commun 3-11 provi duc rected paths. Avan example, t i slightly affected by solar activity, whet tions can bring, to life major propagation issues. Figure a glimpse of solar activity as discussed in the textbook. nec AND SPECTRUM ind che As mentioned, to unde acteristics of ee Wireless transmission you must understat (Msc eee representation Arent Com one et fat One oscillation is presented in the figure % mn Thus, the time eit the curved line (the wave) to the next lowest P 7 equired for the wave to ¢l \ point I the frequrney Tn ree ene t© change from the to the! point the frequency In Figure 3-13, the 3 the high point to tt” lations pe second Peds piesa has a frequency of 24° and the highest point othe maga attcen the highest point of one ot Note th point ofthe next oscillation aiken eee call e (the relationship between wavelon qe ne ave IS called wavelet avelength and frequency in Figure > Seger ae Figure 4-41 Hat baity a Wavelength greatly impacts the use of electromagnetic waves for come munication. Figure 3-14 depicts‘the range of electromagnetic waves, known. as the electromagnetic spectrunt, grouped into bands. These band names de- rive from conventional usé and have no real meaning for communications. Figure 3-15 depicts the electromagnetic spectrum used for telecommu- nications. The band names are those proposed by the International Telecom- Tunications Union (ITU). The ITU is an organizational element of the United Nations that is responsible for establishing international standards and pro- cedures designed to facilitate cooperation between nations. electromagnetic spectrum \ cHAPTERS hort wavelengih—High frequency Long wavelangth—Low frequency fu 03km el | +} ] | we | ou MF HF var | UHF ae JAM Broadcast-{> | FM Broadcast} | Radar Bands = Sonics —> <— Ultrasonics —> <— Microwaves ——— t0kH2 1 MHz 100 MHz 10 GHz | M : | Heard bf Mules communications uses wavelengths between I | actual radio fer a8 the radiofrequency or wireless spectru quency or wireless spectrum spans a huge range from ® Proximately 3 kHz to 300 GH in Figure 3-14, As noted, hee and covers many frequency bands, as ho" erm wn } narrow bands of frequent ties usually refers to only one of Lae 15), Of this entire spectrum (which is show" a able 3-1 presents the | magnetic spectrum, The pctavelength, frequency, and energy of the ele tificial. As ibe # YOU Progress fn > OetWeen the different redations 2%) wi NSS fo gamma rays, the WaY i 123 Technical Foundation of Wireless Technologies 4 Figure 3-15, Radio Frequency Bandwidth ‘Spectrum Chart The Allocated Radio S| 'PectruM is located betwes } — en 9 KHz and 300 GHz 1 | BANDWIDTH FREQUENCY [DESCRIPTION a Lo RANGE | _) Extremely Low Frequency (ELF) em | Very Low Frequency (VLF) SKHz to 30 KHz , Radio Navigation & SKHZ to 540 KHz ‘maritime/aeronautical mobile Low Frequency (LF) 30 KHz td 300 KHz Medium Frequency (MF) 900 KHz 10 3,000 KHz \ ‘AM Radio Broadcast S40 KHz to 1,690 KHa Travellers Information Service 1610 KHz to High Frequency (HF) 3MHZ to 30 MHz Shortwave Broadcast Radio 5.95 MHz to 26.4 MHz Very High Frequency (VHF) 30MHz to 300 MHz Low Band: TV Band 1—Channels 2-6 5S4MHz to 88 MHz Mid Band: FM Radio Broadcast 88MHz to 174 MHz High Band: TV Band 2—Channels 7-13 174 MHz to 216 MHz ‘Super Band (mobilertixed radio & TV) 216 MHz to 600 MHz Ultra High Frequency (UHF) 300 MHz to 3,000 MHz Channels 14-70 470 MHz to 806 MHz L-band 500 MHz to 1,500 MHz Personal Communications Services (PCS) 1,850 MHz to 1,990 MHz Unticansed PCS Devices 1,910 MHz to 1,930 MHz ‘Superhigh Frequencies (SHF) (Microwave) 3GHz to 30.0 GHz ‘Cand 3,600 MHz to 7,025 MHz { X-band 7.25GHz to 84 GHz 10.7GHz to 14.5 GHz 17.3GHz to 31.0 GHz remely High Frequencies (EHF) 30.0GHZ to 300 GHZ E{siiroter Wave Signals) 00 Satellite 38.6 GHz to 275 GHz 300 GHz to 810 THz B10 THz to 1,620 THz 1.62 PHz to 30 PHz SOPH2 to 30 EHz 80 EHz to 3,000 EHz Bets shorter (so they become more penetrating), the frequency gets higher (so «oscillation needed to produce them gets faster), and the energy gets igher (so it takes more energy to produce x-rays than it does to produce ra- dio waves), A brief deseri can be gathered ‘iption of these waves follows. More extensive information from many other sources, including a good high school ‘amma rays requency bands __,,._ is umans, because ch is excellent for h whic ss : evere skin damagt : sev evolved to use these WAVES. Visible |. 1 e i netic spectrum that reacts With the de _ iss, CHAPTER 3 most ultraviolet light traviolt light can caus iving organisms he Hare ert eectromag Mu ol it of th shown that most bees can go Mica, . pel = ample, research has | a One Le whereas snakes use infrared to dete, . : ore ; 0 nan Ss Sex ; traviolet than hum st electrons stopping suddenly, o, 5" py, Xerays are produced by fast elec They Bs produced Py rio’ Pe inner electrons of an atom. The} Y igh eng tion of the inner el s by gases being sucked into a black hoi, ang t! processes in space, caits exploding stars. X-rays are used in media coming compressed and DY eXP "ce look through fles! usually involved with the nucleus ee ao FRedioactivity and exploding stars are two cas as vey dangers because if they strike atoms and Mole, co ee has undergone a rapid transformation from y in lest days of Marconi in 1895, to today’s sophisticated satelite ang cat® telephone technologies. From the earliest frequency hopping Algorithy, used in the telephone network to today’s highly complex code Multiples, schemes, this change has affected industry as well as common citizene ©? use their cellular phones and remote control devices and who wat tude of programming on broadcast television. When we hear a reference to the wireless spectrum or wireless cies, most of us have no real concept of what it really means, ter what the term wireless really means. Most often the reference is to only; tiny fraction of a particular region of the RF or wireless spectrum. The actus RF or wireless spectrum isa huge range, covering many freq} frequency band isa group of frequencies used for simil discuss wireless we are usually referring to only one frequencies ofthis