wasmhhe.com/nickmanip21 7¢ and comple structures. Tis energy is chemical bond enetey released by transforming complex compounds acquired rom an organism's environment into simpler ones. “The ultimate source of energy for life on earth i the san Sunlight is eapured by ehorophyI molecules in gren plans, witch transform a portion of this energy ito chemical bond energy (od energy). Green pants are autotrophic organisms, which require ‘only inorganie compounds absorbed from their surroundings to p= Vide the raw material for synthesis and growth. Mast autotopnic ‘organisms are the ehoropyl-bearing phototrophs, although sore, the chemosyntetic bacteria, re ehemotrophs that gain enc Almostall animals are heterotrophic organism that dependon already symhesize organic compouns of plants and other animals {© obain the materials they wil use foe growth, maimtenanee, end reproduction. An animal's fod is normally the complex issues of ter organisms that must be digested into soluble molecules sal {enough tobe absorbed as mations hy its hody's els Animals ae divided into categories based on dietary habs. Herbivorous animals feed mainly on plan if Carnivorous ani- ‘mals feed nly cn other animals. Ommivorous animals eat both lant nd animals Saprophagows animal fed on decaying organic ‘mater. A: ‘organisms require energy to maintain ther highly ordered Ingestion of foods and their simplification by digestion are ‘only initial steps in nutrition. Foods reduced by’ digestion to more ‘imple soluble, molecular forms are absorbed and transported 10 the body's issues, There they are assimited into the structures of cells, oxidized fo yield energy and heat or iP mot immediately use, Stored for future use. Wastes produced by oxidation must be ‘excreted, Food produets thal remain undigested andl ave not aborted are egested in feces. 32.1 FEEDING MECHANISMS ‘Few animals can absor’ nutrients directly fom their external exwi- ronments. Exceptions are some blood parasites (p. 236), certain Intestinal amoebozoan parasites (p. 241), and tapeworms (p. 304) and acanthocephalans (p. 313) that nourish themselves on primary ‘organie molecules absorbed directly across their body surfuces. These nutrients have already been digested by their host onzanis. ‘Most animals must work for their meals. They are active feeders Cat thawe evahed numemns specialiatinns for obtaining food With fod procurement as one of the most potent driving forces in animal eo ution, natural selection has placed a high priority on adaptations for exploiting new souroes of food and the means of food eaptare and intake, Feeding on Particulate Matter Daifting microscopic particles abound in the upper hundred mets of ocean Water. Most ofthis maliude is plankton, organisms tat are onmtile or foo smal or weak to do anything but drift with she oean'scurens. The rests organic dei, disintegrating remain of dea plans and animals. hough tis oceanic swarm of plankion form a rich life domain itis unevenly distributed. The heavsst plankton growth occurs in estuaries and areas of upwelling, where {here isan abundant nutrient supply. Wt is consume! hy numerous CCHAPTER-32- Digestion and Nutrition 03 larger animals, invertebrates and feoding mechanisms. ‘One ofthe most important and widely employed methods for ‘eading is suspension feeding (Figure 32.1, Most suspension fod cr use ciliated surfaces to prosce eurrens that draw deiting food ‘articles into their mouths. Most suspension-feding invertebrates, such as sedentary polychaete worms, bivalve mollses, hemichor- dates (see Figures 22.4 and 22.35), and most prtoehordats (8 Figures 28-4. 23.8), entrap particulate food on mucous sets that ‘convey the fo! into the digestive tract, Others, such ity shrimps, (see Figure 20.17), water fleas, and barnes, use sweeping move: ‘ments of their seta-fringed legs to create water currents and 10 entrap food, which is tansfrred to their mouth. Freshwater develop- mental stages of certain insest orders use fanike arrangements of setae or spin silk ets to eneyp food. ‘One form of suspension feeding often called flter-feedingy has evolved frequently as a secondary modification among representa- tives of groups that are primarily selective feeders. These animals posses filtering devices that strain food from water ws it passes ‘through them. Examples include many mierocrustaceans, fishes such as ering, mean, an basking sharks, cerain binds such a flamingos, and the largest of all animals, baleen (whalebone) ‘whales (Figure 32.1). The vital importance of one component of plankton, diatoms, in supporting @ great pyramid of fikrfeeding animalsis stressed by N. J. Beri: A humpback whale. needs a ton of herring in its stomach