THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION From Pedagogy to Andragogy REVISED AND UPDATED Malcolm S. Knowles CAMBRIDGE The Adult Education Company 686 Seven venue, New York, Hew York 0108Published and cistibuted by: ‘Cambridge, The Adult Education Company 1886 Seventh Avenue New York,NY 10106 ISBNO-8428-2219-5, brary of Congress Casloging n Pbilation Data owes, Malcolm Shepherd, 1913 "The modern practice of adult education. Bibiography:p. Includes index 1. Adul edueation. 1. Title, Los2isxe2 1900” 37480-14044 160M 0-095-01472.0, Contents Exhibtts Chapter 1 Preparing Yourself to Inquire Setting a Climate for ncuiry How tho Inquiy 's Organized Where to Start For Your Continuing inquiry... Part! The Emerging Role and Technology of Adult Education Chapter2 What is Modem Practica? Ina Word of Accelerating Change ‘A New Conception of the Purpose of Edueation From a Focus on Teacting to a Focus on Learning Litelong Learning New Delivery Systems For Your Continuing Inquiry... Chapter3 What I the Role and Mission of the Adult Educator? ‘What 16 an Adult? ‘What Is Adult Education? Who isan Adult Edueatcr? ‘What Does an Adult Educator Do? ‘What Is the Adult Educsr's Mission? “The Needs and Goats of Individuals ‘The Noeds and Goals of Institutions ‘The Neods and Goals of Society ‘The Changing and Challenging Role of Adult Educators For Your Continuing Inquiry... Chapter4 What Is Andragoay? In the Beginning Was Pedagogy ‘Then Came Andragooy ‘Assumptions of Pedagocy and Andregoay Some Implications ofthe Assumptions for Practice ‘Sell-Concepts and Teachers’ Concepls of Learners ‘The Role of Experience Readiness to Learn ‘Orientation to Learning Pago 3 8 8 5 BRBsdssss BS2ES SSBBLVBIR‘Some Other Assumptions about Learning and Teaching ‘Some Implications for Youth Education ‘The Andragogical Process of Program Development How Do We Know That Its Bettor? For Your Continuing Inquiry... Part | Organizing and Administering Comprehensive Programs of Adult Education Chapter § Establishing an Organizational Climate and Structure ‘The Purpose of Organizations. Providing an Educative Environment Practicing a Democratic Philosophy Exempltying Change and Growth ‘The Organizational Setting of Adult Education Providing a Policy Base Criteria for a Policy Statement Examples of Policy Statements Building a Committee Structut ‘Types of Committees Functions of a Committee ‘Composition of a Committoo ‘Some Guidelines for Efective Committee Operation Providing Staff Services For Your Continuing Inquiry . Chapter 6 Assessing Needs and Interests in Program Planning ‘The Crucial Importance of This Step ‘Tho Nature of Needs Basic Human Needs Educational Needs ‘The Nature of Interests General interests Faclors That Affect Iniorest ‘Changes in interest During the Life Cyclo General Subject interests ‘Assossing Needs and Intorests ‘Needs and Interest of Individuals ‘Needs of Organizations Needs of Communities For Your Continuing Inquiry. Chapter 7 Defining Purposes and Objectives ‘The Nature and Function of Purposos and Objectives Defining General Purposes Defining Program Objectives ‘Translating Naeds into Program Obiectives For Your Continuing Inquiry . Chapter 8 Designing a Comprehensive Program ‘The Far-Out Notion of Adult Education as an Art Form. ‘Art Principles Applied to Adult Education Selecting the Formats for Learning Formats for Individual Learning Formats for Group Learning ‘Community Developmen: as a Formal for Learning ‘Some Sample Designs of Comprehensive Programs For Your Continuing Inquiry Ghapter8 Operating a Comprehensive Program “The Art of Administration Recruiting and Training Leaders and Teachers ‘Selecting Leaders and Teachers Compensation of Instructors Training and Supervision of Instructors Building Facully Morale Managing Facilities and Procedures Providing Good Physical Fa Resource Filo Registration Procedures Opening-Night Procedures Altendance Records, Grades, end Certificates Educational Counseling Promation and Public Relations Detining the Clientele Planning the Promotion Campaign Integrating the Program with a Theme Getting Expert Advice Preparing and Distributing Promotion Materials Newspaper Advertising Newspaper Publicity Radio and Television Direct Mail and Printed Materials Posters, Displays, ana Exhibits Personal Contacts in the Community Enlisting the Support of Participants ‘The Telephone Commitee Evaluating a Promotion Campaign Interpreting and Reporting Budgeting and Financing Establishing an Ovorall Financial Policy Establishing Foes Determining Costs ‘Sources of Income Other Than Tul Payment Practices For Your Continuing Inquly Chapter 10 Evaluating Comprehensive Programs Confronting a Sacred Cow Conflicting Values in Evaluation Purposes of Evaluation “The Evaluation Process ‘When to Evaluate Who Should Evaluate? Formulating Evaluative Questions8 conrenrs Methods of Data Collection Analys ‘outcome For Your is of the Data 8 of Evaluation ‘Continuing Inquiry Part ll Helping Adults Learn Chapter 11. Designing and Managing Learning Activiios, “The Basi Setting a Establish Diagnosi ic Process Climate for Learning ing & Steucture for Mutual Plansing Ing Needs for Learning Developing Competency Models ‘Assessing the Present Level of Performanco ‘Assessing Learning Needs Formula ing Directions (Objectives) for Learning Designing a Pattern of Learning Experiences Organi zing Principles Learning-Design Modelo Managing the Learning Experiences Techni iques Materials and Devices Contract An Examy Evaluat For Your Learning ple of Andragogy at Work 19 Results and Rediagnosing Learning Needs Continuing Inquiry. APPENDIXES A-K ‘Appendix A Appendix B ‘Appendix ‘Appendix D ‘Appendix E ‘Appendix F ‘Appendix @ ‘Appendix H Appendix Appendix J ‘Appendix K INDEX Correspondence with the Publishers of Merriam-Webster Dictionaries Regarding “Andragoay” Competencies forthe Role of Adult Educator: Selt-Diagnostic Faating Scalo Lite Tasks of American Adults ‘Toward Model of Litelong Education ‘Some Papers, Research Reports, and Experiments on Chapter 7 Exhibits: Statements of Purposes and Objectives Chapter 8 Exhibits: Sample Program Designs ‘Chapter 10 Exhibits: Evaluation Materials ‘Chaptor 11 Exhibits: Some Tools for Conducting Learning Activities Page 210 26 215 216 222 eee 223 ar zr 29 235 235 236 239 2a 263 207 27 285 24 295 307 34 Exhibit Exhibits ‘Maslow’ Hierarchy of Human Needs Dimensions of Maturation ‘The Relationship ofthe Time-Span ot Social Change to Individual tife-Span ‘A Comparison of the Assumptions of Pedagogy and Andragouy ‘Some Characteristics of Static vs. Innovative Organizations ‘Commission to the Adult-Education Committee ofthe XYZ. Community Center Gri for Selecting Board Members ‘Antecedents to an Act of Behavior Datintion of Educationel Need ‘incentives for Adult Learning Ratio of Partolpants to Nonparticipants in Adult Education by Occupation ‘Areas of Learning Indicated as tho First Choice of Would-Ba Leamers and Studed by Leamers Interest Questionnaire Genera! Methods cf Need Determination Some Neod indlcstors Statomont of Purposo—A Library Community Survey The Process of Translating Needs Into Objectives: Houle's Major Categories of Educational Design Situations Dacklon Pints and Componens ofan AdultEsueaonl Framewor ‘Small Meoting Room Arrangements Large Meeting Room Arrangements Resource Record Enroliment Chart Intructor's information Gard General Plan of Promotion Promation Budget ‘Stufiebeam’s Evauation Schema ‘Curve of Normal Distribution End-ol-Meeting Ealuation Slip Profil of Ratings of Public Speaking Ski ‘Matching Techniques to Desired Behavioral Outcomes ‘The Cone of Experienca of Jr Page 210poms 11 10 Bours i ko . Page Appendix F Chapter § Exhibits: Poticy Statements aoe prose balny ohetiot ean ween ing Learning Activities: wt igre (Cotpoente Colky,Sislenena, eo K-2 Preliminary Sel Diagnosis for Program Planning Form 362 F-2 College Mission and Insittional Goal 278 ia) Care ees Ga eaten or F-8 Training Policy, National Endowment for the Arts ; 21 jee cau Dueesai cite = F-4 Purposes and Objectives of the Cooperative Extension Service 286 ICS Wotlsheat tor curing Leeming Cbjactves oe F-5 Continuing Education tor Personnel in Health Care Insitutions. 288 ie oneveneel a F-8 Policy Statement of the University of Wisconsin System 220 ie coer Appendix Chapter Exhibits: Statements of Purposes and Objectives K-8 Operational Model 378 ‘G-1_ Purposes and Objectives of Public School Continuing Programs 286 K-9 Role of Change Agent Model 379 G-2 Purposes and Objectives of Continuing Education Programs in K-10 Functional Model 380 Community Colleges and Technical Institutes 200 K-11 Learning Contract Form 381 G-3 Purposes and Objectives of College and University Continuing K-12 Some Guidelines tr the Use of Learning Contracts In Felé-Based Education Programs 303 Learning 82 G-4 Purposes and Objectives of Programs in Business and Industry 908 K-13 Leaning Contract 286 ‘AppendixH Chapter 8 Exhibits: Sample Program Designs: K-14 The Assumptions and Process Elements of the Pedagogical H-1 UCLA Extension Catalog Center Spread 208 eee eared i 1-2 Concord-Carlsle, Massachuselts, Regional Schoo! District, Schedule of Clasees by Day 909 11-9 Day-Hour Schedule, Cambridge Center for Adult Education 2310 1-4 Adult Programs in Great Neck, New York 312 ‘Appendix | Chapter 9Exhibits: Tools for Operating Programs E41 Letter of Appointment 315 1-2 Faculty Orientation Memo 318 Teacher's Process Plan 319 Faculy Institute, University College, Northeestern University aa Process Design for 8 One-Day Workshop ae Cortificate of Completion 323 ‘A Personal Career Planning Process 324 Direct Mail Promotion—Adull Education Program 326 ‘Schedule of Special Form Letters 27 Publicity Schedule 328 Newspaper Advertising Schedule 329 Sample Publicity Releases 330 Request to Faculty for Publicity Pictures 336 Sample Calalog Covers a7 Sample of Fiyers by the University of California, Riverside Extension 399 Concord-Carisle Regional Schoo! District Adult and Continuing Education Budget 30 117 Budget Report, University of Southern California ae 1-18 Cost Analysis Sheet, Groat Nock Public Schools 32 119 Financial Policies of the Cambridge Center for Adult Education 33 Appendix Chapter 10 Exhibits: Evaluation Materials JAI Program Evaluation: For Reality 3s J+2_ Student Evaluation Questionnaires 353 +3 Leader's Evaluation Form 3591 Preparing Yourself to Inquire Setting a Climate for Inquiry ‘This book, if it practices what it preaches, should be a good adul-learning expe- rience for you, the reader. Since I believe tht the single most effective teaching device available (o teachers is the example of their own behavior, I shall do my best to make this book a good example of an adult learning experience But this goal won't be easy to attain, because at ts best, an adultearning exper fence should be a process of self-directed inquiry, withthe resources ofthe teacher, fellow students, and materalsbeing avaiable to the learners but aot imposed on them, ‘The learners should be active participants, discovering for themselves those things they are ready to discover ata particular phase of their personal development, But people typically don't read books in his spirit. They read books as they listen to lectures—to {et answers to questions the author thinks are important rather than to explore ques- ons and answers ina sprit of mutual inquiry. This isthe problem: most people have ‘been trained to ead books rather than to dialogue with the, So if this book isto serve asa Tearning experience for you, we anust at the outset establish climate of mutual inquiry. And as we shall se later, I believe that this s the first step in developing any learning experience. Now what, exactly, is involved in establishing a climate of mutual inquiry in a book? I'm