entire spectrum. Usage and techn narrowbands, as well as the regulated by the FCC. Overseas, the FCC has no auth, not all national governments regul, countries’ specti ich a mui. frequen. oF for that me: juency bands, lar purposes.) When: or two narrowbandsc: ‘ority. Outside of the United States, most! late their own spectrum. Often the varias Is foresaw these confit Shona Telcommuniatons Union. The ITU, he Witzerlan, L, ii Which governments and the private — works and services. The ITY ie comprised of 1 day, this respected organization is regulatory matters mational organization ae ‘ordinate global telecom © 89 countries and 650 firms involvin, directly involved in all internatio™ ised bounded media standards, 8 Wireless technology and other wi ied Technical Foundation of Wireless Technologies ony. lute to its Practical appli The wineles Mportance in current 18 OF Wirele 8 Spectrum st the United States, the BCC acti A0GH2, as shown in Big on the international scene. The majority of this regulated radi andl future wi * technology are ts less communications, ‘also included, 8 KHz. and extends beyond 300 GHz, In “ly repulates all frequencies from 3 KH to Sl through 3-16. The tty plays the same role chapter frequency sp plete understanding of the thew concerns only a small se ctrum; however, fo entire physical “from IKHZt09 KEz and 300 GLI rently unallocated to any organis, ; ‘tion, private or commercial. The first ro. Bion, 3 KHz to 9 KHz, is considered ‘part of the Spectrum known as the infrasonic region in the very low frequency (VLE) band. This frequency range is part of the human au iclible or sonic range, from:20 Hz through 20 xan It Stands to reason that any equipment designed to trangent information in the 3 KHz to 9 KHz. range would have some Major obstacles to overcome, in- cluding environmental and atmospheric noise interfereres, These problems not withstanding, successful military research and experimentation has been carried out in this and other slightly different frequency ranges. The navy cur- rently operates VLF commui ‘ations equipment located in the Midwest. This equipment was once used to communicate with submarines at een Frequen- ses in this range, if given enough power, travel through the earth aad ‘oceans. ‘The antenna for this type of wireless equipment is several kilomerse long. The region starting at 300 GHz and beyond is not considered part of the RF spectrum. This region contains the subareas of infrared, starting at 300 GHz, then proceeds to visible range, at 10" Hz, Ultraviolet, x-ray, gamma ray, and cosmic ray follow in order. ‘gment of the entire ake of a more com- clio spectra, let us briefly cover and beyond. These areas are cur- ffoqwency Hopping Spread Spectrum indom Hop Sequence) Like its military predecessor, commercial spread spectrum technology cam- ouflages data by mixing the actual signal with a spreading code pattern. Code patterns shift the signal's frequency or phase, making it extremely dif- ficult to intercept an entire message without knowing the specific code used. Imagine trying to predict which frequency to listen to next and at what time! As in the military's case, adding secret encoding schemes and encrypt- ing the data—including the encryption of digitized voice transmissions— would make it almost impossible for the enemy's decoders to successfully extract any intelligence from the spread spectrum “noise.” That is assumin, they are listening to the proper frequency at the right interval. Considering this type of technology, the U.S. Air Force's ability to fly over enemy territory during Desert Storm while totally impervious to its defenses is not as amaz- ing as first believed. Transmitting and receiving radios must use the same Spreading and despreading code, so only they can decode the true signal Logic would tell us that spread spectrum radio for voice is neither the only ni 17 sro statio however, in specific tg (eco of choice over trag te eit vuuch as infrared and lag nologies > ; no ere wires cannot be utilizeg . its ye in environs i i Fal mitON cult transmis tworks ae | n Area Ne tg have come In wide area at specu Jopments : et ane em cy edo bara ; adi Ter al a netwo! wore spread spect : aNsMite | work ar gh te integra eet and other types of Networking | —, rnin BNET Te that converts the infor. | coer wih lt case : oma. | cae shemet brid ie ode intoa Form suitable for transmiting she local neh ded receiver will be a s Fon paces fo ee miter: Te ior a spread ta ed spe 0 spre ee GR the originaing specu rcever TUNG il reconvert the transmitted RF signal backg nse ser ee signal for insertion ack onto the receiverside | i sm eines ave Ne SO those used in celly | pee appleations ‘with a few minor exceptions. First, the area ofthe wire | Jess spectrum utilized for indoor WAN/LAN applications is in the unlicensed | Fequney ands suchas he 4102 4895 GHzband. Transmitters utilizing hs | ‘re limited to 1 watt maximum output power. Cellular phone | frequency band repeater transmitters have: ‘much higher power limitations. Second, the spread Spectrum encoding technique canbe much simpler. Most likely, the transceiver | (acombination of a transmitter anda receiver) will use direct sequence spread | spt nner because the limited range of the transmitted signa | eat ae aaa ie of the structure precludes having ary tinal camps and roe more expensive, security technology: | technology except that: her cation utilize the same spread speci | chased iFreeded. Using higher powered licensed equipment can be Pi peneslol ich ng spec parabolic dishes or broadband linear ar | signal can be sent and received reliably # anges up to an incredible 14 miles. If a longer is to be spanned, ot mil h les, ger range is . Ps " seared by a5 muchas 5 WeoBy abe utized to reliably connect sites ippiratons absacies are a main the indoor or outdoor WAN/L , re, me i sles gal Btn dtminng ico establishing a wire cl a | Picked up stay cP eal ptimum zone (where | ) ly) and a j patho phosting. This a Arter concern eg forbidden zones (whe! | Staal ad ares atthe ee ais. phenomenon called it prevent eee reciver syne slightly