FUG ULC Det YOUR KEY TO LITERATURE r bs 2 a rs € Hy bs & = EI fee a ania Ti il ll Cum sa reusim la examen! Doane) 789736811234BIBLIOTECA JUDETEANA G.T. KIRILEANU " - NEAMT TERMEN DE RESTITUIRE hog We dOb, Alina-Antoanela Stefaniu READY FOR EXAMS Your Key to LiteratureAlina-Antoanela Stefaniu a absolvit in 1992 Facultatea de Litere,seciiaengleza-omana, Universitat «AN. Cuza, lagi, gi este profesoara de mba engleza, gradut | la Liceul Fait, Cuza’ lag. A beneficiat de o bursa FPSD la Institute of Appied Language Studies ‘din Esinburgh. De aceeagi autoare: Ready for Exams |. For Baccalaureate and Students’ Contests (incolaborare cu Radu Lupuleasa), Polrom, lagi, 1999 ; Ghid de conversajie roman-englez {in oolaberare cu Rady Lupuleasa), Polrom, lagi, 2001; Ghid de conversajie engiez-roman {in colaberare cu Radu Lupuleasa), Polrom, lagi, 200%; Practice Makes Perfect, Polirom, lagi, 2002; Dictionar romdn-englez da expres locuun, Polrom, 2002. ‘ww, polirom.s0 (© 2000, 2008 by Edtura POLIROM Editura POLIROM lagi, B-dul Copou nr. 4, P.O. BOX 268, 6600 Bucuresti, Bedul LC. Brtianu nr. 6, et 7, ap. 8; O.P. 97; P.O. BOX 1-728, 70700 Descriores CIP a Bibiiotect! Nationale a Romane: 'STEFANIU, ALINA-ANTOANELA Ready for exams: your key to Iterature: ede 2 ha revdzut Ane-Antoanele tetany ~ Ea 2a, rv. lagl:Polrem, 2008 240 p.: 28 em (BAC) ISBN: 973-681-123-8 a2s.tt.09 Printed in ROMANIA Alina-Antoanela Stefani READY FOR EXAMS Your Key to Literature Editia a ll-a revazuta POLIROM 2003ausorece DETERS ctaimcean NeaMT 413680 Contents Cuvéint tnainte .... t I. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE Literary notion: Heroie Poem Beowulf... 15 Literary notions: Frame-Story Technique; Characterization ; Objective vs. Subjective Presentation ‘The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer sessecee IT Literary notions : Tragedy; Tragic Character ; Conflict Hamlet ty William Shakespeare... Literary notions : Sonnet; Shakespearean Sonnet ‘Sonnets by William Shakespeare Literary notions : Tragedy; Imagery ; Figures of Speech Romeo and Juliet by William Shakespeare .. 3 Literary notions : Personal Prose ; Diary Diary by Samuel Pepys Literary notions : Mock Heroie Poem vs. Heroic Poem The Rape of the Lock by Alexander Pope ... 4Literary notions: Realism ; ‘The Realist Novel Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe nn Literary notions: Satire; Irony; Sareasm Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift. a Literary notion: The Comedy of Manners The Rivals by Richard Brinsley Sheridan Literary notion: Romanticism Preface to Lyrical Ballads by William Wordsworth ......e.sstesteeseesese SL Literary notions: Ballad; Sound Devices; Simile; Symbol The Rime of the Ancient Mariner by Samuel Taylor Coleridge ... Literary notions: Plot; Parts of the Plot ; Plot Devices ‘The Tell-Tale Heart by Edgar Allan Poe .. Rhythm ; Rhyme 99 Literary notions: Dramatic Poe Eldorado by Edgar Allan Poe Literary notions: Atmosphere; Character and Characterization 2 Macbeth by William Shakespeare .. 65 Literary notions: Narrative Poetry ; Folk Ballad and Literary Balled La Belle Dame sans Merci by John Keats... Literary notions: Point of View; Characterization Middlemarch by George Eliot... 5 Literary notions: Novel of Manners; Victorian Literature Pride and Prejudice by Jane Austen .. : penne 8 Literary notions: Allegory ; Setting ‘Moby-Dick by Herman Melville 85 Literary notions : Essay ; Types of Essay Essays by Ralph Waldo Emerson cat seseee 90 Literary notions: Romanee; Romantic Vision ; Allégorical and Symbolical Vision The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne Literary notions : Story and Plot; Flashback ; Suspense; Frame-story Technique ing Heights by Emily Bronté 97 Literary notions: Comedy ; Romantic Comedy A Midsummer Night's Dream by William Shakespeare... 103 Literary notions: Theme; Historical Background ; Narrator ; Autobiography Great Expectations by Charles Dickens .. 10 Literary notions : Vietorian Nonsense Literature; Fantasy ; Humour ; Paradox ; Pun Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. 6 Literary notion: Limerick Limericks by Edward Lear Literary notions ; Setting ; Subjective Narration; Humour ; Vernacular Language The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark TWain ....csassssseessessees 24 1B Literary notions : Naturalism The Naturalist Novel; Atmospheres Omniscient Narrator ; Tragic Vision X_Tess of he d'Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy ........es sus 129 Literary notions : Psychological Novel; Free Reported Speech ; Theme ; Style; Multiple Point of View The Portrait ofa Lady by Henry James . Literary notions : The Aesthetic Movement; Parndox The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar Wilde .. os ce 140 Literary notions : Interior Monologue; Stream of Consciousness {Mrs Dalloway by Virginia Wool ... 142 Literary notions: The Novel of the “Jazz Age” ; Observer Narration The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald . 2146 Literary notions: Objective versus Subjective Presentation ; Parable x The Old Man and the Sea by Emest Hemingway 149Literary notions : Drama; Problem Play ; Paradox Caesar and Cleopatra by George Bernard Shaw .. 153 Literary notions: Allegorical Novel; Symbol \S Lord of the Flies by William Golding 197 Literary notions: Poetic Creed; Free Verse xSong of Myself by Walt Whitman 161 Literary notions : Figurative Language (Epithet; Antithesis; Metaphor Metonymy ; Oxymoron ; Personification ; Simile; Symbol) eBmily Dickinson .. a : 164 Literary notions: Imagism ; Haiku .. Ezra Pound 168 168 Literary notions : Modern Poetry ; Ambiguity ; Connotation ; Literary Allusion ‘Thomas Stearns Eliot.. 170 II, CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES |A Midsummer Night’s Dream by William Shakespeare .......:sssssseescnoes 17S Great Expectations by Charles Dickens 17 Lord of the Flies by Wiliam Golding 179 Alice's Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carrol. 180 The Portrait of a Lady by Henry James ... 12 The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain 188 Tess of the d’Urbervilles by Thomas Hardy <.cc.-csecssesinssesennn: 186 ‘The Importance of Being Earnest by Oscar WHIM ...s.ssesevvese senses 189 Caesar and Cleopatra by George Bernard Shaw 190 Song of Myself by Walt Whitman... 219 III, EXAM PRACTICE READING TEXTS FOR BACCALAUREATE, Limba englez\ ~ proba ora (1-2 ore/siptimang)... Limba si literatura englezi ~ proba oralk (3-4 ore/siptiman).. Limba englez& ~ proba orald (5-7 ore/siptiméng) ... Selected Bibliography ..... Index of Authors { Tiles .. Index of Literary Terms .....Cuvént inainte ‘Al doilea volum al Iucrlrii Ready for Exams, inttulat Your Key to Literature, se adreseazi elevilor care se pregitesc pentru examenul de bacalaureat, candidailor la faculitile cu profil filologic, precum si profesorilor de engleza care lucreazi cu elevii din cicll lceal ‘Scopul culegeri de fat este dea familiariza elevi cu tipul de subiecte propuse in anii precedent side ai ajuta sisi consolideze 5 sistematizeze cunostinfele pentru a fae fat eu sucees probe de limba englezd la examenul de bacalaureat, Prima parte a subiectului pentru proba orald const tn ctirea si comentarea unui text redactat tn limba englez. Tipul si nivelul de dificultate al textului varia in functie de numarul de ore de englezi pe care elevul le-a avut pe siptimén’ 1. text nom-lterar de diftcultate medie pentru 1-2 ore; 2, text