not Sure I know. Plato did it by actually writing in the form of dialogues between teachers and students. But this technique seems more appropriate to phil sophical inquiry than to the more technological inquiry covered in ths book. Perhaps for this kind of book the most important aspects of the climate are the altitudes of the author and reader. Speaking for myself, my attitude is that ofa helper to you, not as your teacher inthe traditional sense. I perceive you as coming to this book for help in discovering better ways to perform whatever adulteducational func: tions you are responsible for at this time and perhups in the future. For some readers these functions will be different from those of others, and I shall try to resist the temptation to put you all inthe sane mold. I also perceive you as bringing a variety of experiences, previous training, and points of view about society and education to the reading ofthis book. I ring my experience, training, and poiat of view to the writin of it.I shal present my ideas with conviction and enthusiasm, not with th attitude that they are the truth or the best ideas but in the hope that they will provide a framework ‘with which you can compare and test your own ideas. My atitude is that Iam sharing ‘my experience, training, and point of view with you rather than imposing them on you. ‘This set of attitudes on my part sets up some requirements regarding your atti a14 THe MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION tudes, though, if our climate of mutual inquiry i to come off. Fist and foremost, this ‘book presupposes that you will come to it with an attitude of inquiry rather than one ‘of dependent edification, By this I mean that I am expecting you to Took to this book tohelp you formulate quostions about your practices as an adult educator to which you will then seek answers from many sources, including this book, other books, traning programs, colleagues, and above all, your own exporimentation. An attitude of gentle skepticism would probably also be helpful. I shall fee less inhibited about expressing _my ideas, assumptions, and convictions clearly and forcefully i ean rely on you to test ‘them against your experience, to adopt those that make sense to you, and to build on them creatively. ‘Another aspect ofthe climate of this mutual inquiry that T think is mportant for us to agree on isthe relatively pioneering nature of our undertaking, Although the ‘education of adults is as old as civilization, and adult education as an identifiable field of study and practice has celebrated its silver anniversary, the notion that there is a dlitinct and diferent technology for adult learning isin its very beginning stages of development. Consequently, what we know about how to help adults learn is largely the product of artistic experience, and our thearies about the phenomena of adult Teaming are highly speculative. Even the labels we give these phenomena and the categories we use to organize them (such as the typology of techniques in Chapter 11) are crude and constantly changing. We must await a good deal more research before ‘We can start talking about the scientife foundation of our technology of adult educa- tion, But for adventurous souls with a high tolerance for ambiguity, this isthe most exciting phase in the evolution of a new discipline. So our climate must be character- ized by a willingness to take risk, to experiment, to learn from our mistakes, and to construct theories that we know will have to be medifed. People who need pat an- swers, neat categories, and proved theories will be uncomfortable in the climate re- 4uired by this book—or, indeed, by the Fld of adult education as itis now. How the Inquiry Is Organized ‘This inquiry is organized into three parts, Part T attempts to bring out into the ‘open certain assumptions about the emerging role and technology of adult education ‘on which the rest of the book is based. Chapter 2 explores the meaning of “modern [practice.” Chapter 3 presents assumptions about who adult educators really are (i ‘cluding the assumption that there are many more of us than any statistics show), what ‘their mission is as social practitioners, and whet ther role is becoming and must be- come in our changing society. Chapter 4 i a highly personal statement of a beginning theory about adult learning for which Ihave borrowed the label “andragogy’” from my European colleagues. Iam not sure, of course, that all the assumptions in Part I are ‘ight. But they are there to be challenged, tested, and modified through the process of {yur inquiry. I can testify though, that they have made a difference in my own prac- tice, have given me the security of knowing what I am doing and why I am doing it, ‘and have brought a sense of consistency to my actions. art II constitutes a kind of how-to-do-it manual for applying the principles of andragogy to the organization and administration of comprehensive programs of adult learning. There s one chapter foreach phase ofthe andragogical proces: establishing ‘climate and structure, assessing needs and interests, defining purposes and objectives, ‘constructing a design, operating the program, and evaluating the results. This section is Uberally lustrated with examples of materials developed by variety of istitwtions, not all of which are equally congruent with andragogical principles fact tbat pre Preparing Younelf to Inquire 15 sents the reader with the opportunity to take a clinical rather than an imitative stance toward the ilustations. Part IIT traces the application of the same base process of adult education to the designing and managing of particular learning activities, in the andragogial sprit of ‘helping adults learn, in contrast tothe pedagogical sprit of teaching adults. Chapter 11 carries the full weight of this part of the inquiry Several appendices have been added to provide illustrative material that might interfere with the flow of the text if included in the chapters. Because andragogy is a ‘new word to American readers and has such a central place inthis book, and because cetymologiss tend to take aerial stance toward the formation of new linguistic forms, TThave included in Appendix A a reproduction of my correspondence with the publish- cers of Merriam-Webster dictionaries regarding “andcagogy.” Where to Start ‘There are several ways you can go about using this book as a resource for your ‘own self-directed inquiry, with you taking the initiative to get what wil be useful to yu rather than passively letting it tell you what it assumes you ought to know. ‘One way isto think of qusstions you would lke to get answers to or probleins you ‘would like to find better solutions to, You might fad that simply seanning the Table of Contents wil give you an overview ofthe kinds of information the book contains and will simulate questions or remind you of problems. Then foreach question ot problem pick a key word, nd it (or a smmonym) inthe Index, and turn to the pages inthe book indicated by the Index. For example, you might be curious to know what motivates adults to want to lear. If you look in the Index under “Motivation,” “Needs.” and “Participation,” you wil ind several places inthe book that deal with this question, Or ‘you might be having a problem getting people to come into your program. If you look im the Index under “Program, promotion of” or under “Promotion” you will find ‘whore in the book this problem i dealt with ‘Another way to we this book is a a resource for improving specific competenctes. ‘Tur to Appendix B and you will find a model of competencies for performing the roles of learning facilitator, program developer, and administrator. Instructions are in Appendix B for you to rate each competency in terms of it importance to your career goals as compared with its present level of development. By going through this self. diagnostic process you will emerge with a profile showing the gaps between where you are now and where you want tobe in regard to these competencies. You can select those competencies in which there are substantial gaps, pick out key words in each ‘competency statement, and look them up in the Index. You could, if you wanted to ‘construct a systematic learning plan for yourself, even draft a learning contract as described in Chapter 11. For Your Continuing Inquiry Knowles, Malcolm 8. Self-Directed Leaming: A Guide for Leamers and Teachers. Chicago: Association Press/Follet, 1975. National Center for Higher Elucation Management Systems. Adult Leaming Actici- fies: A Handbook of Standard Terminolosy for Classifying and Describing Leam- ing Activites of Adults, National Center for Education Statistics Handbook No. 9. ‘Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1979,The Emerging Role and Technology of Adult Education2 What Is Modern Practice? As I reflect back on nearly five decades as a worker in the vineyards of adult ‘education its clear to me that each decade witnessed more changes in the theoretical framework, organizational structure, personnel, clientele, methods, techniques, and ‘materials of our field than the preceding decade. Adult educators who usod the prac- ces inthe seventies that they had learned in the sities were ineffective and archale. "“Modera’” is thus a very temporary state. My own assessment is that the half-life of ‘current practices is about a decade that half of the practices become outdated over the course often years. So about half of this book had to be rewritten when I revised the 1970 edition. (One of the reassuring features of this process of change, however, is thatthe basic concepts and assumptions about adult earners and adult learning that have been lowing through our stream of thought for half a century have remained intact; it remarkable that the propositions made by Eduard C. Lindeman in 1696 in his The ‘Meaning of Adult Eduwation have been largely supported —and enriched—by experi- fence and research ever since. ‘What are the main ideas that are influencing or will influence—adull-edveation Practices in the eighties and nineties? I can observe several ia my Beld of vision, ‘A New Conception of the Purpose of Education Perhaps most fundamental of all the current thrusts on our thinking fs the re- ‘examination of our notions about the very purpose of education. The dominant con- ception about the mission of education untl recently has been to produce what in the Iiterature is most often called “the educated man.” In our era of Women's Lib we ‘would prefer the terminology “the knowledgeable person.” The faith has been that if wwe simply pour enough knowledge into people: 1) they will tum out tb be good people, and 2) they will know how to make use of their knowledge. This faith may hhave been justified, or atleast understandable, in an era of relative stability in which Jnowledge and techuology changed very gradually and in an era in which education ‘was considered a right and privilege for estentially an elite leisured class. Bot in an era of knowledge explosion, technological revolution, and a social policy of equality of educational opportunity, this definition ofthe purpose of education and ‘this faith in the power of transmitted knowledge are no longer appropriate. We now Jknow that in the world of the future we must define the mission of education as to 18 What Is Moder Practice? 