ae signal is reflected off | greatly reduces: pick tems, ghosting te Signal that arrived & and ing up the ie Sa" Seriously hamper oF i AS practical Most int R cas fended si : less in general anal apni liminatea <°% Signal. Spread s| ectru | a PPlicat thi } Pad spec OPS Becom, * problem. j i «OMe better und re | jerstood, W! y irticr " ‘lar will play an increasiné” | | Figure 2-18 ‘Digital Signal Bigital absorption CHAPTER 3 4 nal agaly Time ne rough a complete up and down cycle oes cand red in hertz). For example, an gy ‘The number of times 2 signal g' lephony goes through 800 million oe wad is the signal's frequency Mile signal utilized in cellular tl downs ina single second. Digital Signals / Unlike the (analog) sine wave signal, which varies gradually between it, high and low points, a digital signal js one that varies instantaneously Recon tivo electrical values, For all practical purposes, there are no valueste tween the high and low levels in a digital signal (see Figure 3-18). Note the two signal levels: up and down (high and low). Digital signals can represent information in the pattern of highs and lows. For example, a certain pattem of highs and lows can be used to represent your voice as you talk on a cellu- Jar phone. Absorption a (hen ee oe through the air, they are changed by their environment~ ion becuse econ et Tis process is called insertion loss or absorp sorbed by whatever it comes in contact with. Te | type of contact material is is also an ii } Signal than metal, forexample, Pt factor: Water absorbs more RF | Wavelength measu ires the len, terion the signal's fee et SURES pal The weve gt a 0 1 way Icy, whic ngth is inverse) MH) ishigher gn le"8th. For exampje f ean the higher the frequen requency than an nPI®. 8 cellular phore’ aaey™ e's signal rt radio's fe ae 's RE signal (0 | "ying becomes (35 AV) When ehetter wavelen - (0 KHz), and ae | ing into the ant, lar to that of the ae Waveleng ae Fat Antennas begin 7 (Weisman 2099)" P°Bins to radiate SELF The eI, RF signal it is @ | © Out of the an ectrical current flow” antenna as invisible wa olves form yn Other o1 form into gre Oder of complexity: (| Susands of digital sampl* Technical Foundation of Wireless Technologies every second, (2) the transmission and regeneration of these samples within * a system that must be tightly synchronized end to end, and (3) the faithful recreation of the voice signal from a stream of abstract 1s and zeros, all in- volving elaborate processing at both ends and extremely challenging hard- ware requirements. Although the average person thinks the computer is the marvel of digital electronics, communications applications are much more demanding than most data processing applications, because of the complex- ity of communications signals and the need to handle huge amounts of data in real time. Ten seconds of T-1 transmission encompasses almost 2 megabytes of data; a DS-4 digital transmission processes more than 300 megabytes in the same interval. Historically, the availability of fast electronic components was the limiting factor on the implementation of digital voice systems. The first PCM systems were experimentally developed during World War II—in fact, the principles of PCM had been elaborated even before the war, but the inadequacy and high cost of digital processing circuits held back the implementation of commercial digital systems until the mid-1960s. The cost of digital circuitry still determines which applications are suit- able for digital techniques. For example, digital microwave radio was unable to compete economically with analog systems until the late 1970s in some niches. Realizing the potential of digital techniques in applications such as mobile radio will call for the development of more highly sophisticated de- signs, more advanced materials, more complex software, faster processors, and more ingenious mathematics—by comparison with which even the T- carrier may look primitive. Analog versus Digital An analog transmitter such as a telephone microphone or a radio transmit- ter is designed to launch a signal through a transmission medium such as a copper wire or a radio channel, An analog receiver is designed to capture this signal from the medium. Particularly in radio, the transmitter and’re- ceiver do not actually function as a system after the initial call setup. They do not exercise control over one another. Both Operate more or-less inde- Pendently; the transmitter transmits, and the receiver receives anything within range. Digital, however, is more complex. It is important to realize that the dig- ital network is not a physical entity, but a logical entity that is superimposed upon a highly heterogeneous set of physical transmission facilities. In the digital network, one telephone call may encompass a copper wire local loop tothe local central office, a fiber optic interoffice trunk to the toll switch, a mi- Stowave or satellite link from the toll switch to the destination toll switch, and {mobile radio-telephone link to the called party traveling in acar. Yet the dig- ital network Pos: di rt ssesses the ability to link these disparate facilities into a single Rae Circuit, the performance parameters of which can be precisely moni- "ed and controlled. It is embodied in an interrelated system of processors pren3 le the messages at differ eral advantayes code j and dee : i work offers SV two otecl, ly "ys Over! wsmit, de te, (ra ap | inate, ia SP issid 1 nich orig) : ~ ne pa geally Pe ings it i in the trans ystem thal analog, 5Y q es and Digital dually a ystem a lows for communication to be estapy ‘ Pa : iy gta eansssiO0 TT ality Jevels inenvironments where a" A digita tained at uniform hig! ait The more difficult the communjan | ar aioe aut over analog, On | techniques ae communications he qualityeof th tink, the more digital co day is upgrading the quality of the chief areas of digi using digital techniques, particularly opie | distance segment of F n subject to an assumption, fiber. Long di th optical fiber systems, this on 7 ee Ano, duced quality. ccommunication environment is the field of mobile