lterar de dificultate medie pentra 3-4 ore; 3. text lterar cu grad sporit de dificultae pentru $-7 ore {In tratarea acestui subiect candidati trebuie si dovedeasca: 1. capacitatea de a citi corect si muanfat un text, folosind intonatia si pronuntia adecvate ; D. Ingelegerea conginutului textul e. 0 bunk cunoastere a limbii, imaginatie, creativitate si cunostinje teoretice de abordare a unui text literar (in eazurile 2 st 3). La probs scris, prima parte a subiectului testeaz’ capacitatea elevului de a sintetiea tun text 50 de cuvinte, desprinzand ideea de baz, si de a interpreta mesajul scris, folosind cunostinfeleteoretice acumulate in liceu. Pentru a veni tn sprijinul candidatilor, volumul Ready for Exams, Your Key 10 Literature ofera o preceniate sistematicd a nofiunilor de teorie literard utile in realizarea ‘uoui comentariu de text, precum si o gama largi de exerciti prin care se urmareste apli- carea acestor nofiuni Materialul este structurat in tre capitoe 1, The Development of Literary Competence cuprinde explicafile necesare infelegerii si consolidiritnogiunilor de teorieliterara studiate fn liceu, Operele liteare pe care se {ac aplicaii sunt incluse in manatee alternative aprobate de M.E.C. Fragmentele alese ‘nu sunt fntotdeauna cele din manuale, deoarece am preferat sf incurajim lectura gi comentariul unui text la prima vedere.2 (CUVANT INAINTE, 1. Claro Aas se atesue in pec proeorior de enlace po sh ta acetone rogetl de atv pen ole lisrn. Ace peas Sat Gain ns pees, lereaig fll cis, corepunted cle fuged atordae atx nc nei lei, Sut suerte ere mall de cxgszare clase pera sexe svi: Teal pe grupe spe pee ere Indie, dsc foley debt, Desi de cents pent simule ret ‘clevior unt eerie de compo care propa eacare nel game arate pr deter: sear, jul, aro, poste, land semi, pom TL. Exam Practice Rating Tes for acclarece pope sre estar cara fost Inpro oalte an 202 levi care pee pet ob isk pots celeste rope, cerinl in Ge acu ema women pent fear Inderal de natn rare cel de tort vin spi coh judd ssc over opin sail cup n prec Vor Consul expe tree hei teste exci din alegre Read for can, lv pot pon canine ein tse engee igure oma bun pred pn eamencedebcaaura’ ere Autoarea |. THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE “The effective reader masters certain skills and strategies which allow him to convert the words on the page ofa literary work into literary meanings, He knows certain conventions about how a literary text should be read and understood. Literary competence includes a number of skills and sub-skills which the teacher should identify in order to plan his lessons and to offer his students clear procedures and techniques for dealing with literary texts, The literary skills which high school students need are: 1) the ability 10 recognise and decode : 4) figures of speech such as : metaphor, simile, personification, hyperbole, ‘epithet, apostrophe, oxymoron, metonymy ; b) narrative and poetic devices such as: plot, story, character, point of view, setting, irony, satire, paradox, assonance, alliteration, rhyme, rhythm; ©) specific text features (constructed by the writers use of specific narrative ‘and poetic devices) such as theme, style 6) literary trends such as Classicism, Romanticism, Realism, Modernism ; ¢) literary forms such as: the diary, the epigram, the heroic poem, the mock heroic poem, the ode, the sonnet; 1) literary genres such as: novel, play, short-story, poem, sketch etc 2) the ability-to use literary notions in order to interpret the text 3) the ability to produce a personal response to the text. Although the metalanguage to which the above-mentioned terms belong seems to be quite difficult for our students, the literary terminology provides therm with tools for identifying, interpreting and appreciating the value of the distinctive {features in a literary text. Besides, the learners feel more secure to express ‘personal opinions about the text if they master the appropriate language. ‘Another argument in favour of learning and using literary terminology is a more pragmatic one ~ the students are expected to be familiar with it in exams,« READY FOR EXAMS Instead of reproducing ready-made commentaries (which include metalanguage that they do not understand), or producing “impressionistic” literary inter- pretations (in which personal intuitions are not supported by evidence from the text, the students who master the literary metalanguage are able to express their cown opinions in a clear, appropriate and convincing manner. Literary notion HEROIC POEM BEOWULF IL, Understanding the heroic (epic) poem A. Definition: A long narrative poem presenting characters of high position and a central figure of heroic proportions in a series of adventures which require superhuman courage and great valour B. Characteristics: 1. The hero is a figure of heroic stature, of national importance, and of great historical significance. 2. The action consists of heroic deeds. 3. Supernatural forces ~ gods, angels, dragons, demons - interest themselves in the action, and fantastic happenings are included in the story. 4. The characters are either completely good ot completely evil. They are not complex. 5. The heroic poem has a moral purpose, the good always defeating the evil. 6. A style of sustained elevations and grand simplicity is used. . Representative epic poems ~_ The liad and The Odyssey ~ the Old English Beowulf ~ the East Indian Mahabharata = the Spanish El Cid = the Finnish Kalevala = the French La Chanson de Roland = the German Nibelungentied = Virgil's Aeneid ~ Dante's Divine Comedy = Milton’s Paradise Lost6 READY FOR EXAMS Assignments 4) Explore the characteristics of a heroic poem by answering the following questions about Beowulf: 1. Who was Beowulf? Why did he become the central figure of a heroic poem? 2. What heroic deeds are presented in the poem? 3. Find examples of ~ characters representing the good ; ~ characters representing the evil (physical evil; moral evil; meta- physical evil). Which of them are victorious in the end? 4. What is the moral of this poem? 5. Give examples of supernatural forces and fantastic happenings included in the poet. ’) Heroie poems share some characteristics with folktales. Find these common ome and draw a parallel between Beowulf and a Romanian/English tale. Literary notions FRAME-STORY TECHNIQUE; CHARACTERIZATION ; OBJECTIVE VS. SUBJECTIVE PRESENTATION ‘THE CANTERBURY TALES by Geoffrey Chaucer I. Understanding the frame-story technique A. Definition: A story within a narrative seting or frame, a story within a story is called frame-story. B. Representative literary works in which the “frame-story” technique is used “The frame-story technique is a convention frequently used in classical and modem writing. The best known examples are found in the Arabian Nights, the Decameron and the Canterbury Tales. In the Romanian literature M. Sadoveanu used the frame-story technique in Hanu Ancuel ©. The structure of The Canterbury Tales In Canterbury Tales the frame, or the narrative setting, is represented by the General Prologue, in which the author introduces a group of people making a pilgrimage to the shrine of Thomas Beckett in Canterbury. The reader finds ‘ut from the Prologue bow the characters meet at Tabbard Inn, and how they proceed on their journey, The General Prologue contains a series of portraits ofthe pilgrims: the Knight, the Squire, the Yeoman, the Nun, the Prioress, the Monk, the Friar, the