19 produce competent people—people who are able to apply their knowledge under changing conditions; and we know that the foundational competence all people must have is the competence to engage in hfclong self-directed learning. We now know, also, that the way to produce competent people i to have them acquire their knowl. cig (and sls, understandings, attitudes, values, and interest) in the context ofits application. Hence the accelerating spread in the seventies and eighties of competency-based lucatio. (I tend to agree with Cyril Houle that a more descriptive label would be “‘performance-based education"; but itis “competency-based education” that has caught on.) Not only are competeney models begining to replace content transmission objectives as the basis for organizing curricula, but sll-paced individualized learning ‘modules (or learning packages) and learning contracts are replacing course outlines as the modes for structuring learning experiences. This new way of thinking about educa- tion has drastic implications fo the education of children and youth, but it seems to be especially relevant to a field of practice that has responsibilty to help adults live productively ina word of accelerating change. From a Focus on Teaching to a Focus on Learning A second thrust in our thinking isa shift in our research and practice away from 4 focus on teaching to a focus on learning. Until quite recently most educational ‘psychologists (with the exception of Piaget and Bruner) gave their attention almost ‘exclusively to studying the reactions of children to teaching, and schools of education ‘gave their attention primarily to training teachers how to control students’ reactions to ‘their teaching. With Piaget's and Bruner’s discoveries that chidren have a natural ability to conceptualize and Tough’ finding tha adults go through a natural sequence of steps when they undertake to learn something on thelr own, we began to be inter- ested in finding out more about the natural processes of learning —focusing on what happens inside the learner rather than on what the teacher does. Out ofthis line of thinking came a now emphasis on education as a process of facilitating self-directed earning and a redefinition of the role of teacher as a facilitator of self-directed learning and a resource to self-directed learners. Lifelong Leaming ‘A third thrust is the injetion into our thinking of the concept of lifelong learning 1s the organizing principle fo: all of education. The basic premise underlying this line of thought is that in a world of accelerating change learning must bea lifelong process. ‘Therefore, schooling must be concerned primarily with developing the slils of in. ‘quiry, and adult education mist be primarily concerned with providing the resources and support for sel directed inquires, New Delivery Systems Influenced strongly by af ofthese forces i a fourth thrust-—a concern for devel- oping new ways to deliver educational services to individuals so that they can go on Tearing throughout ther lives at their convenience in terms of time and place. the labels being given to these new delivery systems are “nontraditional study,” “exter:2 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION ral degrees,” “multimedia learning systems,” “community education,” “learning com- ‘muniis,” “earning resource centers.” “educational brokering agencies,” and “learn- ing networks.” These labels represent more than just a random series of innovative ‘experiments; they point to a new direction in our thinking about how and where Tearing takes place. Education no longer scen as the monopoly of educational institutions and their teachers. We now perceive that resources for learning are every- “wherein our environment and that people can get help in their learning, from a variety ‘of other people, The modem task of education, therefore, becomes one of finding new ‘ways to link learners with learning resources. For Your Continuing Inquiry Regarding Contemporary Change and the Future Bennis, Warren G., and Slater, Philip E. The Temporary Society. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Dacdalus Toward the Year 2000. Cambridge, Mass: Journal of the American Acad- iemy of Arts & Sciences, 1967, De Chardia, Pierre Teidhard. Future of Man. New York: Harper & Row, 1964. umazedier, J. Toward a Society of Leisure. New York: The Free Pres, 1967. Fromm, Erich. The Revolution of Hope: Tincard a Humanized Technology. New York: Harper & Row, 1968. Faller, R: Buckminster. Operating Manual for Spaceship Earth. Carbondale: Southern linois University Press, 1963 Gardner, John. Self Renewal: The Individual and the Innovative Society. New York: Harper & Row, 1963. arington, Fred H. The Future of Adulé Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977 Michael, Donald N, On Leaming to lan and Planning to Learns The Social Prychology Of Changing Toward Futuse-Responsive Societal Learning, San Francisco: Jossey- Bass, 1973, ‘The Unprepared Society: Panning for a Precarious Future. New York: Basic Books, 1968, O'Toole, James. Work, Leaming, and the American Futur. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. Rubin, Louis (ed). The Future of Education: Perspectives on Tomomow's Schooling Boston: Allyn & Bacon, 1975. Sarason, Seymour B. The Creation of Settings and the Future Societies. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972. Schon, Donald A. Beyond the Stable State. New York: W. W. Norton, 1971 ‘Toffr, Alvin, Future Shock. New York: Random House, 1970, Leaming for Tomomow: The Role of the Future in Education. New York Random House, 1974, Regarding the Purpose of Education Bergevin, Paul. A Philosophy for Adult Education. Now York: Seabury Press, 1967. Eble, Kenneth E. A Perfect Education. New York: Macmillan, 1968. Gessner, Robert (ed). The Demecratic Man: Selected Writings of Eduand C. Lindeman, Boston: Beacon Press, 1958. What Is Modem Practice? 21 Illich, 1van. Deschooling Sacisty. New York: Harper & Row, 1970, ___. Tools for Conviiaty. New York: Harper & Row, 1973. Kidd, j. Roby. Relentless Verity: Education for Being. Becoming Belonging. Syracuse: Pablications in Continuing Education, Syracuse University, 1974, Lindeman, Eduard G. The Meaning of Adult Education. Montreal: Harvest House, 1961. [Nash, Paul. Models of Man: Explorations in the Wester Educational Tradition. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1968. Nyberg, David (ed). The Phiasophy of Open Education, Boston: Routledge & Kegan aul, 1975, Postman, Neil, and Weingarner, Charles, Teaching ax a Subversive Activity. New York: Delacorte Press, 1983. Tolley, Willan P. The Adventure of Learning. Syracuse: Syracuse University Pres, 1977, Whitehead, Alfred N, The Ains of Education and Other Essays. New York: Macmil- lan, 1958. Regarding Competency-Based Education Davies, Ivor K. Competency-Based Leaming: Monagement, Technology, and Design. ‘New York: MeGraw-Hil, 1973 Grant, Gerald, et al. On Conspetence: A Critical Analysis of Competence-Based Re- forns in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979, Hall, G.E., and Jones, H, L. Competency-Basel Education: A Proces for the Improve- ‘ment of Education, Englewood Clifs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1975. Houston, W. Robert. Exploring Competency Based Educution. Berkeley, Ca: Me- CCutchan Publishing Co., 1964. Pinto, Patrick R, and Walker, James W. A Study of Professional Training and Devel- ‘pment Roles and Competences. Madison, Wis: American Society for Training and Development, 1978 ‘Torshen, Kay P. The Mastery Approach to Competency-Based Education. New York: ‘Academic Press, 1977. ‘Wodltsch, Gary A. Developing Generic Skills: A Model for Competency-Based General Education. Bowling Green, Ohio: Bowling Green State University, 1977 Regarding Learning Bruner, Jerome S, Toward a Theory of Instruction. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard Univer sity Press, 1966. ‘Cross, K. Patricia. Accent on Leaming. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1976. Furth, Hans G, Piaget for Teechers. Englewood Clif, NJ Prentice-Hall, 1970. ‘Gross, Ronald. The Lifelong Learner A Guide to Self-Decelopment. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1977 Hilgard, Emest B., and Bowes, Gordon H. Theories of Leaming, New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1966. Houle, Cyril O. Continuing Your Education. New York: McGraw Hil, 1964. ‘The Inquiring Mind Madison, Wis: Universty of Wisconsin Press, 1961 Tiowe, Michael J. A. Adult Leaming: Psychological Research ond Applications. New York: John Wiley & Sous, 1977 Kidd, J. Roby. How Adults Learn, New York: Association Press, 1973.22 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCKTION Knowles, Malcolm §, Self-Directed Leaming: A Guide for Leamers and Teachers. ‘Chicago: Association Fress/Follett Publishing Co., 1975, ‘The Adult Leamer: A Neglected Species. Houston, Texas: Gulf Publishing Co, 1978, Knox, Alun B, Adult Development and Leaming, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. Loevinger, Jane. Ego Development: Conceptions and Theories. San Francisco: Jossey- Buss, 1976, Maslow, Abraham. Motication and Personality. Now York: Harper & Row, 1970. ‘Rogers, Cal R. Freedom to Leam: A View of What Education Might Become. Colum- us, Ohio: Charles E, Merril, 1969, Silberman, Melvin L; Allender, Jerome S.; and Yanoft, Jay M. The Poychology of Open. Teaching and Learning: An Inquiry Approach. Boston: Lite, Brown, 1972. Tough, Allen. The Adult's Learning Projects. Toronto: Ontario Insitute for Studies in “Education, 1971. ‘Leaming Without a Teacher. Toronto: Ontario Institute for Studies in Edea- ‘ion, 1967. Regarding Lifelong Education Cropley, A. J. Lifelong Education: A Psychological Analysis. New York: Pengamoa Press, 1977. Dave, R. H. Lifelong Education and School Curriculum. Mono. No. 1. Hamburg, Ger- many: UNESCO Institute for Education, 1973. (ed). Reflections on Lifelong Education and the School. Mono. No. 3. Ham burg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for Education, 1975. Foundations of Lifelong Education. New York: Pergamon Press, 1976. Draves, Wiliam. The Free University: A Model for Lifelong Leaming, Chicago: Asso- ciation Press/ Follett, 1980. Faure, Edgar, etal. Learning to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorow. Paris: UNESCO, 1972. Hesburg, T. My Miller, P. A; and Wharton, C. R, Jr. Pattems for Lifelong Leaming. San Francisco: Josey-Buss, 1973. Husen, Torsten. The Leaming Socity. New York: Harper & Row, 1974 Jessup, Frank W. (ed). Lifelong Leaming: A Symposium on Continuing Education, ‘New York: Pergamon Press, 1969. LLengrad, Paul, An introduction to Lifelong Learning. London: Croom Helm, 1975. ‘Obliger, John, and McCarthy, Colleen. Lifelong Leaming or Lifelong Schooling? Sya- use, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1971. Retetson, Richard, et al. Lifelong Leaming in America. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979, Regarding New Delivery Systems Bailey, 8. K., and Macy, F. U. Regional Leaming Services: A Design for Educational Flexibility, Syracuse, NY. Policy lnsttute of Syracuse University Research Cor- poration, 1973 Basking, Samuel (ed). Organizing Nontraditional Study. New Directions for Intitu- tional Research, No, 4. San Francis: Jossey-Bass, 1974. Bette, Neal R, Individualising Education by Leaming Contracts. New Diections for Higher Education, No. 10. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975. What Is Modem Practice? 23 (Chickering, Arthur W. An Introduction to Experiential Learning, New Rochelle, NX.: CChuoge Magazine Press, 1977 Commision on Non-Traditional Study. Dicersity by Design, San Francisco: Jossey- Bas, 1973, (Cross, K: Patricia, The Missing Link: Connecting Adult Leamers to Leaming Re- sources. Princeton, NJ: College Board Publications, 1978, (Cross, K. Patricia, and Valley, John BK. (eds). Banning Non-Traditional Programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bast, 1974 Gould, Samuel B,, and Cross K. Patricia. Explorations in Non-Traditional Study. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1972 Harman, David (ed). Erponding Recurent and Nonformal Education, New Directions for Higher Education, No. Id. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1976. Hartuet, RT, etal. The British Open University inthe United States. Princeton, NJ Educational Testing Service, 1974 Heffernan, James M.; Macy, Francis U; and Vickers, Donn F. Eucational Brokering: ‘A New Service for Adult Leamers. Syracuse, N.Y: National Center for Educt- tional Brokering, 1976 Houle, Cyril O, The Extemal Degree. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1973 Keeton, Mortis T., and Tate, Pamela J. A Boom in Experiential Learning. New Ditec- tions for Experiential Learning, No. 1. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1978, Keeton, Moris, etal. Experiential Learning: Rationale, Chamactenstics, and Asses ‘ment. San Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1976. Miller, Ronald, et al. Planning for a Statewide Educational Information Network Princeton, NJ: College Board Publications, 1978, Milton, Ohmer. Altematives to the Traditional. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1973, Perry, Walter. The Open Unicersity, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1977. Rust, Val D. Altematices in Education: Historical und Theoretical Perspectives, Beverly Hill, Cal Sage Publications, 1977 Sarason, Seymour B., etal. Human Services and Resource Networks, San Francisco Jossey-Bass, 1977. Sarason, Seymour B., and Lorentz, Elizabeth. The Challenge ofthe Resource Exchange ‘Network, Sn Francisco: fossey-Bass, 1979.3 What Is the Role and Mission of the Adult Educator? What Is an Adult? Tam often asked, especially by teachers in high schools, community college, universities, and professional schools, “How do you define ‘adult’ when you talk about adult education?" ‘There are, of course, many definitions in current usage. There is the dictionary definition: “fully developed and mature: GROWN-UP" (Webster's New Collegiate Dictionary, 1973, p. 17). But ths isn’t very helpful in the absence of definitions of “fully developed.” “mature,” and “grown-up.” Then there isthe physiological defiai- ‘ton: achievement of the ability ta reproduce —which varies from era to ora cultute to culture, and individual to individual (and probably from sex to sex). And there are various legal defiitions—voting age, driving age, drinking age, juvenile delinquent versus adult criminal age, age of consent, ancl the like. But there is a wide variation among governments and eras in these definitions, as well From the point of view of determining what individuals should be treated as adults educationally, it sooms tome the two critical questions that should be asked are: 1) who behaves as an adult—who performs adult roles? (a socal definition) and also 2) whose self-concept is that ofan adult? (a psychological denition). Both questions can rr——“C“ECD y Gaal toalcialinsanaidenrenteniltr-(revalnclaiiiimsaose- parent, Tepanubleciiuanssacandeetne, Applying the scot etiam pacton adulto the-cxtont thetthot-indivilaslperewives herself or himselLto-bossontally ‘We have ahaldover rom lng tradition, however, that complicates ths picture, ‘hich i that historically the role of stant has been defined as a role appropriate for childhood and youth. Accordingly, many of the polices, rule and regulations, en- tuance requirements, nancial arrangement, physical faites, eutriul, instructional strategies, and graduation requsements of our educational iestttions are gered to the characteristics of children and youth. As adults have returned to academia in increasing numbers to study parttime while working or homemaking falltime, they have experienced culture shock in being treated as chdren. Furthermore, even children ad youth are likely tobe adult to some degrée. A high school student who is working parttime or taking cae of the houschold of an ill parent or editing a school newspaper i performing adult roles toa degree. And many ole and Mission of the Adult Educator 25 youth are taking a high degree of responsibilty for their own lives outside of school and resent being given lite responsbilty for their lives in school. What Is Adult Education? People have ite dificuty getting a clear pict of what elementary education is (iti what goes on in the red brick building ith Inte children) or what secondary education is (itis what goes on with adolescents in those bigger bulldings near the football stadiui) or what higher education i (is what goes on in those enormous college and university complexes, with youth). But adult education is much harder to picture. It takes place in all sorts of buildings and even in no buil all sorts of people, has no set curriculum, an ton,” but such things as ings at all, involves fen int even labeled “adult educa ‘manpower developinent,” “develop- “continuing education,” “Mfelong educa- tion” and many thes ‘One problem contributing to the confusion i that the term “adult edseaton” i ued with at east thee diferet meanings Ins bondest sense, ete series 9 processthe proces of adult learning’ In tis eoer Fancoepeses waceall a ‘experiences of mature men and women by which they acquire new knowadge, under. Standing sly tudes fntersts or valus It isa process tha sed by ala for Shir seléleveopment, oth alone and with others and used by nos ds forthe growth and development of th employee, member, and ents Ti an edvetonal proces that soften used ln combination With production process, Political process or service poceses Ths more fechnkal mening, “adult edocaton” esclbes a set of organized acti eared on by a wie arity of institutions forte accomplhentof specie ‘educational objectives. In this sense it encompi the organized classes study eo planned reading progras pided discon, conferences i SUutes, workshops and correspondence counes fn which Amerson alls engage ‘A thd manag cumbia al these proces and acts io th deg of & soviet ot Held of soil pice. ln Dis sas “adlt evento” bmg: taster Sips dart etl ate all Is, institutions, si esciitions concemmed {IR Te ecation of ss ard porcine then a orsig tad he coon eas a ig the etiod’ and materals oF adult learning. extending the oppartaniGcs for acs ara, god adearong the general vel of our culty ‘Another problem contig to the confusoa i tat education 6 sch a relatively ew Bel of scl practic tht ts sil inthe process of forming an Wen that separate from youth education, socal work couseling and related Bele of social protice_Alliough the idusion of aduls as en acuta fanetion since ancient-times-itwas-not-antl the founding of the american Assosiation for Adult Education 1086 that adult edueaon accel of 2 dlnated eld tis county Soce tien the Bold hasbeen growing and changing so dynamically that thas Been almstimponle to keep op wih stats ort charactor, Indes Stonally sponsored adit education ithe fastest growing pect of our moa educa tional ntrprie ia the last quater ofthis century. And i 8 oni ot only hain tally—reachng a greater ind greater proportion of our adult popuaton, bit ‘erteally ting over isttutns that hefetotore served only yous Le any colleges ed wniverties ad in most eamamunycallges, over hal of Oe enrolment ar by26 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION adults who are working fulltime and studying part-time, and those institutions are becoming essentially adult-educationa institutions. Who Is an Adult Educator? Many more people are adult educators than know they are. If “adult educator” is defined as one who has some responsibilty for helping adults to lear, look at bow ‘many people in this country are entitled to bear ths hallmark: "hundreds of thousands of program chairmen, education chairmen, and discus- ‘sion leaders in such voluntary assoclations as women's clubs, men's clubs, ser- ‘vice organizations, religious laymen's organizations, PTA’s, professional soci- ties, civie clubs, labor unions, trade associations farmers” organizations, and the like: —tens of thousands of executives, traning officers, supervisors, and foremen in business end industry, government, and social agencies; thousands of teachers, administrators, and group leaders n such educational institutions as public schools, colleges and universities, ibrares, and commer- ial schools: —hundreds of program directors, writers, and editors in the educational aspects ‘of such mass media as newspapers, magazines, radio, and television; =a few score full-time, professional adult educators who have been trained spe- ‘ically for this vocation and who are making their permanent career in it. But relatively few of this vast corps are conscious that they are performing the increasingly precisely defined role of “adult educator.” Few of them are aware that there isa growing body of knowledge and techniques that they can leara to help them perform this role better. The reasons for this condition are not hard to surmise. In the case of the myriad of voluntect leaders, the assignment i todo a specific job in a nite period of time: “to serve as the program chairman of the XYZ elub for one year.” In the case of the executives and supervisors the assignment tends to be in terms of particular processes in particular companies: “sales manager, Parts Divison.” In the cease of teachers the assignment tends to be in terms of subject matter: “instructor of mathematics.” The fact is, though, that to the extent that all of these assiguments involve helping other adults to become more competent, they have a common ele- ‘ment-—what we might call an adulteducation component. And to this extent all the people carrying these kinds of assignments are partly adult educators. What Does an Adult Educator Do? ‘What are the functions an adult educator performs? To answer this question its probably necessary to distinguish among several levels of the adulteducaton role [At the fringlin level are the teachers, group leaders, and supervisors who work directly with adult learners on a face-to-face buss. Among their functions are: 1) helping the earners diagnose their neds for particular learnings within the scope of the given situation (the diagnostic function: 2) planning withthe learners a sequence of experiences that wll produce the desired learnings (the planning functivn): 3) cre- ating conditions that wil cause the learners to want to lear (the motivational fune- tion}; 4) selecting the mos effective methods and techniques fr producing the desred Jearaings (the methodological Fintion); 5) providing the human and material resources Fole and Mission of the Adult Educator 27 necessary to produce the desred learnings (the resource Function); 6) helping the learners measure the outcomes of the learning experiences (the evaluative function). At the programdirector level are the committee chairmen, training directors, ‘evening-school principals, extension deans, and other administrators who are respon sible for planning and operating broad programs consisting ofa variety of adull-edvca- tional activites, Their finetiors include: 1) asessing the individual, institutional, and societal needs for adult learning relevant to their organizational settings (the diagnostic function); 2) establishing and managing an organizational structure for the effective development and operation of an adulteducation program (the organizational func {uon); 3) formulating objectives to meet the assessed needs and designing a program of activities to achieve these objectives (the planning function) 4) instituting and super- vising those procedures required for the efective operation of a program, including recruiting and training leaders and teachers, managing facisties and administrative processes, recruiting stedents, francing, and interpreting (the administrative functor 5) assessing the effectiveness ofthe program (the evaluative function, ‘At the professioal-leaderthp level are the small group of career adult