ay, partic dif iil techniques have not been applied, there, until very y dig : ‘ : Digital communications 15 superior because of the following factors, ‘0 noise. This is due to t lation due to channel noise. alk. Crosstalk in cable pairs occurs when the elec, | cal energy from one circuit is magnetically superimposed upon anaj __jacent circuit. Many analog systems are not noise limited as mucha | Crosstalk limited. Ina digital system, crosstalk is largely eliminated, the threshold effect. } # Error correction. In more modern digital systems, powerful errr | correction techniques have been developed which can be applied\) scrub a signal and remove a large percentage of errors from arj| source. The application of such advanced techniques becomes? . bolas weighing costs (the additional digital circuitry, plus cence te eee against the benefits (the abiliy : ‘ = cst eine ee or in the presence of even mor ial regener foes als, theca) venti 8 Fegenerative repeaters at proper itt! controlled to any level desir other transmission degradations ca” ~* Ume variant or statistical sour; lany transmission problems invol® an analog system is often areal of signal- degradation against ¥™ "ely helpless. Such problems can be yA «tolled in'a . Properly desi Eee signed to monitor and ode 4 82! system. A digital system * Echo co a s re This is a reflection of 8 channel conditions: Systems addrece om discontiny; e transmitted signal back oF tal systems anc tS issue ity in the transmission path. A" Petiod of ia ™ ect ely and with litle im Feat the stored sj © equal to the ro,, By Storing the ees speect fot *8Pal to the py o2"-ttip delay of the circuit, atten Proper level of the ee ae and returning echo, ‘ he networ! ircuits ha\ Resistance t he inherent resistance of the dig, signal to degrad © Resistance to crossl { a ies Technical Foundation of Wireless Technolog » echo is comple Iotracting it from the incoming return signal, the echo is Comp minated. z « Putults; One of the most important characteristics of digital systems is they are usually under tight software control, which greatly i creases user and operator flexibility. An operation as simple as chang ing the telephone number associated with a particular telephone line is impossible for many analog central offices still in operation in the United States today. Security The first real work on digital-based radio systems was stimulated during World War II by the need for a truly secure radio-telephone system. Digital communications systems were utilized in military and sensitive government applications long before they became economical in commercial settings, pre~ cisely because of the benefit of security. The problem of communications pri- vacy is a serious issue in mobile radio systems, where the ease of interception greatly compromises even routine cellular radio-telephone calls. Analog scrambling systems exist, but they are not accepted as having a high level of, security, and they typically degrade voice quality. By contrast, a digital radio system lends itself readily to intensive encryp- tion, which can be designed to provide almost any level of security desired and has a rather small impact on system performance or economics. Even without encryption, the digitization process itself provides a fair degree of privacy by making inexpensive interception devices harder for amateurs to construct. Pepsteat communtcarions SYSTEM | * (t:pesonal communications system (PCS) isthe cuscent state of cellular lephony. PCS uses the cellular concept, ‘utin comparison with cellular com- ‘munications, which utilizes frequencies in the SOQ.MHz ange and has both analog and digital capabilities, RCSis purely digital and operates in the 1,900 MHZ range. PCS came into existence after it became clear that the explosive Sowth of cellular telephony would sequize the FCC to allocate another fre Ayecttanse for wireless communications to avoid overloading the 800 z range. jae bas developed as adigital iol that not only caries voice communications but also provides paging. service, fax service, and mobile Sounection to the vast Internet. —— HOW AN ORGANIZATION GETS A PIECE OF SPECTRUM 133 CHAPTER 3 2 frequency different from 4 ‘i hat missions will interfere wi Use ng must USC 5 mu ith Cac elephone : aula tee eee rans ae en radio or © se the b by broadcast ther. ° AS mentioned, the ies, national i tside the United s; “nc has no authority ou : States, Foe ments regulate ee clectromagnetic 5 % most Cou es Ay conflict with one anol is fa wid pe Uni trum, although Pee particularly real in i States. This situation vmnission Nas developed standards iffering fr pean ransi atibility of internet appliances ; aking comp: ees "| those in this oe en aon and the United States. Today their, ete in bot gs. TU radio regulations are decided during World Raj, andles su . Communication ent of the FCC in 1934, if users wanted spectrin they simply took it. When commercial broadcast radio was becoming Pop. lar in the 1930s and as increasingly powerful radio stations were built, prob. Jems started to occur. In 1934, the FCC was established and charged with the allocation and administration of the wireless spectrum, among other things Since 1994, the FCC has instituted new policies and now most spectrum isal- located by auction bid. Approximately thirty auctions have been conducted as of this writing. FCC auction rules appear to be numerous and complicated. To enable a fair share of the potential bidders an opportunity to buy spectrum, each auction goes through as many rounds as necessary until the bidding stops aan involvea band or bands of frequencies with one or more licenses ing offered depending on the technology involved and the geographicl regions covered. For example, if you loo ion 26 i ee see that 2,499 licenses aa sol 4 pices ney te i id in that pager ion. Compatt this with aucti . Pager spectrum auction. 