Merchant, the Oxford Clerk, the Franklin, the Dyer, the Carpenter, the Cook, the Doctor, the Woman of Bath, The Parson, ‘The Plowman, the Miller, the Pardoner. ‘The stories which the various pilgrims tell along the way are frame-stories, being included in the general framework Assignments 1. Find which of the following excerpts belongs to = the General Prologue 413680 = The Pardoner's Prologue = The Pardoner's Tale® READY FOR EXAMS 8) “But listen, gentlemen; to bring things down To a conclusion, would you like a tale? Now as I've drunk a draught of comn-ripe ale, By God it stands to reason I can strike ©n some good story that you all will like. For though I am a wholly vicious man Don’t think I can’t tell moral tales. I can! b) “My lords”, he said, “now listen for your good (..) Each one of you shall help to make things slip By telling two stories on the outward trip ‘To Canterbury, that’s what I intend, ‘And, on the homeward way to jourey’s end Another two, tales from the days of old; ‘And then the man whose story is best told, ‘That is to say who gives the fullest measure ; Of good moratty and general pleasure, | He shall be given a supper, paid by all, i Here in this tavern, in this very hall, i When we come back again from Canterbury.” | ©) Atonce the three young rioters began ‘To run, and reached the tree, and there they found A pile of golden florins on the ground. (..) “Brothers”, he said, “you listen to what I say, It’s clear that Fortune has bestowed this treasure To let us live in jollity and pleasure, (.).) And so as a solution I propose hil We draw for lots and see the way it goes, ‘The one who draws the longest, lucky rian, Shall run to town as quickly as he can i To fetch us bread and wine ~ but keep things dark ~ ‘While two remain in hiding here to mark Our heap of treasure. If there's no delay, ‘When night comes down we'll carry it away, All three of us, wherever we have planned”, _-Exactly-in the way they'd planned his death (7 They fell-oitfiim and slew him, two to one. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE ‘Then said the first of them when this was done, “Now for a drink. Sit down and let’s be merry, For later on there'll be the corpse to bury”. ‘And, as it happened, reaching for a sup, He took a bottle full of poison up ‘And drank; and his companion, nothing loth, Drank from it also, and they perished both. (...) Thus these two murderers received their due, So did the treacherous young poisoner too. (G. Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, The Penguin Classics, 1973) 2. Which of the previous excerpts is part of: a) the largest narrative setting (frame) ») a framed-story 3. What is the moral of The Pardoner's Tale’? 44, Which are the two qualities of a good story mentioned by the innkeeper in The General Prologue? 3, Write a story about greedinesé. Then imagine a larger narrative setting to frame it. Use the frame-story technique 0 include your first story in the second (the frame). TI. Understanding characterization In fiction (drama, novel, short-story, narrative poem) the author reveals the characters of imaginary persons. The character is a network of character trait. ‘There are two basic methods of presenting characters 1. Direct definition: The trait is direcly named by the narrator by means of an adjective (¢-g.+ She was a kind woman) or of an abstract noun (e.g.: Her kindness knew no bounds). Such naming of a character's qualities by the authoritative narrator is accepted by the reader as a character definition 2. Indirect presentation : A presentation is indirect when, rather than mentioning a trait, the author displays and exemplifies it indifferent ways. Some of these ‘ways’ are: 4) action ~ a trait may be implied by the character's actions ') speech ~ the style of a character's speech may indicate his origin, social class, profession, individual characteristics e.g. : subtlety frankness, simplicity) ©) external appearance ~ a character's physiognomy, clothes, movements may bbe suggestive of is traits 5 © environment ~ a character's physical surrounding (room, house, street, town etc.) and his human environment (family, friends, social class) are used in order to connote some character traits.wll » READY FOR EXAMS Assignments 1. Read the portrait of the Knight in The General Prologue and find this char- acter's main traits. ‘There was a KNIGHT, a most distinguished man, Who from the day on which he first began To ride abroad had followed chivalry, ‘Truth, honour, generousness and courtesy. He had done nobly in his sovereign’s war ‘And ridden into battle, no man more, As well in Christian as in heathen places, ‘And ever honoured for his noble graces. ‘When we took Alexandria he was there. He often sat at table in the chair Of honour, above all nations, when in Prussia, In Lithuania he had ridden, and Russia, No Christian man so often, of his rank. In Anatolia he had been as well ‘And fought when Ayas and Attalia fell, For all along the Mediterranean coast He had embarked with many a noble host. In fifteen mortal battles he had been ‘And jousted for our faith at Tramissene ‘Thrice in the lists, and always killed his man, ‘And though so much distinguished, he was wise ‘And in his bearing modest as a maid, He never yet a boorish thing had said In all his life to any, come what might: He was a true, a perfect gentle-Knight, ‘Speaking of his equipment, ho possessed Fine horses, but he was not gaily dressed, He wore a fustian tunic stained and dark With smudges where his armour had left mark. (G. Chaucer, The Canterbury Tales, ‘The Penguin Classics, 1973) 2. Find examples of direct presentation in the portrait of the KNIGHT, Which traits are directly named by the narrator’? "THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE. a 3, Analyse the different ways of indirect presentation used in this excerpt, pointing to the qualities displayed and exemplified in these ways. 4. ‘Think of an unusually interesting or memorable character (a real person or ant imaginary one). Write an article for a magazine in which you show his/her special character traits, using the direct and the indirect presentation. Include references to his/her actions, speech, external appearance, environment in order to illustrate your statements about what he or she is like, IIL. Understanding objective vs subjective presentation ‘The literary convention known as “REALISM” considers OBJECTIVITY as a quality in a literary work of impersonaliry, of freedom from the expression of personal sentiments, attitudes or emotions by the author. ‘The objective presentation is connected with the MIMETIC THEORY OF ART, ‘according to which the artist should centre his attention on the thing imitated, trying to obtain a perfect correspondence between the representation and the subject. The realist writer usvally has a powerful interest in the audience to whom his work is addressed, feeling it to be his obligation to offer a truthful ‘treatment of material. ‘The objective presentation is opposed to the subjective presentation, which is characterized by an intensely personal manner of expressing the author's attitude towards the subject represented in his work. Assignments 1. To whom does the writer address in the following excerpt from the General Prologue? Bur first I beg of you, in courtesy, Not to condemn me as unmannerly If I speak plainly and with no concealings ‘And give account of all their words and dealings, Using their