o feel ‘comfortably ull—as many a five thousand individual fish, Each herring, in urn, may well have 6000 or 7000 small crustaceans in| its own stomach, each of which contains as many a8 130,000 die toms In other words, some 400 billion golden-brown diatoms sus- tain single medium-sized whale fra few hours at mas. Another typeof peiculate feeding exploits deposits of disintegrated ‘orwanie- material (detritus) that accumulates on and in the substa- ‘tum; this type is called deposit Feeding. Some deposit feeders, such «as many annelds and some hemichorates, simply pass the substrate through ther odes, removing nutrients from it Seep. 374). Others, such as scaphopod molluss, certain bivalve molluss, andl some sed cntary, ube-dvelling polychaete worms, use appendages to gather ‘xganic deposits sone distance rom the body and move them toward the mouth (Figure 32.2). tebrates, using a variety of Feeding on Food Masses ‘Among the most interesting animal adaptations are those that have ‘evolved for procuring and manipulating solid food. Such adaptations and animals bearing them are largely shaped by what the animal eat, Predators must locate, capture, hold, and swallow prey. Many cearivorous animals simply seize food and swallow it intact, while some employ toxins that paralyze or kill prey upon capture, Although no true teeth appear among invertebrates, many have beaks or toothlike structures for biting and holding. A familiar ‘example is the errant, carnivorous polychaete Nereis, whieh pos- sesses a muscular pharynx armed with chitinous jaws that an be "Bor. N.J 858. You and he universe. New York Dad Mena & Co.08 PARTFOUR Activity of ite vt [A Marine fon werms [loss Sedentari, phylum Anvelicaphave 3 uum nittenteion lime fan the egos th etc: raw water hue rows) between pinules where foo paticies ae entrapped in mucus; partes ae then cared down a “gutter” inthe center ofthe tentacle othe mouth flack arowe} Bamacles elas Msitonoda,subohlum Crstaces, fvum -Artnropada) sweep their thoacie appendages (cr) trough the ater to ap plankton and other organic prices on fe brstes ‘hating the cir Food is transferred tothe bamace's mouth by the st hor ci, Figure 32.1. Some suspension and fier feeders the feeing mechan Inaucrant Siphon 8 Bivove metus flass voi. phylum Moses use tes 8 fooding devices, as wala or expiratory gos onchange, Vator ‘urents coated By ia onthe gle cary fod parle nt the Incurent siphon and between sits nthe gs where tey ore fentanglein a mucous sheet covering the gill surface. Cisoted food ‘grooves then wansport the periee tothe mouth pot shown} Zrrows Incicate recon of water movement. Gi oker cis 1 Hering ane other tor-feding fishes (class Actinoptey a. phylum Chordata) use gil rakers tat projec fora fram {he git aches nto the pharyngeal avy to strain plankton, Herring swim almost constant frcing wate and suspended food inta ther mouth: food strained by tel gl rakers, and water passes tough the ol openings.ee wasmhhe.com/nickmanip21 7¢ Tentacles Gis or branchial ‘ut Figure 32.2 The ameia Anphinte sa depos eecer tat vesino rucutinge marow and extends ong feding erares na rections ‘eos me srace. Food Wapped on mucus conveyed arate tentacles tothe mouth verted with great speed to seize prey (see Figure 172, p. 366). (Once a caprure is made, the pharynx is retracted and prey swal lowed. Fishes, amphibians, and nonavian reptiles use their teeth ‘principally to grip prey and to prevent is escape uni they can swal- Tow itwhole, Snakes and some fishes can swallow enormous mls. ‘An absence of limbs means that alternate methods of prey capture and swallowing have evolved, Recurved teeth seize and hold prey and distensible jaws and stomachs accommodate large and Infrequent meals (Figure 32.3). Birds lack teeth, but their beaks, ‘ften possess serrated edges, or the upper beak is hooked for seizing and tearing prey (see Figure 27.11, p. 594), ee “Many invertebrates reduce food size by shredding device (sch as shredding mouthparts of many erustaceans) or by tearing dviees, (uch as beaklike jaws of cephalopod molluscs: see Figure 16.3, 1.355, and Figure 16 40 p. 396) Insects have three pars of append- ages on their heads that serve variously as jaws, chitinous teeth cis- els, tongues, or sucking tubes (see Figure 21.17, p. 453). Usually ihe first pair serves as crushing teeth; the second, as grasping jaws; nd the third, asa probing and tasting tongue, ‘True mastication, chewing or crushing of food as opposed to {earing, ismearlyresrited to mammals. Mammals usually have four hferent types of teeth, each adapted for specific functions. INeisars are designed for biting, cuting, and stripping: canines are for aes CCHAPTER-32- Digestion