108 ie sold FM broadcast spectrum in the 88 MH2"" peat thata geet deter see that a single license was granted. Ita fair overall. Over $32 m ie and effort went into making the bidding ™* tional licenses were grey ion ¥28 bid in one auction where multiple a¢é* censes. The rule ae set or Yeh that organization did not get all the bid on all licenses.» “PS that no one individual or organization @ Cooperati Under thera between the FCC and ITY tt Provisions of the ITU treaty, thy is both beneficial and frets tions g ty, the United States is obligated % 4 luency Allocati Pecified in ITY Radio Regul, tions At international alloc tions), io Regulat ailé -S. doy fh other ong | OMestic spectrum uses MAY Fy ations’ Providi cat S' spectrum, Uses that ence domestic uses a a ply with ITU regula reless Application toca! (WAP) nm ‘ore. These factors | Contrib, | CHAPTER 4 - efficiently than ever bef reported more effic er logy pase for fiber-based network ay, te 501 aPPlica nl resent a more constrained ed networ! c networks. Because of fgg and mobility, wine ty stable a" services products. oe jgeless dat] networks, owevel P ith wir Wirele: qe i ronment COMP on mplale spect fal Limitations Of Pr ple networks tet d to have the following: Less bandwidth » More latency * Less connection stability + Less predictable availability Problems with th powerhand-held acces in Chapter 3. ‘Mass-market hand-held wireless devices present a mo: computing environment compared with desktop computers. Be rae mental imitations of power ard Pe iar (hie popes oa a | Ofte, aefevce), mass-market hand-held devices tend to have the ail and shape | «Less powerful CPUS we ‘Less memory (ROM and RAM) ‘ Rested power consumption + Smaller displays (someti teed Dead lee ae fe ey as 2 inches) ., a phone keypad, voice input) t have provided a challenge j for e environmen! tion on this issue can be fou | : . | * devices. More informa | | HISTORY The Wi . en ot tocol (WAP) is a prod cTanged shame tothe a NAP) Es 2 product of he Wi provides valuable informa Mobile Alliance.) Ho} Forum, in late Fee raved in june 1997, Te the formation chee je WAP Forum Rane) and Erion, ae four firms: Phone, JAP. The WAP Fost manufacturers), Thi and Nokia (the .com (formerly Unwit) Ve ona Id’s three largest wir) provides a worldwide standan® the deliver ry of In fou cofounder meine Pas services a 10 mass-market mobi t mobile phones September 1997, published th architecture for this né 7 ew standart In Jan Lid. toadmind 8 the iminister foundin, ram was subsequent Pe 8 companies . Pecification Leena i wae Bet : ship in the " on the eu bsequently g en WAP specifies t° firms ion pr across the wireless industry '© wot us a of WAP. Th e WAP. er on of the industry me ey and to drive th 1 including | uP Of Over 400 continuing evo" companies represent int" ung leadin, '8 Wireless network operato™s: in Wireless Application Protocol structure providers, handset manufacturers, and software providers (WAP Forum 2001), eethe WAP, and the organization that defines and promotes it, the WAP Forum, originally grew out of efforts by cellular phone manufacturers to work with the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C) on a specification for the wireless tra sion of data on the Internet. This fit in well with the WAP Forum's mission of creating global wireless protocol specifications that work across the different wireless network technologies. The WAP Forum and the W3C work in cooperation. The WAP Forum is dedicated to enabling advanced services and applications on mobile (wire- less) devices, such as cellular telephones, and the W3C is dedicated to lead- ing and advancing the development of the World Wide Web. Although the WaP Forum and the W3C have different organizational goals, they share similar goals for the future of the Intemet. As an example, W3C’s long-term goals for the Web are as follows: Universal access. To make the Web accessible to all by promoting tech- nologies that take into account the vast differences in culture, educa- tion, ability, material resources, and physical limitations of users on all continents Semantic Web. To develop a software environment that permits each user to make the best use of the resources available on the Web Web of trust. To guide the Web's development with careful considera- tion for the novel legal, commercial, and social issues raised by this technology. Specific goals of the WAP Forum are as follows (WAP Forum 2000): Tobring Internet content and advanced data services to wireless phones To create a global wireless protocol specification that works across all wireless network technologies * "To facilitate the development of content and applications that scale across a wide range of wireless bearer networks and device types * To embrace and extend existing standards and technology when it is both possible and appropriate To accomplish these goals, the WAP Forum has develoj ped WAP specifi- cations according to the fol lowing design principles (WAP Forum 2000): * To create license-free standards for the entire industry to use for prod- uct development To know that the best techni full industry participation To work optimally with all air interfaces in order to best address the needs of the widest possible population of end users To maintain WAP specifications independent of any particular device To encourage easy, open interoperability between its key components . ‘ology standards can only come about with mobile devices 141 CHAPTER 4 ‘ the WAP Forum and the W3C stem te use oridwide, for example: jes in Us the United States Tess analog and isthe, fr Part of the cratlens of he the different wireless tec w ampsisused PAM andard a vollular telephony ee i on cay an ‘AMPS. TACS has attempt | tb : -off 0 » TACS 18 a SPIO re capacity - sidered a 0 rally considered a stopgap toy,” | marily h + Persona Digitale tal cellular t ology: «Digital AMPS (D-AMPS) 6 als i dard. American digital cellular stan’ a. ' ; « Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications is essentially the * aropean cellular systems. GSM was developed | standard for par A e be the international digital cellular system of choice and is currentiy deployed in over 100 countries. It is particularly predominant inEx. | y supports full roaming privilegs | rope and much of Asia and actuall throughout these countries. GSM