very phrases as they tell. For certainly, as you all know as well, He who repeats a tale after a man Is bound to say, as nearly as be can, Each single word, if he remembers it. However rudely spoken of unfit, Or else the tale he tells will be untrue ‘The things invented and the phrases new He may not flinch although it were his brother, If he says one word he must say the other.2 READY FOR EXAMS 2. What ideas about the use of language in literature does Chaucer express in this part of the General Rrologue? How can you connect these ideas with the mimetic theory of art? 3. Which literary trend emphasizes the objective presentation, the truthful treat- ‘ment of material in the work of art? Literary notions TRAGEDY ; TRAGIC CHARACTER; CONFLICT HAMLET by William Shakespeare I. Understanding tragedy A. Aristotle's definition of classical tragedy ‘Tragedy is a dramatic form, which was first defined by the Greek philosopher Aristotle in his Poetics. ‘According to his definition, tragedy is “an imitation of an ACTION that is, SERIOUS, COMPLETE and of a certain magnitude.” ‘+ The MAIN CHARACTER is a rioble person, of high rank, involved in a conflict of great significance that ends in disaster. His ruin is caused by a TRAGIC FLAW ot weakness. The PURPOSE of a tragedy is to arouse the emotions of PITY and FEAR in the audience. By the time the tragedy ends the audience has been cleansed of these emotions because they have exhausted them. This process is called CATHARSIS. Aristotle's definition in the Poetics is an inductive description of the Greek tragedies. The Elizabethan Tragedy ‘The tragedy of the Elizabethan Age was not the classical tragedy of Aristotle's definition. The greatest influence upon Renaissance playwrights was exerted by the plays of Seneca, a Latin philosopher. ‘The distinctive traits of the Elizabethan tragedy (also known as “Blood and Thunder” tragedy) are 1. THE PLOT of such a play is the murder by a person in power of a close relative of the main character. Sensational happenings (murders, horrors, exhibitions of dead bodies) and supernatural elements (ghosts) are placed ‘upon the stage. The play has a complicated intrigue and most of the characters die in the end. The author uses “the play within the play” as a ‘mirror to the main plot.™ [READY FOR EXAMS 2. The THEME of REVENGE and retribution through murder is borrowed from Seneca. The main character seeks revenge against the murderer, being directed by the ghost of the assassinated man, 3. The TRAGIC CHARACTER hesitates about whether or not o take revenge, ‘hich is seen as a duty by the family of the avenger, as a sin by the church and as a crime by the state 4, The BOMBASTIC RHETORIC, the reflective and aphoristic STYLE, the philosophic SOLILOQUIES prove the Elizabethan playwrights’ effort to elevate tragedy into the realm of austere philosophy. ‘The most important English Senecan tragedies were produced by Christopher Marlowe, Thomas Kyd (The Spanish Tragedy) and William Shakespeare (Titus Andronicus and Hamlet). Assignments 1. Is Hamlet a typical “Blood and Thunder” tragedy? Which characteristics of the revenge tragedy are to be found in Shakespeare's play and which traits are excluded from it? 2. Present the plot of the play, pointing to those elements which are typical ofthe Elizabethan tragedy. 3. Explain the theme of Shakespeare's tragedy. 4, What feeling or mixture of feelings does Hamlet inspire you at the end of the play? IL. Understanding conflict Conflict is a struggle between opposing forces in a plot. The conflict may be: 1. external, presenting the protagonist's struggle against : a) the forces of nature; ») another person, usually the antagonist; ©) & group of people, or society as a force; 2. internal, involving the protagonist's struggling to decide between two opposing values, ideas within himselffherself. Anoiher kind of conflict is the protagonist's struggle against Fate wr destiiy We seldom find a simple, single conflict in a plot, but rather « complex one, ‘combining the elements of the above-mentioned types. ‘The action in fiction or drama depends upon the conflict, which provides the tension as the action builds to the climax. ‘The term CONFLICT not only implies the struggle of a protagonist against someone OF something, it also implies the existence of some motivation for the conflict or some goal to be achieved by it. “THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE. 2s Assignments 1. What types of conflict are combined in Hamlet? 2, Who is the protagonist and who is the antagonist in Shakespeare's tragedy ? Find the motivation of the conflict between them. Present the stages of the external conflict. 3, a) Which are the conflicting passions and values within the tragic character? ') Analyse Hamlet's hesitatons starting from the internal conflict between the opposing values and ideas, IIL. Understanding the tragic character ‘A tragedy results in a catastrophe for the main character. The tragic hero is @ noble person, a king, a hero, a ruler (in the ancient Greek tragedies, as well as in the Elizabethan tragedies), who is finally doomed, either by fate or by a certain ‘law/weakness in his character. In the “Blood and Thunder” tragedies of the Elizabethan Age, the tragic hero is faced with the problem of whether or not to seek revenge against a murderer ‘who Killed his relative (father, son). The tragic character hesitates to respond to ‘murder by another murder, he is fond of philosophizing and justifying his actions. The philosophic soliloquies are frequently used by the playwright in order to reveal and examine the character's thoughts and feelings. ‘A typical example is Hamlet’s soliloquy “To be, or not to be”. Assignments 1, Read the following excerpt from the soliloquy “To be, or not to be” and explain which are the alternatives Hanet has to choose from: Hamlet : To be, oF not to be that is the question Whether ‘tis nobler in the mind to suffer “The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune, Or to take arms against a sea of troubles, ‘And by opposing end them”... 2, Hamlet feels guilty for not taking immediate revenge. What preserves him from punishing his father's murderer, Claudius, from the moment he knows the truth? Read these lines before answering the question ‘Thus conscience does make cowards of us all, ‘And thus the native hue of resolution Is sicklied o'er with the pale cast of thought; ‘And enterprises of great pitch and moment, ‘With this regard, their current turn. awry, ‘And lose the name of action. 3. What ,weakness” does the character mention in these ines?[READY FOR EXAMS. 4, How does Hamlet's tragic flaw lead to his tragic end? . Is the source of tragedy inside the character (ie. : his own ideas, feelings, attitudes) or outside the character (i.e. his fate which can not be changed)? Analyse one scene in the play where Hamlet's pref specu ns where Hamlet’s preference for refined specu lation prevents him from actually taking revenge. Literary notions SONNET; SHAKESPEAREAN SONNET SONNETS by William Shakespeare 1. Understanding the sonnet A. Definition: A sonnet is a fourteen-ine lyric poem written in iambic pentameter (i.e. ten syllables, with each unaccented syllable followed by an accented one), with a particular shyme scheme. ‘An example of iambic pentameter is the following line «silt FcSmpare tite to & sumniér’s day 2" (Shakespeare, Sonnet XVIII B. Classification. The two forms of sonnets ‘The two characteristic Sonnet types are: 1) The Malian (Petrarchan) and 2) The English (Shakespearean). 