educators who are responsible for such functions as developing new knovedge, preparing mate- Tals, inventing new techniques, providing leadership for coordinative organizations, training adult-education worke, and generally promoting the further development of the field of adult education, What Is the Adult Educator's Mission? At first sight the mision ofthe adult educator ses imple to operate sce ecucatoalseovises for mature ron and women, sues feng defen tr of the numbers and exthusm othe partipant, Bit a reading ofthe history of Ie adult cation movement ints county indies tat he min fal eSuctos ir imuch greater than this In ft, is Mion an best be dsr nea fo Suthying thro dtinet set of eed dnd Gale) teehee aoa a ee 3 the needs and foal of 14.3) the needs aed gals of society. ‘The Needs and Goals of individuals ‘The primary and immediate mision of every adult educator isto help individuals satisfy thei needs and achieve heir goals Usually if an individual is asked what these are, he or she will respond in terms ofthe aequistion of some specific competence, such as “being able to speak ia public” oF “Knowing mathematics” Or the person might go one level of abstraction higher to such objectives as "being able to make more money” or “being able to get along with people bette.” These, to be sure, are ipor- tant incentives to lesmning, but in this book they are treated as “interests” rather than “needs,” a distinction that will he discussed moro fully in a later chapter. Interests are relevant to the adult educator's technology, but io telation to this mision we are talking about something different and more fundamental—indeed, about sofnething of which individuals are les conscious than they are of their interests. We are talking bout the more ultimate needs and goals of human Fulfllment, ‘One such need can be stated negatively as the prevention of obsolesc need ts alive today were educated in theis youth ‘ocording to the doctrine 4s primarily «function of youth. [Purpose of education i to supply individuals in thei youth with all the knowledge28 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION le ey i oa ae or the eof ks. at ily accdlftag pae of change nour sooty Tat proved ths doctrine to be no longer ‘ald Fats eamed in yout have become Insfklnt and In many instanes actly true; and skis eared in youth have become outmoded by new technologies. Con- sequently, ale years Become years of creping obaciescenoe in wor, ply, tn tnertanding of sll and in understanding of the world “The protlem is that education tnt yet perceived asa flong process, so that we ae sil taught in our youth only svat we ought to know then and not how 0 Heep finding out. Ose mis Iteducatr then, canbe sated postwsly 2s bling Indus o develop the ate dat leaning iw ifelong paces and to equi the Elo selislcste learning. In this sents, one OF The tests of SveryAng the adult ‘cat does—whather ft Be {0 conduct a course in batmakng humantlatons Wworhop, ora staf mestngi the exten to which the partcant leave a given txperince with heightened curly and with increased ality to carry onthe ova Tearing? Another ulate need of india i to achieve complete self-identity hough the development of Deir fll potenti. Increasing evidence appearing inthe pycholopea erature that complete selldevelopment sa universal man need and that at esta feeling of movement in this ection a condtion of mental health A HH Malow, for example, arangs human needs in the Nerarchisl order shown i Eshbit 1 Exhibit MASLOW'S HIERARCHY OF HUMAN NEEDS Masiow emphasizes that the ‘need for sell-actualization 's a heathy person's prime matvation (On the whole an individual cannot satisfy any leveh Unlese needs below are satstied, Sell-actualizaon means ‘Actuaizaton| Most basic needs have to do with survival physically nd psychologically. SF ba no i i, Wyo "ect yao ne cosas rts Ph of aca te ntigescid oa eein ore nih erway meme Sep Ces OSD SiS NH Nat Sega ean ‘Role and Mision of the Adult Educator 29 He then proposes the flowing principles of operation for these neds: 1) cation for the needs on each level, starting withthe lowes, frees a person fo levels of qalfeation; 9 tose persons in Whom a ned fas been satisfied are best ‘supped to dea wih deprvatons of Dat weed ie Ture; 3) Nelly pens ave és shave been met so Ht they are principally motivated by their thelr highest potentialities? This concept smplicr that the adult fuator’s ison isto help individuals lam what i required for gratification of heir needs at whi 1 they are struggling IF te are hungry, we must help them learn what wil get them Foo: i they are well fe, sao, loved, and estemed, we must help them explore undeveloped capacities and become their fll selves. ‘A thid ultimate need cf individuals sto mature. Harry Overstreet equated ma- tury with “linkages with He" as Follows: [A mature person isnot one who has come to a certain level of achievement and stopped there. He is raler a maturing pesson—one whose linkages with Wife are ‘constantly becoming stronger nd richer because his atitudes are suchas to encour sage their growth... A mute person, for example, not ane who knows a large ‘number of facts. Rather, he i one whose mental habits are such that he grows in knowledge and the wise we of ie ‘The idea of maturity asa goal of education must be defined more specifically than this, however, if itis to serve asa guide to continuous learning. Out of the psycholog. teal literature comes the nction that there are soveral dimensions of the maturing process, each with its own unique eyele of development. Ifthe really eritical dimen sions of the maturing process could be identified, then adult educators would have some reliable yardsicks against which to measure the accomplishment of their mission. [Asa starting point, the fifteen dimensions in Exhibit 2 are nominated for consideration. (Note that these dimensions describe directions of growth, not absolute states to be achieved.) Exhibit 2 DIMENSIONS OF MATURATION From rowa 1. Dependence SS = ——» Autonomy, 2, Pasahty > petivty 3 Subjectiiy __——_. Objectuty 4 Ignorance. Enlightenment 5 Small abies Large abilities 8. Few responses ——— pany responsbities 7. e 2 Narrow interests, > Broad interests Selena ener Aviary) Seltsejection > Seltacceptance 10. Amorphous seltidentty integrated soltientity 114 Focus on particulars. Focus on principles 12, Superticial conces. > Deep concerns 18, levitation —__ = Originaity 14, Need for certainty > Tolerance for ambiguity 16, impulsiveness. > Rationality (ow Yor Have a ers. 2rd, 197) ‘any A Greswow Te tauronina(ice von WW hore Sel ga80. THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION Perhaps the meaning ofthis conception of dimensions of maturing ean be made ‘clearer by bref elaborations on them. 1, From dependence toward autonomy. AI! human beings enter this world in a com- pletely dependent condition; their every need must be fulilled by someane else. One ‘Of the central quests of their lives i for increasing sel-diection (although the opposite ‘of dependence in our complicated world may aot be independence so much as self directing interdependence). The fact is that every experience we have in life tends to alfect our movement from dependence toward autonomy; and to the extent that a {given experience helps us to move away from dependence it ean be said to be edvca- tional, while to the extent that it tends to keep us dependent or make us more depeo- dent, it can be said to be anticducational. Think of the effects on this dimension of ‘maturing ofthe traditional conceptions of the roles of teacher, parent, minister, boss, and leader, which tend to put the individual in an essentially dependent role. 2. From passivity toward activity, Throughout childhood individusls who are maturing become increasingly active in exploring the world about them and tend to engage in an expanding number ofits activities. In adulthood the emphasis i Lely to shift from quantitative activity to qualitative activity, but whether on a quahtative basis oF a quantitative basis, maturing individuals tend to be participating individuals. And the way they are taught to participate in school and in other educative experiences— ‘whether they are put in the role of passive recipients of knowledge or in that of active Inquires after knowledge—will greatly affect the direction and speed of their move- ‘ment in this dimension of growth, 3. From subjectivity toward objecticity. It & @ universal characteristic of infancy that the world revolves around “me,” takes on its meaning from “my” perception oft, and [s subject to “imy” commands. One of the most dificult adjustments people have to make in fe isto mave themselves out of the center of the universe and to discover where they really Bt into it. The extent to which each experience in life helps ther to look at themselves realistically, and to maintain self-xespect in the proces, i certainly ‘one of the tests ofits educational quality 4. From ignorance toward enlightenment, Its in tis area of maturing that schooling thas traditionally placed its emphasis, But are we clear about what “enlightenment’ really &? Certainly it can't be knowing everything —the volume of modern knowledge 's too vast for any individual to encompass it- In his Some Things Worth Knowing, ‘Stuart Chase poses this as one of the most pressing problems our civilization must solve, and he suggests one possible line of attack. He proposes that every individual should be perceived as being both a specialist and a generalist. As specialists, people reed to master deeply the knowledge and skils of their vocation, But as generalists they need to master and keep up to date on a core of knowledge from all those specialities that bear on the practical problems of hfe—thus suggesting a kindof “core ceurriculum’ for adult education, which would consist ofa distillation ofthe essential clements from every discipline that all citizens should Kuuow. Only through such a ‘process as this, Chase argues, can true enlightenment be achieved. 5. From small abilities toward large abilities. There is a tendency in human nature, ‘once we have learned to do something well, to take pride in that ability and to rest on the laurels it wins us. Since each newly developed ability tends to be learned in its simplest form, this tendency can result in individuals becoming frozen ito the lowest, level oftheir potential performance. A skilful facitator of learning helps each individ- tual to glimpse higher possible levels of performance and to develop continually larger ablities Role and Mission of the Adult Educator 31 6. From few responsibilities tavard many responsibilities. Another curious tendency in human nature, especially among parents teachers, and supervisors, is to underestimate the amount of responsibilty a child, student, and subordinate can cay. And so the maturation process is frequently retarded by the parent retaining responsibilty the child is prepared to take over, the teacher making decisions the students are ready to make, and the supervisor carying functions the subordinates are ready to have dele- gated to them, 7. From namow interests towel broad interests. The child's world starts witha field of, interests that is bounded by the enib, and one significant sign ofa person's continuing ‘maturation isthe extension of this feld in ever-widening circles lor the rest of life ‘Anything that causes an individual's field of interests to hecome Bxated within a given circle or to recede to staller circles is interfering with an important dimension of ‘maturation. Ths dimension hus special relevance to work with alder people, in which ‘he myth i widely held that is natural for interests to diminish with age, Gerontolo- ists who have made the oppzsiteassumption-—that older people are able to develop, new interests and are healthier if they do—have had spectacular results. 