is not compatible with the United | | | States-dominant digital standard, PCS. «PCS is digital and is predominant in the United States. Due toa | vanced technology features, PCS can exist in the same network ‘AMPS (it can even operate in both analog and digital modes on | same network), even though AMPS is analog. | Chapter 6 addresses this issue in more detail. dom and Pret base, Dat Be - | Sigitl cell etn Oeil hee + Nondic Mobile Te ized for use oer low population seam operates in the somewhat unique 450 MHz range), wit | si i f Europe: | noon Deca qrocyis used primarily in Japan and isa dip | o known as US TDMA. It is a Nox DESIGN AND PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION fixe consists ofa series of la sed b ers on top of each of thi re a COPE HN COU Hore eos athow wide oer Kinds of wired netwoo® | tocol stacks, : model, \ mers digital wig oe in Figure 4-1. Devices that see the corresponding } phones, and comme nat 3s Pobile phones, pa use WAP include han WAP i ben atctors. WAP works tes, Pagers, two-way radios, $ ment It canbe built on eS | ith most wireless network eo Hetha naytan and a penon = oo operating sy ston 8 system) for example: the operati Or Paia devine Petatng system for tas s seri& of PDAS j son, Psion, and Nokia hand" eee 143 Wireless Application Protocol ° Figure 4-1 ‘ 4 OSI versus WAP | OSI Model WAP Model Protocol Stacks Layer 7 HTTP, FTP, SMTP (e-mail), Telnet WAP 6 WAP. 5 WAP. TCP, UDR, ete, WaP WP, PX, ot Cellular networks protocols 2 HDLC, ete. Cellular networks protocols ‘ vires Bits over airwaves Windows CE—Microsoft’s operating system for small devices such as notebooks FLEXOS—an operating system designed for palm devices and smart- phones [The developer is Symbian, a joint venture of Psion, Erics- son, Nokia, Motorola, and Matsushita (Panasonic).] OS/9—MAC’s operating system with hand-held extension capabilities JavaOS—a highly compact operating system designed to run Java applications directly on microprocessors in anything from net com- puters to pagers (JavaSoft, an operating company of Sun Microsys- tems, Inc,, is the developer.) | In short, a WAP phone is like a miniature web browser that can interact with any Internet-based application. This means that WAP phones can access much of the Internet's text content. Graphical content, however, is clearly an area with limitations, because WAP devices are small, although plans are in progress to bring larger color screens to a wide range of WAP-enabled de- vices within the next few years (Fowlie 2001). The WAP Forum, in order to promote the standardized design and use ofa wireless protocol, needed first to develop a specification outlining the de- tails of the approach and the underlying protocols. The WAP specification is designed to bring Internet access to the wire- less mass market. By building open specifications and encouraging commu- nication and technical exchanges among the industry players, the WAP Forum encourages and fosters market development. Key elements of the WAP specification include the following: * A definition of the WAP programming model. This model will provide Programmers on the.design and proposed operation of guidance for the WAP. * A markup. language_based on XML. The language is designed to enable Powerful applications within the constraints of hand-held devices. A Wireless Application Protocol ways be cor Hula phe ith the limited power of the devices utilized, as cellular phones, Cellular network economics is works such as the @ Similar issue to bounded media net- syorhs auch as ae In both cases, the economics are in a constant a hnoke eRBiN Market conditions, customer expecta- Hons, and technology advances Latency is an issue present in all networks, bi networks using satellite Desert Storm conflict, c dad required significant geosynchronous satellite * Bandwidth te of ase ut particularly in wireless n an example, during the weunications with correspondents in Bagh: delays due to latency time required to recch transmissions. As chnology at this sta cries of environmental, heal 'ge of development is limited because tion issues. More information on th, and power availability and genera- these issues can be found in Chapter 3 Many wireless dev: ices (e.g., cellular devices used in a wide phones and pagers) are consumer Variety of environments and under a wide range of use scenarios. For example, the user interface must be extremely simple and easy to use. Many mobile devices, in particular cellular telephones, are mass-market consumer-oriented devices. Wireless also must ulitoc single- Piroee Gevines. The gael and purpose of mest mobile devices 1a highly focused (e.g., voice communication), which is in contrast with the generai- Purpose tool-oriented nature of a personal computer. This motivate: spe- cific set of use cases, with simple and focused behavior (for example, “place a voice call” or “find the nearest ATM"). Finally, wireless devices should offer hands-free, heads-up operation. Many mobile devices are used ms one vironments where the user shi ‘ould not be unnecessarily distracted (e.g., driving and talking). The WAP specification addresses the limitations of wireless networks and devices by utilizing the existing standards and developing new exter sions where needed. It also enables industry participants to develop solu- tions that are interface independent, device independent, and fully interoperable. The WAP solution encompasses the tremendous investment prvate industry has in web servers, web development tools, web program- mers, and web applications. In addition, it solves many of the problems as- Sociated with the wireless domain. The specification further ensures that this solution is fast, reliable, and secure. It enables developers to use existing tools ‘0 produce sophisticated applications that have an intuitive user interface The WAP architect through the developm Clent system architecture for the w’ and manufactur tion, ture specification meets the needs of the WAP Forum ent and implementation of a stable, flexible, and effi- ireless web community. To enable operators ers to meet the challenges in advanced services, differentia- and fast and flexible service creation, the WAP Forum defines a set of transaction, session, and application layers. in the OSI or TCP/IP reference models. Protocols in transport, security, se are similar to those found 145 uapren and complexity, and the Cs Matt meet ample, to meet the Fequiremeny ex agin both aa certainly complicates ences try, because solutions mus, 5 ast, ate indu Mobile networks? cient roving elicit nd i vr bath the public see a tobe us st be all of the following: ror tate ot equreents ea awork operators of mobile ne anufacturers must comm « [rom different ™ : . 