1) The Iralian form is divided into an octave (eight tines rhyming abba abba) and a sester (six lines rhyming ede cde, ede edc, or cde dee). 2) The English (Shakespearean) sonnet contains three quatrains (vhyming tabab cdcd efef) and a couplet (rhyming gg). Usually each quarrain (ic. & {our-line group) explores a different aspect of the poem’s central idea. The couplet sums up the poem or comments on What was said in the quatrains. ‘These last two lines (the couplet) are indented (i.e. they start further in from the margin than the other lines). C. Representative sonneteers “The sonnet as a literary form appeared in Italy, probably in the thirteenth century. Petrarch, in the fourteenth century, raised the sonnet to its greatest Italian perfection. “This literary form was introduced into England by Thomas Wyatt, who translated the Petrarchan sonnets into English. Gradually, the Italian sonnet pattern was modified and this modified type was called The English (Shakespearean) sonnet. ‘The most famous sonneteets in English literature are: Shakespeare, Milton, Wordsworth, D.G. RossettiPy READY FOR EXAMS "THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE. » D. Shakespeare's sonnet sequence Cit oamenii privese si cét respi Certain poets, following the example of Petrarch, have written series of sonnets ‘rkiesti si tu in clntu-nchis in lia” linked one to the other, and dealing with some unified subject. Such series are 2, Read Sonnet XCI, find its central idea and discuss how each of the three called sonnet sequences. Some of the best-known sonnet sequences in English ‘quatrains explores a different aspect of this idea, contributing tothe general literature are those by Shakespeare (154 in the group), Sidney’s Astrophel and ‘development of the theme. Explain the concluding statement in the final couplet. Stella, Spenser's Amoretti, Rossett’s House of Life ‘The 154 Shakespearean sonnets, published in 1609, are unified by such themes as: love, the flight of time, the immortality of art. Assignments 1. Analyse the formal characteristics of the following sonnet (rtyme scheme, ‘metre, number of lines, the types of line groups) : Xxva “Shall T compare thee to a summer's day? ‘Thou art more lovely and more temperate. Rough winds do shake the darling buds of May, ‘And summer's lease hath all too short a date ‘Sometime t0o hot the eye of heaven shines, And often is his gold complexion dimmed, And every fair from fair sometime declines, By change of nature's changing course untrimmed ; But the eternal summer shall not fade Nor lose possession of that fair thou ow'st, Nor shall death brag thou wander'st in his shade ‘When in eternal lines to time thou grow’st. So long as men can breath or eyes can see, So long lives this, and this gives life to thee.” ‘The Romanian translation by Gheorghe Tomozei “Cu-o zi a verii poate si te semui? ‘Tu esti mai plin de farmec gi mai bland ! Un vant doboara creanga si blestemu-i cH frunza verii moare prea cursnd. Ades ¢ ochiul cerutui fierhinte si aur il precede-ntunecat Precum frumosul din frumos descinde sub cerul simplei firi, netulburat Dar vara ta eterna mu paleste si mai si pierzi ce astizi stapanesti XC “Some glory in their birth, some in their skill Some in their wealth, some in their body's force; Some in their garments, though new-fangled ill Some in their hawks and hounds, some in their horse, ‘And every humour has its adjunct pleasure, ‘Wherein it finds a joy above the rest; But these particulars are not my measure: [All these I better in one general best. ‘Thy love is better than high birth to me, Richer than wealth, prouder than garments’ cost, Of more delight than hawks and horses be ‘And having thee, of all men’s pride I boast ~ ‘Wretched in this alone, that thou mayst take Al this away, and me most wretched make.” ‘The Romanian translation by Gheorghe Tomozei “La unii fala, cum se nasc, adastl, alfii o au in viaga ori parale, tunii-n bulendre (nowa moda proasti!) ali in soimi, Ia alti intr-un cal e... iin lume fiecare-si are toana fn care-o bucurie-n plus giseste dar nu-s de mine, nu-mi cobor spranceana ccd soarta mea cu toate se-ntilneste. ‘Mai mult jubese fiptura-ti decdt cinul, ‘mulfimea de averi, podoabe, haine, oi cat $i soimt si desftiare ; plimul avandu-l, am si ale fumii taine... ‘Atit doar c& de-mi iei tot, atunci fn neagr& stricie ma arunci!" (W. Shakespeare, Sonnets ~ Sonete, Ed. Pandora, 1998) in umbra mori n-ai s& plimbi caleste 43. What stylistic device does the poet use in the first quatrain and what stylistic céind intr-un vers etern fi-e dat si crest. effect does he obtain’?12, 13. READY FOR EXAMS Find an example of syntactic repetition and explain its stylistic value in the context. ‘Read Sonnet 16 and indicate the rhyme scheme by writ Isa of ata on tte ste ah Let me not tothe marriage of true minds ‘Admit impediments. Love is not love Which alters when it alteration finds, Or bends with the remover to remove. ©, no! it is an ever-fixed mark, ‘That looks on tempests and is never shaken; It is the star to every wandering bark, ... ‘Whose worth’s unknown, although his height be taken .. Love's not Time's fool, though rosy lips and cheeks «. Within his bending sickle’s compass come, Love alters not with his breef hours and weeks, .. But ears it out even to the edge of doom ... «If this be error, and upon me proved, never writ, nor no man ever loved. .. Mark the rhythm on the first line of the sonnet. ‘What is the premise stated in the sonnet? ‘Which of the following describes best the theme of this sonnet: 8) True love is transient ») All love changes. ©) True love never dies 4) Love guides its lovers. How would you describe the tone sm? Melanckolic? Optimistic? Hw would you of the poem? Melanckolic? Optimist |. Which are the two “enemies” threatening true love? Which is the more dangerous? Why? |. Complete the following sentences with the poet's definitions in the sonnet: “True love is... ‘True love is .. ‘Can you finish this statement? Love is ‘Compare your ideas to those of the other students in your group. Read again Sonnet 91 and Sonnet 116, looking for phrases and ideas about the ppower of love and what love can do. Write an essay on the power of lov, using quotations and ideas from the two sonnets. : Literary notions TRAGEDY ; IMAGERY ; FIGURES OF SPEECH ROMEO AND JULIET by William Shakespeare 1. Understanding tragedy ‘A. The theme of tragedy ‘Thieme is the central or dominating idea in afiterary work. In drama, prose and poetry this abstract concept is made concrete through is representation in person, Trction and image. The theme ofa tragedy is the meaning ofthe central action and the main character's recognition ofthat meaning and its consequences. B. The source of tragedy ‘The conflict between opposing forces in the plot may be: 1) external or 2) internal (see Hamlet. Understanding conflict). Therefore, the source of ragedy may be 1) outside the tragic characters (if the conflict is an external one, for txample when it presents the protagonist's struggle against another person ~ an ‘antagonist ~ or against fate/destiny) or 2) inside the tragic characters (if the ‘onfict is an internal one, involving the struggle between opposite values, ideas, feelings within the character). Assignments 1. Present the central action of Romeo and Juliet, emphasizing the conflict berween the two feuding families and its consequences. 