8, From selfishness toward allmism. We come into the world in a state of total self ceenteredness, and one of our central tasks for the rest of our lives is to become increasingly able to care about others. Conditions that induce a sprit of rivalry toward others rather than helpfuloess toward others—such as the competition for grades pro- ‘mated by traditional schooling—interfere with maturation in this dimension. Inciden- tally, there are some peychistists (eg, Franz Alexander) who hold that altruism isthe single best eriterion of mental health. 9. From sel.njecton toward slf-acoeptance. While chikrens ist impression of them- selvesis probably that they ave kings or queens of the mountain, they son learn that much of their natural behavior (making oie, geting int things, not eating correctly, tc) is “bad.” And so thor atitude quckly changes fom one of self adulation to one of selfrejection. But mature persons are those who accept themselves as persons of worth (whic, incidentally, sa prerequisite to being abe to accept others as having worth). And so th extent to which subsequent life eaperiences help the individual move from selfejection toward selfacceptance will largely determine whether an individul matures inthis dimension of aot. 10. From amorphous selfidentty ouard integrated self dentity, ik Etisam has pro- vided the deepest insights concerning this dimension of maturation, mapping outs course through the “eight age of man,” at fllows 2) Orl-senory in which the ase sv is rust mists 1) Muscalaraal in which he Base lus i atonony vs, shane «) Locomotion, whch the bak ise ntitive oul 4) Lateney, nich the hae te nty vs, nero €) Pabery and adcescence in whch the base sue Is entity ve. oe contin. 1) Young adultos, in which the base Sue intimacy vs. lan 8) Aduthod, in which th base es generative. tagalon 4) Matar in which he bate egintgity ve. dsp? Although no stage is completly fulilled at any point in lfe—and we continue to actualize each stage further thoughout life—if development in a given stage is mostly {2 Ergon, Chinood ard Sel ow Yo WW Han, 950) . 279 Sao Katy and oie Cyn, mtaraioel Gores Pan, Peyehoogee uae VO Ho. GRD,92 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION frustrated, an individual is likely to remain fixated at that stage. Erkson's concepts of ‘the process of identity formation are far too complex and provocative to be described in this book. But perhaps this taste is sufiient to indicate that the dinension of ‘maturation from “I don't know who I am toward “I know clearly who I am is a delicate and crucial one. LL. From focus on particular toward focus on principles. To a child’ mind each object 's unique and each event is unconnected with any other. The discovery of principles ‘enabling a person to group objects and connect events isthe essence ofthe process of Inquiry. One ofthe tragic aspocts of traditional pedagogy is that it has so often imposed principles on inquiring minds and has therefore denied them the opportunity to mature in the ability to discover principles. 12, From superficial concems toward deep concems. The young child's world is an existential world; all that matters is the enjoyment of pleasure and the avoidance of pain at the moment. One dimension of snaturing consists of yaining perspective on ‘what mattered more deeply in our past and is likely to matter more deeply in our future—and, having accomplished this feat, gaining perspective on what matter in the pst and future of others. Too often this process is retarded by society's tying to ‘impose its deep concerns on us before we have discovered our own, 13, From imitation toward originality. The child's fest technique of learning and adapt- ing is that of imitation. The adult world has long tended to accept this method of earning as not only natural but best, and has geared much of its educational sytem to ‘produce conformity through imitation. The consequence has been the retardation of ‘generations of human beings in their maturation toward the more self-fulfilling end of this dimension, originality. 14, From the need for certainty toward tolerance for ambiguity. The basic insecurity of the child's world imposes a deep need for certainty. Only as our experiences in life provide us with an increasing sense of security and selconfidence will we be able to ‘move in the direction of a mature tolerance for ambiguity—a prerequisite for survival in a world of ambiguly. 15, From impulsiveness toward rationality. Traditionally, the naturally impulsive be- Ihavors of chldeen have been controlled through systems of reward and punishment — ‘with emphasis on the latter. Too often the consequence of this policy is reactions of irrationality rebellion, withdrawal, and fantasy. True maturing toward rationality ro ‘quires selfunderstanding and self-control of one's impulses. Perhaps there are other dimensions of the maturing process that ought to be ‘cided or that ought to replace some of these dimensions, and certainly, untl further research is done on this important aspect of human development, we shall have to regard any such formulation as highly tentative. Meantime, the general notion that one ‘of the missions of the adult educator {to assist individuals to continue a snaturing ‘process throughout life provides some useful guidelines for the development of a ‘sequential, continuous, and integrated program of lifelong learning. ‘A few implications ofthis multidimensional theory of maturation can be suggested to lustrate this point 1) Every educational activity provides an opportunity for growth by each individ- ual in seceral dimensions. For example, although focusing. on stimulating. growth ‘toward increased enlightenment, a course on world affairs can be planned s0 as to stimulate growth toward greater independence of thought, broader interests, greater ‘objectivity, and tolerance for ambiguity. Role and Mission of the Adult Educator 33 2) The dimensions of maturation tend to be interdependent, so that changes in ‘one dimension have an effect on other dimensions. For example, considerable growth toward enlightenment might be produced by methods (such as those used in the traditional lecture course) which cause the student to become increasingly dependent fon the teacher. Although choice may sometimes have to be made between such values, a traly artistic teacher will uy to induce postive growth in all dimensions, 3} All human beings move on a scale from zero to infinity in each dimension throughout if, and tend to iocorporate learning from a given experience in proportion to its relevance to their stage of development on the scale at that moment. For exam- ple, ina group of fifteen adult students, the individuals would be ready to take teen Aiferent degrees of responsiblity fo their own learning, and if the learning experience {s to be optimally weful, provision must be made for this range of differences No doubt other ultimate needs could be identified, but these serve to illustrate the point thatthe adult educators inssiom in helping individuals far more complex and significant than it might appear on the surface. Peshaps the clasic summary of individ ual needs and goals that define the adult educators’ mission and challenge their arti ‘contained in these words of Eduard Lindeman In what areas do most people appear to find ife's meaning? We have only one ragmnatc guide: meaning rust reste i the things for which people tive, he goals ‘hich they set for themsees, thet wants, noeds, desires and wishes. Even here our etiteron is applicable oaly to those whose Ines are already dedicated to exprations and ambitions which belong to the higher levels of human achievement... Viewed ftom the standpomt of au education, such pervnalties seem to want snong other things, intelligence, power, selfcxpresson, eedom, creat, apprecain, e0jy ‘ment, fellowship, Gr, stated in terms of the Greek ideal, they are searchers after the 90d lf. They want to count for something; hey want ther experiences to be vivid and mearingfl; they want tei talents tobe tllzed; they want to know Beaty and Joy: and they want all of thse realizations oF thir total personalities to be shared a fommunites of fellowship. Brey they want to improve themselves this their realitie and primary aim. But they want aio to change the scl orders tat vital personalities wil be creating anew environment in which thelr aspeations may be roped expresied* ‘The Needs and Goals of Institutions Much adult education takes place under the auspices of insittions, and adult scators are employed by astitutions. Thess institutions too, have needs and gous that help to defite the ad edcator's miso. Atleast thee sets of thee ced ened gals canbe served nd in se ways served bet by adult-edcsioal means: 1. The development of individuals in the institutions constituency in the diction of the incttation’s gus Jor thon. Most insliutions with adults in thelr constvencis have some sort Frage of the hind of people they want to infloence their members to become, For example, labor ions want thir mernbers to understand and support the cause of unionism, appreciate its historical ole, purtcipteefetvely in te avis oftheir lo, soderstand thr leg ight and obligations, exert nflorace on public policy, be wise consumers, ard enjoy the cult ie of their communities. Relygous fnssations have various ways of Uveribng ther goals for ther members bt they Sesuné© Undaran, Te Meng of At Econ (dona Haved Howe, 1869) p12. By3A. THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION tend to converge on a conception of “commited” members who believe and lve according tothe ereed propounded by the Inston. A public schooTs mage for adult constituents is likely to he flavored by such symbols as “responsible eiizes “ficient worker” or “good parent that ofa university, by “intellectual leader” oF “profesional leader"; that of a trade association, by “industri statesman; and soon. Trstitutional leaders expect adult-edvstional programs to help to produce thse kinds of qualities in thei constituents, and they evaluate the programs a least partly on the bas of ther eflectiveness in doing 50. Even in institutions whose constituents are primarily children and youth, adult ‘education is perceived as an instrament for helping them improve the quit of ed- tation of the young. Public schols, for example, are devoting increasing energy to Siproving the educative quality ofthe home environments of thet children through ‘courses, study groups, and lecture series on child development and home and family. living for parents, parental counseling, and extracurricular activites for parents and lildren together. Many voluntary youth agencies such as the Boy Seout, Ci Sout, YMCA and YWCA, Sunday schools, and 4-H chs, perceive the tring of volunteer adult leaders asthe ental element in their accomplishing their character building sls with youth "Not infrequently the needs and interests of individuals come into conflict with the needs and interests of thee institutions, as when « member develops an independence of thought that contradicts the establshed doctrine ofthe institution In sch eases the ful educator may have to make a choice as to which mision to serve: helping individuals to grow of helping the istiution to survive. Increasingly, however, aul educators are resolving such colts between education and indoctrination by taking ‘he istitution as their cient and helping its leaders to cngae in a proces af ef study, a1 reult of which the institutions educational goals are often broadened to provide ‘wider ares of freedom for individual growth 2. The improvement of institutional cpertion. A growing number of istitutions— cexptcilly in industry