and Nutrition 0s Tom Meh Scnce Seue8 Figure 32.3 Tis aiean oog-atng snake, Dasypots subsists ity on hates as" eggs, suchas ths qual eg, which t ‘eer cromousyoxpansibejow provides wih elas gare, one ‘eerie vencra spurs at puncture the shel Subsequent he snake seizing, piercing, and tearing; premolars and molars, atthe back of the jas, are for grinding and crushing (Figure 32.4). This basic pat tem is offen greatly modified in animals having specialized food habits (Figure 2.5; see also Figure 28.10, p. 618). Herbivores usu ally tack canines but have well-developed molars with enamel ridges {or grinding. Wel-developed, sel-sharpening incisors of rodents {grow throughout life and must be worn away by gnawing to keep 4 3+ ‘pace with growth, Some teeth have become so highly modified that they are no longer useful for biting or chewing food. Amvelephant’s tusk (Figure 32.6) is a modified upper incisor used for defense, attack, and rooting, and a male wild boar has modified canines used ‘as weapons. Many feeding specializations of mammals are described ‘on pages 618-620, Herbivorous, or plant-eating, animals have evolved special devices for crushing and cutting plant material. Some invertebrates hhave scraping mouthparts, such as the radula of snails (see Figure 16.4, p. 336). Insects such as locusts have grinding and cut ting mandibles; herbivorous mammals such as horses and cattle use wide, corrugated molars for grinding. All such mechanisms disrupt ‘the tough cellulose plant cell wall accelerate its digestion by inte tinal microonsanisms, as well as to release cell contents for direct. enzymatic breakdown. Ths herbivores digest food that carnivores, cannot, and in doing so, convert plant material into organic com- nin for ter own uso a for ulate ennsumpion by earnivanes ‘and omnivores,706 PARTFOUR Activity of ite Feeding on Fluids Fd feing is especially characteristic oFparasies, butts practied among many ffeelving forms as well. Some internal parasites {encoparasites) simply absorb the nutrient surrounding them, unit tinely provided by the host. rhers biteandrasphost tissue suck bid, an fed on ontentsof the hos nesting Estenal parasites (copa sites) such as leeches ampeys (Se Figure 24.5. . 521), parasite crustaceans, and ines use a variety of efficient peeing and Stcking ‘mouthparts feed on blood o the oxy ud, Ther are numerous antopods tht fed on ids, fr example, Nas, mosques, sucking Jie bebugsteks and mites, Many are vectors of serious diseases of humankind and this quality afar more than pesky annoyances Unfortunately fr humans and other warm-bonde animals, the ubiquitous mosgpit excels ints blond-aucking habit. lighting gone ‘iy, the mosquito punctures is prey with an aray of six neelelike Enamel Pup wth nerves and blood veces Root cana combining ood vestes Figure 32.4. sructure ofhuman molar toth. A tooth sul of tee layers ofcaeied Ussve covering enamel, whieh s SB mineral andthe hardest material inte Body: dente, which composes the mass ofthe ‘oath andl appre 7OX minor aed coment, wc forme tn Covering over the demtine Inthe root f the tooth and evry similar fo dense bone in composition. Te pup eavily canta ease connective 'tssue, blood vessels, nerves, ang tooling cel Incigors Canine Premolste Mole Figure 32.5. ttsmmaiondention. , Teeth of a fox. earnhor, showing te four types of te ‘mouthparts (see Figure 21.17B and C, p. 453). One ofthese injects ‘a anticoagulant saliva, which causes the iritating itch that follows the “hte” and serves aca vector for miemorganisms causing malaria, yallow fever, encephalitis, dengue, Zika virus, West Nile virus, and ‘ther diseases. Another mouthpart isa channel through which blood Jscuckods Only females dine on blood to obtain nutrients neveonaey fr forming their eggs. 32.2 DIGESTION age ge Inthe process of digestion, which means literally “eareying asunder.” ‘organic foods are mechanically and chemically broken into small ‘units forabsorption. Although food solids consist principally of ear: Dohiydrates, proteins, and fils. the very components that form the body of the consnmer, these components must frst be reduced 10 their simplest molecular units before they can be assimilated. Each ‘imal reassembles some of these digested and absorbed units into ‘xganic compounds of the animal's own unique pattern. F gure 32.6 Anticon elephantioosening sol from a st ick vith ‘eh for foad ane water plowing the ground for fo, prying apart. branches to reach the edible cambium, ang ceiling nto ry verbeds for water Woodehuck, 2 rodent, th chise-ke incisors ‘st eontinve to grow tought fo 8 hey woot 6, Wnto aed door,» browsing ungulat, with fat prorlare and molare bearing complex got eed forornaing