2, What is the theme of the tragedy (i.e. the meaning of the central action)? Comment on the oppositions deriving from the central theme: romance and revenge, love and hate, youth and age +3, What type of conflict is presented in Romeo and Juliet ~ an external of an internal one? Which are the opposing forces in the plot? 4 Analyse the sources of tragedy in Romeo and Juliet, pointing to the role of ‘unfortunate coincidences in destroying the protagonists. TL Understanding imagery Imagery is the use of vivid descriptions or figures of speech to create a mental image.READY FOR EXAMS Images may be 4) literal and sensory, appealing to the senses (visual, auditory, olfactory, tac- tile) and involving no change or extension inthe obvious meaning of words. ») nonliteral, figurative, including such figures of speech as : similes, metaphors, personifications, symbols, apostrophe, hyperbole, metonymy, oxymoron. * SIMILE isa figure of speech that makes an explicit comparison between two subjects by using the words like or as. By drawing together different, unlike things, effective similes make vivid and meaningful comparisons that clarify and enrich what the writer has to say. The portrait of Juliet in Act I, Scene 5 includes two vivid similes: “It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night ‘As a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear” ; “So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows ‘As yonder lady over her fellow shows”. ‘+ METAPHOR is an implied comparison between things which are imagi- natively identified with one another (one thing is described as if it were the other). In a metaphor, a comparison is only suggested or implied, without "THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE s Who is already sick and pale with grief, ‘That thou her maid art far more fair than she Romeo: Lady, by yonder blessed Moon T vow, ‘That tips with silver all these fruit-tree tops Juliet: © swear not by the Moon th'inconstant Moon, ‘That monthly changes in her circled orb, Lest that thy love prove likewise variable. APOSTROPHE is a figure of speech in which a writer speaks directly to an idea, to a quality, to an object, orto a person who is not present. It is used in poetry and in speeches to add emotional intensity. In the following lines Juliet addresses the night, giving deep emotional expression to her love for Romeo: ‘Come gentle night, come loving black - brow'd night, Give me my Romeo, and when he shall die, ‘Take him and cut him out in little stars, ‘And he will make the face of heaven so fine, That all the world will be in love with night, Assignments 1. Comment on the theme of identity, as itis illustrated in the following lines from the balcony scene : Juliet: "Tis but thy name that is my enemy ‘Thou art thyself, though not a Montague. ‘What's Montague? It is nor hand, nor foot Nor arm nor face nor any other part Belonging to a man. , be some other name. ‘What's in a name? That which we call a rose By any other name would smell as sweet (...). (Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene 2) 2. a) Analyse the sensory images in the description of Juliet. To which of the following senses: the sense of sight, the sense of hearing, the sense of touch using such words as: like, as, than (these words can be found in a simile). For example, “death is along sleep” or “the sleeping dead” are ‘metaphors, but “death is like a long sleep” is a simile. ' ‘A metaphor may be brief: “O she does teach the torches to burn bright", or extended, developed at length, as in this passage from Romeo and Juliet Act Il, Scene 1 ‘Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven, Having some business do intreat her eyes i ‘To twinkle in their spheres tll they return. What if her eyes were there, they in her head, ‘The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars, ‘As daylight doth a lamp, her eye in heaven Would through the airy region stream so bright, does Shakespeare's imagery appeal? ‘That birds would sing, and think it were no night. +) Discuss the symbolism of light and darkness in this description : i + PERSONIFICATION is a type of figurative language in which absiract Romeo: 0, she does teach the torches to burn bright! or inanimate objects are given human qualities, being described as if It seems she hangs upon the check of night i they were alive and animate ‘As a rich jewel in an Ethiop’s ear ~ Jn Act Il, Scene 2, when Romeo and Juliet exchange vous of love, the Beauty to0 rich for use, for earth too dear! oct personifies the moon, the sun, the night, So shows a snowy dove trooping with crows Romeo: tis, fair Sun, and Kill the envious Moon, ‘As yonder lady over her fellows showsPy READY FOR EXAMS ‘The measure done, I'll watch her place of stand, ‘And touching hers, make blessed my rude hand Did my heart love till now? Forswear i, sight. For [ne'er saw true beauty till tonight (Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Seene 5) 3. a) Compare the use of sensory imagery in the portrait of Juliet and in this description of Cleopatra The barge she set in, like a burnished throne ‘Burned on the water the poop was beaten gold; Purple the sails, and so perfumed tha ‘The winds were love-sick with them the oars were silver, Which to the tune of flutes kept stroke, and made ‘The water which they beat to follow faster, ‘As amorous of ther strokes. For her own person, Ie beggared all description: she did lie In her pavilion, cloth of gold, of tissue, COver-picturng that Venus where we see “The fancy outwork of nature. On each side her Stood prety dimpled boys, like smiling Cupids, With divers-coloured fans whose wind did seem ‘To alow the delicate cheeks which they did cool, And what they undid did. (Antony and Cleopatra) 1) What types of images does the author use in this passage : auditory, visual, olfactory, tactile? Find examples of such sensory images and explain theit siylistic value. «) Which ofthe two descriptions is richer in images and adornments? ) Which expresses feclings more direcly’? ©) Which do you prefer? Why’? i 4. Analyse the use of figurative. nonliteral images in the following lines Romeo [Coming forward] | ‘What light through yonder window breaks? i Itis the east, and Juliet is the sun! : Arise, fair Sun, and kill the envious Moon, ' Who is already sick and pale with grief ; ‘That thou her maid art far more fair than she. 3 Be not her maid, since she is envious i Her vestal livery is but sick and green, a And none but fools do wear it. Cast it off. It is my lady! O it is my love! THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE 3s , that she knew she were! She speaks, yet she says nothing. What of that? Her eye discourses. I will answer it 1am too bold; "Tis not to me she speaks. ‘Two of the fairest stars in all the heaven Having some business, do entreat her eyes ‘To twinkle in their spheres till they return, ‘What if her eyes were there, they in her head? ‘The brightness of her cheek would shame those stars As daylight doth a lamp ; her eyes in heaven Would through the airy region stream so bright ‘That birds would sing and think it were not night. (Romeo and Juliet, Act Il, Scene 2) 5. Think of an aspect of nature that has special appeal for you. Describe it vividly using figurative language (personification, similes, metaphors) and sensory images (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile).Literary notions PERSONAL PROSE; DIARY