and goverament have come to recognize that one of the mast efficient means for Increasing the effectiveness of thei operation i the conning teucation of thee employees Tis recognition has reached sich a point in industry, in fact as to move two serous students ofthe phenomenon to deve the educational activities of American industry as a third great educational force on a par with our Publi school and higher-education systems? ‘What industey has discovered & equally applicable to every other institution — namely, that adult education proceses are basic tools of organizational growth and development. These processes are now wed routinely forthe orientation of new ex ployees, for on-thejob traning in techaieal sls, for the preparation of personnel for ‘advancement, for executive development, for supervisory taining, forthe improve- tment of interpersonal relations within the organization, and forthe improvement of the insitoton’s public relations. Inereaingly these same process are coming to be used forthe planning and guiding of Yong run institutional change. ‘One of the missions of adult educators, thn, isto help institutions become in- ‘ereasngy effective as institutions. In this ems, institutions are their clients a well as "Nol lak and Haro 8, Soan, Clason in fhe Factores (Rute, MJ: Fitagh Dikneon uars 158) Role and Mission of the Adult Educator 35 Individuals and part of ther ati helping varius target populations within inte tions—gpvering boards, admstrator, siporsisrs, departmental personne, erm ber, andthe lke—to lean new behavior that wil prodace stronger nsttasons Tp carrying out this ison adult edseators may take the rele of direct isractor or trainer, bt more fequeady their role wil be that of plane, consultant of “change agent—a specialized ole to which modem adul-oducation literature devoting ‘creasing tention. 8. The deoelopment of public understanding and inoleement. An institton can bad Sep eat ee outage io Type of sales approach or though invatng is public nthe serious study of public needs problems ol goals. ‘Aldiough each approach has place, the adult educational approach tends tp: duce deeper and inre lasting understanding wn caring Tn he cae of public schoo example, ition that although one ofthe frst contributions of adult education was the education ofthe pu about choo’ dcaion® dhs potently valuable ction was largely mefected unt the pst ow years During the year folloing World War I, when expanding earallment end Ting cots were enuning schon! budgets to be scrutinized erally by the various watchdogs ofthe publi treasures, school superintendents ina numberof ee foul that their most effective supporters came from amu the ale cites tho had participated in their evening programe for alls But the Seattle Pile Schon proved ina dramas experiment 157-58 thal adult edvaton proces were even sore oectve in mobiing pbc support when used del for is purpose. Aer 4 sens of setbacks in schoollevy etctons in the carly 1950s i spite of allout poblicty campaigns, a Citizens School Lvy Commitee ia 1957 oranied eye roam of etizen conferences and study groups in which formation aout Une nos fed program ofthe sconle wx presented and essed, When the sco levy was sain presented to the people i March, 1958, # was approved a rst erated largely tothe educational approuch taken? The periodical erature of adult ection contains other reports of the tse of sdalt-edvaton process to prodoce pbll understanding of such eves insite 8s the armed services (exhibits documentary fms guided tours), universes (pubis Tectres,eltral events, ein advisory council. the March of Dimes (whic pres cesed ts natonside campus of Sale vacenaon wih community by comm fveatinal progr) and the United Slates National Commision for UNESCO (which sponsored rationwidectizen discussion programs) Jn general, hse progam succeeded in producing el public understanding othe extent that they were nfo, ‘native rater Dun ladctiatonal and tothe extent that Hey volved lene fn ‘meaningful participation in the work ofthe institution. Tes legtinatemision of adult educators to se thei at to bring abot a better andertaning of thet insti, but this sa mtsion sequing He highest ea conmiment, forthe line of demaration between education and propa lea ne ove. Zayas aarti enteint tn noun centres Sai erywmicaareas asian seed aaa 1958) pp. 61-69, . oneness,36 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION ‘The Needs and Goals of Society Every society has used adult-education processes to continue the development of the kindof eters vse to be require forthe maintenance and progres of that society; and the perception of the kind of adult required i different foreach society. For example, the perception in Soviet society is quite different from the perception in ‘Western society; the perception in urban society is diferent from that ia rual society, the perception in Jewish society is different in some respects from the perception in ‘Catholic or Protestant societies; the perception in professional society is different from {hatin industrial society and so on. The challenging fact is that adult educators are the agents of soveral different societies whose needs they are expected to serve simulta- ‘neously. And one of the measures oftheir artistry i the extent to which they are able to understand and serve these differing needs. But there are more general nceds of American society, perhaps even of world society, that define an even broader mission for the adult educator. ‘A society whose central dynamic change—economic and technological, politcal, social, cultural, and even theological—requires a citizenry that is able to’ change.” ‘A society whose clements—geographic, economic, intllectual—are becoming in- creasingly complex and interdependent requires a citizenry with broader knowledge, less parochial values, more tolerant attitudes, and greater kil in human relations than past societies demanded. ‘A society in which machinery is doing more and more ofthe work of man requires 1 citizenry capable of performing increasingly complicated occupational roles and ‘capable of creatively using more leisuretime. ‘A society in which gaps between people (youth vs. adult, black vs, white, Bast vs ‘West, rich vs. poor) are becoming better defined and less tolerable requires a citizenry that liberated from traditional prejudices and is able to establish open, empathic, and collaborative relationships with people of all sorts. [A strong ease can be made for the proposition that the greatest danger to the survival of civilization today is not atomic warfare, not environmental pollution, not the population explosion, not the depletion of natural resources, and not any of the other contemporary crises, but the underlying cause of them all—the accelerating obsolescence of man. The evidence is mounting that man's ability to cape with a changing world {s lagging farther and farther behind the changing world. The only hope now seems to be a crash program to retool the present generation of adults with the competencies required to function adequately ina condition of perpetual change. ‘This i the deep need—the awesome challenge —presented to the adult educator by modern society. The Changing and Challenging Role of Adult Educators As the mission of adult educators has become more complex and more significant, the character of their role has been gradually changing, The demands on them to prepare more carefully for performing the role have increased proportionately. ‘se Ouest. “Tord tha You 2000" Vel 96, No.3 (Sunt, BED Jab Garin, Satara {ow or pr& Bow 1989, Dona A Senor. Beyond he Sul Sia (uen Yor WW Noton, TE ‘Avo Tr Fura Seok ow York andor House 07) ‘Role and Mision of the Adult Educator 37 For many years twas aud tt the principles and techniues wed nthe education of chien would be aly elective neg ads len, Pep were therefore ered to det tuna programs of eal edt on th Sse of Ing ad expense la decng prgess ofyuts edo tacrs of clten were rcrted as teaches of ally ait as taken for gated ta ry resorbly Wrelkedvatel pron would know how to do goa! ob ax program charan tf Tiny grovp eer ofa vohntay oguaon Bats knows acouncated fh rom experience and from research i alt edcatn and rated cl scence tbecame teeny appr at dul ere tore tant grownsp children, thal thy poses eran ig charctrt st Ieamer tht raed diferent princes and techniques fom those employed sh chile. Aad wth hs nee Knecht re of ths book cone wl deseing cae the sii th god tlt eden doe ju happen they besos ipod by leaning thee pep ud techs Aaron ret adel char Eecmoved gaa svay fom hat of wilt anteurowar hat waned pc ‘tan! opportune have multiple forte fequste tang tobe obtained a al Teel fore Big leader ad teacher ough sor testes ed it ture for popu dct, though summer wuichops, courte, and crates for profesor leader rough mer’ ad doctor progr n rams of ‘note way in which th ol of ult educators has ben changing in ts ae Ahora compton Inia, ad edicators were coneivd Tos as “se who educate als tnth ee of transiting novledge to hr ling them atthe ought ones, Or at best ety thom tears Thee cntle mas urcve acoso oy of nderpiee alt th function was prcovedw beng primary tome Helping niu catch upto te average Intec! Yan, however at etre are rele lnreasingy in he erature “change get aed it potreog "helping roles” Their chentele is perceived as eSassting ofall types of individuals (iideed, i the better educated persons who now predominate i adulteducation tortine),insttatons and rormunlus.Thlr Kc has moved cress vay from big rend ord bing devlopneta=inea ag Ue ce ‘chime fill pent : AS ages of change heir esponsblies ow extend fr beyon the rowine scheiling father nrespose te cusoryexpesion eres Ths eponaa Hes ental rahe, the vovenent of cents nt penetatng srl a igh pa. toe andthe change requ te acleve then the pon fees tation be overcome in achcnng tee changes tned the annie ofa edecve sono or Sccomplshing the desired resus Their part in hs process at of helper, ed cncourger, onsulan. and senate Ta OF Eaceaoe aeoplae ee sa author They recognize Wat Tl ls portant Wat et lente a The vt ayers oh quetions ey Wik are porta than hate Cs now Wow Tea ‘Gelinportantqustons and fae te notes Tor emcles They aware aleve Sto help people grow inthe ay Tear, to help pope Bete mane lve Treas Mote at east some of Ts dimensions ths hin Tole fm my career aan alt educator: When Tener the fel in 158 my roe 3 progam Sdininseator was defied a a anager of logstes-one who conducted sees dtermive the needs and interes of indlduals. ho organized clases or groups of fndividuals and found instructors for them, who scheduled them into rooms at spc fied tumes, who developed brochures and ather promotional materials to reerultstu-| | 38 THE MODERN PRACTICE OP ADULT EDUCATION dents for them, who built a budget to asure that income would atleast equal ex- penses, and who evaluated them through easy-to-score questionnaires. And my role a8 2 teacher of adults was defined as one who decided what the students should learn, how and when they would learn it (primarily through my lectures), and if they bad learned it As the years have gone by I have found less and less of my time as a program administrator being spent in managing logistics and more and more of it being pent serving 28a consultant to larger social sytems—corporations, educational instit tions, goverament agencies, religious denomination, voluntary organizations—belping them bud total eavirouments more conducive to human growth and development ‘Ad during these same years T have found that in my role a a teacher of adult have spent less and less of ry time dociding what students should learn and then transmit tig it to them, and more and more of my time helping them discover for themselves ‘what they need to leara and then helping them Sed and use the most effective ro sources (eluding my resources) for leaning those things. “These are entirely new role, quiring entsely diferent skills, knowledge att- tudes, and values from those of the traditional educator. Buti snow becoming clear that they are required to full the new mission of adult education—to develop a total eqwironment conducive to human growth and selEactualization; to ereate an educative Bele: For Your Continuing Inquiry . Regarding What Is Adult Education Axford, Roger W. Adult Education: The Open Door. Scranton, Pa: International Text- book Co., 1969. Bryson, Lyman. Adult Education. New York: American Book Co,, 1936, Dobbs, Ralph C. Adult Educution in America, Casille, Mo Litho Printers, 1971. las, Jobo, and Merriam, Sharan, Philosophical Fouruations of Adult Education. Hus- tinglon, NY: Kreger Publishing Co., 1979, Grattan, C, Hartley. In Quest of Knowledge: A Historical Perspective of Adult Educa- ton, New York: Association Press, 1955. Johrstone, John W. C., and Rivera, Willa, Volunteers for Learning: A Study of the ‘Educational Pursuit of American Adults, Chicago: Aldine Publishing Co., 1965. Knowles, Malcolm §. The Adult Education Movement in the United States. 