1 ner Per ee mobile netwOrK me 5 must be able to scale sery; cate with services a me operators must be is ‘Sculable, Mobile net ea 2 nent of customer ae eee. a if “Quality of service must be s hi cient. Quality of service me © > erat of the mobile network. actel : form to meet changeable conditions in 4, Flexible, Solutions a cont ie eee ania! Fle ont technology, and is : 2 eet predictable platform must be Provided fy 5 Relite eden {at best, as can be done in the changing environ. deploying services 6. le Services are to be extended over vulnerable mobile networks * while stil preserving the integrity of user data. Dev ices and Services must be protected from security problems such as denial of Service, Inshort, the WAP specification addresses mobile network characteristics and operator needs By adapting existing networl k technology to the special ducing nen erase market hand-held wireless data devices, and by intro Alcing new technology when appropriate WAP ARCHITECTURE REQUIREMENTS, Requirements of the WAP Forum architecture are as follows: ¥ Leverage isting sang toe alert san Posie, such as HTTP and URLs or at many it ©, an extensible architecture. $ Rian Mies ree Possible 5. Optimize fr! ; / arers wit ; ici otent 8°/powero oof i Potential . ly high latency. P Urces (| PU us ‘ Eat uppon i ), (low memory/CPl usabiliyn Sreation of had ‘PPlications 8. ronal Hex communication. 'Y. and venga o™™PUter in - ten torneo loa hae contagy EtFaces with maxim? alin: Such as logical indict mPOnents o Petabilin e dication. Aa ‘ents i aah Mean Ppa ®Peciicaat fing the optional Ng my S. Odi = telephony services a Wireless Application Protocol WAP ARCHITECTURE OVERVIEW World Wide Web (WWW) usage : increases every d vary, depending on the source), lay (although estimates \ x : as shown in Figure 1-1. Itis the logical model in which WAP should interoperate and emulate. In addition, the Internet WWW architecture provides a flexible and Powerful programming model, as shown in Figure 4-2. This WWW model Presents applications and content in standard data formats, whi plications known as web server responds with the erable term here is standard. Because this work had already been done, and is astable and productive model, (he WAP archite interface with it ‘ ~~ The existing WWW standard: are necessary to build a vironment S specify the following mechanisms which Beneral-purpose, flexible, and stable application en. * Standard naming model. All servers with an Internet-standard unifors main naming service (DNS) tran: and content on the WWW are named ™m resource locator (URL) with the do- slating the URLs to site addresses, a= 5) Client Web Server = [| | Request (URL) Response (Content) Figure 4-2 WWW Model 147 unrTer 4 the ww is given a specific typ, spits. 8 cote peorrectly process tte Content bases satent HPS" web jowin reby al el nits YP tent oral: All a ypertext «sandr mat jncudiN& others. it forman 5 langue ois allow any web browser to commy, ost commonly used protocol on the The: m «standard P a tae wre ‘Transport protocol ( ent yes users £0 easily reach a large number oti sis infrastruc? b services. It als0 allows application developers plications and es nt services for a large I ununity of cia é sd conte ein meeting these goals, even with an ey. isers Support a set of standang + Co hi marky P language, ication base- ree classes of servers. the server on whit ven resource (content) resides creat ary program that acts as both a server and Hint for the purpose of making requests On behalf of other clients, 1 ides between clients and servers that haveno ically resi te diet amunication, for example, across a firewall. Re quests are either serviced by the proxy program or passed on, with possible translation, to other servers. A proxy must implement both int and server requirements of the WWW specifications. 3, Gateway, a server that acts as an intermediary for some other server. | Unlike a proxy, a gateway receives requests as if it were the origin server for the requested resource. The requesting client may not be aware that it is communicating with a gateway. THE WAP MODEL The WAP progr ww rohan ea shown in Figure 4-3, is similar to application developer co ana VAP model provides several benefits to & Proven architecture, and th y including a familiar programming 2M took, aveScrpt, and Sey) to use existing tools (e.g we serves mer Hn Saeed the past several years, extersoe starting pit ier existing standa Se of the wireless env the W, 's have been adopted or used as content technolo, te and ey _ formats bas applications ate specified i cot Ported using ast of tanga ecified in a set of well Know™ og maura Sandan content formats, Content is 8 Protocole ComMunicat ls "cation protocols based on the Hs interfge A Microb and js Towser . i ‘comparable ee dies terminal < lard web browse nates the user La a) Wireless Application Protocol camel ong Borver ft Encoded Requost (|| Foquost WAE Encoders User and L} agent Decoders 4 Encoded Response Response (Content) yy OT Abtandar ing_model) WWW-standard URLs are used to identify WAP content on origin servers and local resources in a device; for ex- ple, call control functions. \ Content typing./All WAP content is given a specific type consistent with WWW typing. This allows WAP user agents to correctly process the cpntent based on its type. \Ylandard content formats) WAP content formats are based on WWW fechnology and includé display markup, calendar information, elec- Jronic business card objects, images, and scripting language. \ Standard communications rotocols WAP communications protocols en- able the communication of browser requests from the mobile terminal to the network web server. . The WAP content types and protocols have been optimized for mass- fee hand-held wireless devices to provide functionality to as large a tech, ©f industry and, by definition, users as possible. WAP utilizes proxy ‘logy to connect the wireless domain to the WWW. This is similar to the seen (MTSOS) iN COllUMAE ng vow offices ( es Woy ae sci jephone Network (PSTN). 