DIARY by Samuel Pepys IL. Understanding personal prose. The diary Personal or autobiographical prose includes such forms as: diaries, journals, letters, autobiographies, memoirs. A DIARY (JOURNAL) isa day-by-day chronicle of events, a personal and more or less intimate record of current events and thoughts kept by an individual, Although not openly intended for publication, many of the diaries imply the authors" assumption that their personal experience is of interest to the others. ‘Therefore, a diary may be considered both public and private. Most diaries, ‘when published, appeared posthumously. ‘The features which distinguish the diary from the novel are : = the diary is openty subjective (the diarist presents his personal opinions, impressions and feelings when commenting upon current events) ~ the diarist refers to actual people and evens, while the prose writer creates fictional characters and events. ‘The most famous diary in English is that of Samuel Pepys, which details events between January 1, 1660 and May 29, 1669. Other important English diaries are those of John Evelyn, Jonathan Swift, John Wesley, Fanny Burney. Assignments 1. Read the following excerpt from Samhwel Pepys’ Diary and find out what calamity in London's history the diarist refers to. 2. Underline the objective, impersonal details. Then write a 50-words objective report of the event, including the sime references, the places ant the persons mentioned in the text. 3. Extract the passages including the diarist’s personal opinions, feelings and ‘impressions. Find three examples of subjective information in the text below. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE. ” ‘September 2nd (Lord’s day). Some of our maids sitting up late last night to get ‘things ready against our feast to-day, Jane called us up about three in the morning, to tell us of a great fire they saw in the City. So I rose, and slipped on my night-gown, and went to her window ; and thought it to be on the back-side of Marke-lane atthe farthest ; but, being unused to such fires as followed, I thought it far enough off; and so went to bed again, and to sleep, About seven rose again to dress myself, and there looked out at the window, and saw the fire not so much as it was, and further off. So to my closet to set things to rights, after yesterday's cleaning. By and by Jane comes and tells me that she hears that above 300 houses have been burned down to-night by the fire we saw, and that it is now burning experience as a war correspondent in Europe (1948-1947) 5 ~ the bullfighting ; = the big game hunting ; = the deep sea fishing ; = the airplane accidents, ‘The world of Hemingway's fiction is often violent and brutal. It is a world of war, of bullfighters and bullfight “aficionado”, of hunters and fishermen. But it10 READY FOR EXAMS is also a world of failures: men whose life has been destroyed by the war (Jake Barnes in The Sun Also Rises), writers who have betrayed their talert (the dying ‘man in The Snows of Kilimanjaro), bullfighters who have lost IIL. Hemingway's typical heroes Hemingway's typical heroes are active, athletic figures: hunters, fishermen, soldiers, bullfighters, who fight against fate and lose, but who adopt @ stoic endurance, being loyal to a code of honour, The code includes dignity, syle, discipline, which give the hero full humanity in his defeat. Hemingway's heroes live in a harsh, alien universe, in which violence, suffering and death are the rule. They try to overcome fear, to make terms with the outer and the inner threats. IV. Hemingway's style ‘The conciseness of Hemingway's style is one of the most characteristic features Of the writer's “anti-rhetoric”. His dialogues are short, his descriptions objective, his phrases simple, not related or subordinated to each other, but loosely linked by the coordinative conjunctions (and... and...). The figures of speech are almost, absent, only the simplest epithets can be found in the writer’s descriptions. ‘The journalistic style used by Hemingway the reporter is to be found in his fiction too. It is characterized by economy of language and precise, objective presentation of facts. YV. Objective versus subjective presentation ‘Something is objective if it has to do with a realty that is independent of any particular person's mind, or of any personal, internal experience, Statements of fact are objective (¢.g.: “The man killed the bull”). Such statemerts deal with ‘an impersonal, external reality Something is subjective if it is based on personal reactions or emotions rather ‘than on some objective reality. Opinions are subjective statements. Writers often try to recreate subjective experiences and feelings in their works. Objective presentation is a quality in a literary work of impersonality, ‘of freedom from the expression of personal sentiments, attitudes, or opinions by the author. Subjective is a term used to denote siting which is expressive of the inner convictions, beliefs, emotions, ideale the author. Subjective writing is opposed to objective writing, which is impersonal, concrete, and concerned largely with narrative, analysis or description of externalities. VI. Understanding parable ‘A parable is a brief story, usually with human characters, thi ‘moral lesson, The most famous parables are those told by CI told to teach a in the Bible. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE as Assignments 1) The Old Man and the Sea can be read as a parable. What moral lesson does it teach? The following excerpt may help you to answer the question. He did not like to look at the fish anymore since he had been mutilated. When the fish had been hit was as though he himself were hit But I killed the shark that hit my fish, he thought. And he was the biggest dlentuso that I have ever seen. And God knows that I have seen big ones. It was too good to last, he thought. I wish it had been a dream now and that Thad never hooked the fish and was alone in bed on the newspapers. “But man is not made for defeat,” he said. “A man can be destroyed but not defeated.” 1am sorry that I killed the fish though, he thought. Now the bad time is coming and 1 do not even have the harpoon. (..) Now it is over, he thought. They will probably hit me again. But what can a ‘man do against them in the dark without a weapon ? He was stiff and sore now and his wounds and all ofthe strained parts of his body hurt with the cold of the night. I hope I do not have to fight again, he thought. But by midnight he fought and this time'he knew the fight was useless. They ‘came in a pack and he could only see the lines in the water that their fins made ‘and theit phosphorescence as they threw themselves on the fish. He clubbed at hheads and heard the jaws chop and the shaking of the skiff as they took hold below. He clubbed desperately at what he could only feel and hear and he felt something seize the club and it was gone He jerked the tiller free from the rudder and beat and chopped with it, holding it in both hands and driving it down again and again. But they were up to the bow ‘now and driving in one aftr the other and together, tearing off the pieces of meat that showed glowing below the sea as they turned to come once more. One came, finally, against the head itself and he knew that it was over. He swung the tiller across the shark's head where the jaws were caught in the heaviness of the fish's head, which would not tear. He swings it once and twice