2nd ed. Huntington, N.Y.: Krieger Publications, 1977, Smith, Robert, etal. Hanulbook of Adult Education in the United States. New York Macmillan, 1970, Regarding the Role and Mission of the Adult Educator Craig, R.L. (ed). Training and Development Handbook, 2od ed. New York: MeGraw- Hill, 1976. Cross, K. Patricia. The Missing Link: Connecting Adult Leamers to Learning Re- ‘sourtes, Princeton, N.J College Board Publications, 1979, Cross, K. Patricia, and Valley, John R. (eds). Planning Nontraditional Programs. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 197 Faure, Edgr, etal. Leaming to Be: The World of Education Today and Tomorrow. aris, UNESCO, 1972. Role and Mission of the Adult Educator 39 Gould, Samuel, otal. Diversity by Design. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1973. Heffernan, James M., etal. Educational Brokering: A New Service for Adult Leamers, Syracuse, N-¥.: National Center for Educational Brokering, 1976, Hesburgh, T. M., et al, Pastems for Lifelong Leaming. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1973. Houle, Cyril O, The Extomal Degree. Sun Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1979, Jensen, Gale, et al. Adult Education: Outlines of an Emerging Field of University Study. Washington, D.C.: Adult Education Association of the US.A., 1964, Keeton, Morris T, and Tate, Pamela J. A Boom in Experiential Learning, New Direc tions for Experiential Learning, No. 1, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975, Nadler, Leonard. Developing Human Resources. Houston: Gulf Publishing Go, 1970 Petron Richard E, eal. Lielong Laaming in Amora San Francs Jose)-Basy, Rust, Val. . Altematives in Education: Historial and Theoretical Perspectives. Bev- erly Hill, Cal: Sage Publications, 197, Shaw, Nathan, Adminstration of Continuing Education. Washington, D.C.: National ‘Asociation for Public ard Continuing Education, 1969, Vermilye, Dyckman W. (ed). Lifelong Leamers: A New Clientele for Higher Educa: tion, Sun Francisco: Josey-Bass, 1974, Regarding the Adult Educator As Change Agent Arends, Richard 1, and Arends, Jane H. System Change Strategies in Educationat Settings. New York: Human Sciences Press, 1977. Argyris, Chris, Intercention Theory and Method. Reading, Masc: Addison-Wesley, 1970, Bell, Chip R., and Nadler, Leonard. The Client-Consultant Handbook. Houston: Gulf ‘Publishing Co,, 1979, Bennis, Warren; Bonne, Kerneth; and Chin, Robert. The Planning of Change. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968, Carkhuff, Robert R. Helping and Hunan Relations, New York: Holt, Rinchart & Winston, 1968, Combs, A. W., etal. Helping Relationships: Basic Concept for the Helping Professions. 2nd ed. Rockleigh, NJ: Allyn & Bacon, 1978, a Eiben, Ray, and Milliren, Al eds). Educational Change: A Humanistic Approach. La Jolla, Cal: University Associates, 1976, Lippitt, Gordon. Organizatin: Renewal. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1969, Lippitt, Gordon, and Lippitt, Ronald. The Consulting Process in Action. La Jolla, Cal University Associates, 1578, Schein, Edgar. Frocess Consultation: Its Role in Organization Development. Read Mass: Addison-Wesley, 1969, "e| 4 What Is Andragogy? In the Beginning Was Pedagogy Until recently there was only one model of assumptions about learning and the characteristics of learners on which educators could base their curricula and teaching practices, It evolved in the monastic schools of Europe between the seventh and twelfth centuries and came to dominate secular schools when they were organized in the twelfth century and universities when they begin emerging, frst in Bologna and Paris, toward the close of the twelfth century, This was the model of pedogogy—a term derived from the Greek words paid (meaning “child”) and agogus (meaning “leading"). So “pedagogy” means, Merally, the aft and science of teaching children. ‘The pedagogical assumptions about learning and learners were, therefore, based intially on observations by the monks in teaching very young children relatively simple skils—originally mostly reading and writing. With the spread of elementary schools throughout Europe and North America—and much of the rest ofthe world, especially by missonaries—in the eighteenth and nineteenth centutes this model was adopted and reinforced. And when educational psychologists started scientifically studying learning around the turn of the twentieth century they further coutrbuted to the enthronement of the pedagogical mode! by limiting their research mostly to the reac- tions of children and animals to didactic teaching. In fact, as we shall se later, We didn't got much knowledge about learning (in contrast to reactions to teaching) until studies on adult learning began to appear after World War TL. ‘When adult education began to be organized systematically during the 1920s, teachers of adults began experiencing several problems with the pedagogical model (ne problem was that pedagogy was premised on a conception of the purpose of cedueation—namely, the transmittal of knowledge and skill that had stood the test of ‘umne—that adult learners seemed to sense was insufficlent. Accordingly, their teachers found them to be resistant frequently to the strategies that pedagogy prescribed, in- cluding factladen lectures, assigned readings, dil, quizes, rote mpemorizing, and ex- laminations. Adults appeared to want something more than this, and drop-out rates ‘were high Although the teachers were not aware oft, one of the great philosophers of this century, Alfred North Whitehead, was suggesting what was wrong, In an obscure footnote he pointed out that it was appropriate to define education as a process of transmittal of what is known only when the timespan of major cultural change was ‘eater than the life-span of individuals. Under this eondition, what people learn in their youth will remain valid and useful forthe rest of their lives. But, Whitehead ‘emphasized, “We are living in the fist period in human history for which this assump- tion is false... today ths time-span is considerably shorter than that of human fe, and accordingly our training must prepare individuals to face a novelty of conditions." An attempt is made in Exhibit 3to portray Whitchead’s concept graphically. Exhibits THE RELATIONSHIP OF THE TIME-SPAN OF SOCIAL CHANGE TO INDIVIDUAL LIFE-SPAN Yoars of Time-span ‘of social ‘Ancient teh-t9th 20h ‘change Flome Renaissance Centuries Century Note that upto the ely prt of the tventeth century the tine pan of mor caltoral change leg masse apts of now knowted,echloge novation, Catoral dplccret populstn mobity, change nt pllal and econo sara, tte) etendd over sever enration, hres ath went contr sever co tur revoluons have egy occured a the pce actors Under ts se Condo, knowtedge ane at ny pe e's arg aboete tin ates of sans a pole venient bce nae n ht tities. So fis mo lnger neal o define educa asa proces ans ting what knows nt now be defined as «Hong proces of contain A 3 cot pr earn of fora cen al sh ea how to learn, the skills of self-directed inguiry. 7 eT ee Tee cnc with the pedgoeal model was tht nny of he asus aout he chereterc af ares Sst ft ther aul students Aad so they began expermening with diferent asus fd found et that Uy often prodiced bitr rete ‘Then Came Andragogy Between 1929 and 1948 the Journal of Adult Education, published by the Ameri ‘can Association for Adult Education, carried articles by successful teachers of adult describing ways in which they were treating adults that deviated from the pedagogical ‘model. Frequently the authors of these articles expressed a sense of gut for violating academic standards (xuch as substituting interviews for quizzes). Obviously, they were feeling guilty because they had no theory to support their practices, they were simply being pragmatic and followirg their intuitions, During the 1950s there began appearing books which analyzed these teachers ‘reports and extracted principles that were common to them—ay frst book, Informal “A Aponte AY er oa a aa cpa sneSaiearvcaor le oma et eae ae42 THE MODERN PRACTICE OF ADULT EDUCATION ‘Adult Education, published in 1950, was just such a listing of principles, but it made no attempt to envelop them in a unifying theory. “Then, in the 1960s, wo hogan getting findings from scientifically designed research that focused on the interual processes of adult learning. The sominal study that launched this direction of movement was Cyril O. Houle’ The Inquiring Mind, pub- ished by the University of Wisconsin Press in 1961. Houle found, Uhrough in-depth interviews with twenty-two “continuing learners,” that his subjects ell ato three sub- groups: ‘The fis... the goalrentd, are those who se education a means of accomplish ing fuiy clear-cut objectives. The secon, the acricy-oiented, are those who ake ‘att because they find in the eiteumstances of the learning a meaning which bas 90 Iecestry connection, and often no connection at al, with the coatet ot the a nounced purposes ofthe activity. The thed, the earsingortented seek knowlege for is own sake. These are not pure types; the hes way to represent them pictorally ‘would be by three crles which overlap their edges. ut the ental emphasis of each subgroup & cleanly discorable? ‘One of Houle’ students, Allen Tough, extended this line of investigation from his position on the faculty of the Ontario Institute for Studies in Education later in the ‘same decade. Tough’s research question was, paraphased: “How do adults leara natu rally—when they are not being taught.” His first findings, reported in two reports, Leaming Without a Teacher (1967) and The Adults Learning Projects (1971), showed ‘that 1) almost all adults engage in from one to twenty major Tearing projects each ‘year—with the average number being around eight; 2) only about 10 perceat of the learning projects were associated with educational institutions, 3) there a fairly ‘universal “natural” process of learning—adults who undertake to learn something on their own go through a similar sequence of steps; 4) adults almost always tuea to somebody for help at one or mote points in this sequence: 5) usually they go to “helpers” who have not been trained as teachers, but frequently when they go to teachers the teachers interfere with their learning by substituting their own pedagogy cal sequence of steps rather than flowing with the Iearnets’ natural sequence. ‘A great deal of other knowledge about adult learning was accumulating during the sinties from related disciplines—

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