1p wit fe telepho witehits eof mobil the Pl ie followin, 0 cuartend functionality, connect TO ists 0 ‘i om the WAP sti eA ypically consi anslates requests ea Ge ee sp he pt we yo ane WHY vig | Sure, wrt. and > content int wit slate WAP contERE INO.COMpagy, J) TCHAD sors (decoders) aN ver the network) Pt 14» ontent encod ve ce the siz 9 \Z coded formals t tmobile terminal users can browse aw: a ions, and that the bee Author, a that run ona large ASC Of variety of WAP con! and applications a Mm aera build content service ifs content and applications to be hy bile terminals. The WAP Pr” be developed using Proven WWW igg, an on standard WWW servers nologies such as CGI scripting, f WAP will include a web server, WAP Proy, ical use of . y, Although the typical use ¢ asily support other configura tecture can easily ions, and WAP client, the WAP architec hat includes the WAP proxy functig, {gin server t i It is possible to ae eed to facilitate end-to-end security solutions ality. Such a serv ure ensures th r ; Tiss ad applica Example WAP Network To fully understand how a WAP network may look, refer to Figure 2-2, In the example, the WAP client communicates with two servers in the wireless network. The WAP proxy translates WAP requests to WWW re quests, thereby allowing the WAP client to submit requests to the web serve: ‘The proxy also encodes the responses from the web server into the comps: binary format understood by the client, If the web server provides WAP content (e : -8 WML), the WAP proxyie trie it ¥ o “ie free bee the web Server. However, if the web server provis as HTML), filter is used to translate the WWW ctr tent into WAP content. into WML. "For example, the HTML filter would translate HM Ai ARCHITECTURE COMPONENTS The WAP archit hitecture proy; Plicati Provides, sig 9Pment for mop. 2 ble and extensible environment rif ered design of ty 180 of the ent municati : . the architecture ig accessp ol Stack, ag naa S devices, through “4 applications, le by the layers oO in Figure 4-4. Each lay" ute pe? layered archi ve, as well as by other se" e i atures of the Wape® enables oth i oe Stack th, ug ‘er Services and applica 4 Set of well-defined inter! 151 Wireless Application Protocol ; rn | } SABRE prnteture Layer WAP Component Lor 1 a oe ae J ‘Session wsP A Tae Nor | Tonsacion | WIP oS | ‘Security WITLS | Transport woP | ; Network | GSM, CDMA, i ’ Bearers | etc. External applications may access the session, transaction, security, and trans- port layers directly. The following sections provide a description of the vari- ‘ous elements of the protocol stack architecture. “Wretess Application Enviro 5 ication environment (WAE) is a general-purpose applica- based on a combination of WWW and mobile telephony ies. The primary objective of the WAE effort is to establish an inter- operable environment that will allow operators and service provider ~build applications and services that can reach a wide variety of different wire- less platforms in an efficient and_useful manner)WAE includes a micro- browser environment containing the following fuftctionality. ireless markup language (WML)—a li wireless markup + Wires eae) wines mrtg similar to HTML, but optimized for use in hand-held mobile terminals) ~ (WMLScript;-a lightweight scripting language, similar to JavaScrip?’ WMLScrpt Py CHAPTER 4 | (WTA, WTAD—telephony, sia! fireless telephony applies i {prog Sarg intefMof well-defined data formats, in s—a set of ‘ 4 conta formats records, and calendar information ages, phone ices including rovides the application layer The Wireless Session Protocol WS On services. The first is a conn? rasates above the transaction layer protoca, np ionlesg service that operates above a secure or no! “deta service WD oe consis of services suited for browsing applic, (WSP/| 8) which provide HTTP/1.1 functionality and semantics in a Compac, over-the-air encoding, long-lived session state, session suspend and reset with session migration, a common facility for reliable and unreliable day | ch, and protocol feature negotiation. | dearer networks Ha Protocls in the WSP family are optimized for low-bandwidth dearer | networks with relatively long latency. WSP/B is designed to allow g Wap Proxy to connect a WSP/B client to a standard HTTP server. \Jwifeless Session Protocol be | | 2 | sea | | | Afreless Transaction Protocol 'e Wireless Transaction Protocol (WTP) runs id provides a lightweight transaction-orien: implementation in “thin” clients (mobile sta on top of a datagram service ted protocol that is suitable for tions). WTP operates efficiently and provides the fol | insaction Optional out. 2 Protocol da Ment to red, _2Asynchron: Hof-band dat: ‘ocol data unit (PDU) ita unit (PDU) concatenat 'uce the number of Messagy fa on acknow! ledgments tion and delayed acknowleds es sent lous transactions rig i Security protocol based af "I ‘. (TLs) Protocol, formerly known’ | “¢ for use with the WAP transPo | OF use over Narrowband communica” ‘atures, Wireless Application Protocol Data ini the tern ity, WTLS cor al and an application « sam Pricey. WTLS contains facilitice To ensure ee and uncorrupted. ween the terminal pherable by any in data stream, and an application server are Private and undeci- termediate parties that may hove intercepted the Authentication. WTLS contains facilit facilities t ici Dongminal and application server,” S*Sblish the authenticity of Denial-of-service protection, Fejecting data that are makes many typical denial-of anspr

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