and again. He heard the tiller break and he lunged atthe shark with the splintered butt, He felt it go in and knowing it was sharp he drove it in again. ‘The shark let go and rolled aviay. That was the last shark of the pack that came. There was nothing more for them to eat. The old man could hardly breathe now and he felt a strange taste in his mouth. It was coppery and sweet and he was afraid of it for the moment, But there was not much of it He spat into the ocean and said, “Eat that, galanos. And make a dream you've killed a man.” Hee knew he was beaten now finally and without remedy and he went back to the stern (...). He sailed lightly now and he had no thoughts nor any feelings1s . READY FOR EXAMS of any kind. He was past everything now and he sailed the skiff to make his hhome port as well and as intelligently as he could. In the night sharks hit the carcass as someone might pick up crumbs from the table. ‘The old mar paid ‘no attention to them and did not pay aty attention to anything except steering. He only noticed how lightly and how well the skiff sailed now there was no great ‘weight beside her. She's good, he though. She is sound and not harmed in any way except forthe tiller. That is easily replaced. He could feel he was inside the current now and he could see the lights ofthe ‘beach colonies along the shore. He knew where he was now and it was ncthing 10 get home. "The wind is our friend, any way, he thought. Then he added, sometimes. And the great sea with our friends and our enemies. And bed, he thought. Bed will be ‘great thing. Itis easy when you are beaten, he thought. I never knew how easy it was. And what beat you, he thought. “Nothing”, he said aloud. “I went out too fat.” 2) Is Santiago defeated or not? Describe his behaviour throughout the fight against the sharks. Analyse his feelings and his attude after the sharks leave only the carcass of the big marlin, 3) Characterize Santiago, pointing to the features that make him one of Hemingway's typical heroes 4) Comment on the use of point of view in this fragment, 5) Which type of speech presentation is used : direct speech, free direct speech, indirect speech or free indirect speech? © Present the specific features of Hemingway's style, finding examples in the excerpt above, Literary notions DRAMA; PROBLEM PLAY; PARADOX CAESAR AND CLEOPATRA by George Bernard Shaw I. Understanding drama; twentieth-century drama Aristotle called drama “imitated human action”, There are three necessary elements in drama: 1) a story 2) told by means of dialogue 3) by actors who impersonate the characters of the story. ‘The twentieth-century literature is characterized by a rebirth of dramatic interest both in Great Britain and in the United States. In England the influence of Ibsen made itself strongly felt in the problem plays of G.B. Shaw and in the realism of John Galsworthy and Somerset Maugham. T.S. Eliot revived and enriched the verse drama, John Osborne expressed the rebellious attitude of the “Angry Young Men” in Look Back in Anger. Eugene O'Neill, Tennessee Williams and Arthur Miller gave America a serious drama, with modern features, influ enced by the European experiments. Il. Understanding problem plays ‘The modern “drama of ideas” is exemplified in the plays of Ibsen, Shaw, Galsworthy, and many others. The problem plays represent in dramatic form a ‘general social problem, a philosophic idea, shown as itis confronted by or must, be solved by the protagonist. Shaw's plays are conflicts of ideas and his characters prime reason for existence is to put forward these ideas. His heroes were often created as mouthpieces for the playwright’s ideas. They tend to make a lot of witty. intellectual speeches through which Shaw's ideas are conveyed to the audience. The true subject of a debate drama being an idea, the events inthe plot are less important. Shaw said about his plots : “Shavian plots are as silly as Shakespearean plots and, like Shakespeare's they are all stolen from other writers.” The innovatory technique is based on reversal : Shaw takes a familiar theatrical type or situation and reverses it so that his audience is forced to reassess things radically. In Caesar and Cleopatra Shaw reverses the traditional view on the wo134 READY FOR EXAMS. legendary characters. His Caesar has no trace of heroism and grandeur. He loos like an old gentleman, a well-educated member of the English middle-class, endowed with a sense of dry humour. Cleopatra, the glamorous, ambitious and clever Queen of Egypt, appears in Shaw’s play as a rather common, timid young girl who has nothing from the majestic figure of the legendary queen. ‘TL. Understanding paradox A paradox is a surprising or even shocking statement that seems to be contra- dictory or absurd, but which may actually present a truth. Paradox is a rhetorical device used to attract attention, to secure emphasis. In Shaw's plays paradox is the most important comical device. TV. Shaw’s reinterpretation of history Shaw’s historical plays deglamorize history, underlining the discrepancy between the legend surrounding historical personalities and the reality that lies beneath the “myth”. The technique of reversal functions with great comic effect when applied to famous historical characters like Caesar and Cleopatra. Caesar, far from being a heroic figure, is seen by Cleopatra as an elderly gentleman, who ‘cannot scare even a girl, What is even funnier, he is told by a girl (for that is Cleopatra's image in Shaw's play) how to govern: “You are very sentimental, Caesar ; but you are clever; and if you do as I tell you, you will soon learn to govern.” G.B. Shaw explained in his Notes to Caesar and Cleopatra that be intended “to produce an impression of greatness by exhibiting Caesar as a man, not mortifying his nature by doing his duty, but as simply doing whet he naturally wants t0 do,” Assignments Read the following excerpt from Caesar and Cleopatra by G.B. Shaw and answer the questions below. The girl (who was wakened, and peeped cautiously from her nest to see who is speaking): Old gentleman. Caesar (starting violently, and clutching his sword): Immortal gods! The girl: Old gentleman: don't run awey. Caesar (stupefied): “Old gentleman: don't run away! !1" This! to Julius Caesar! The girl (urgently): Old gentleman. Caesar: Sphinx: you presume on your centuries. I am yourger than you, though your voice is but a girl's voice as yet. The girl: Climb up bere, quickly ; or the Romans will come and eat you. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE 185 Caesar (running forward past the Sphinx’s shoulder, and seeing her): A child at its breast! A divine child! The girl: Come up quickly. You must get up at its side and creep round. Caesar (amazed) : Who are you” The girl: Cleopatra, Queen of Egypt. Caesar: Queen of the Gypsies, you mean. Cleopatra’: You must not be disrespectful to me, or the Sphinx will let the Romans eat you. Come up. It is quite cosy here. Caesar (to himself): What a dream! What a magnificent dream ! Only let me not wake, and I will conquer fen continents to pay for dreaming it out to the end, (He climbs to the Sphinx’s flank, and presently reappears to her on the pedestal, stepping round its right shoulder.) Cleopatra : Take care. That's right. Now sit down: you may have the other paw. (She seats herself comfortably om its left paw.) It is very powerful and will protect us ; but (shivering and with plaintive loneliness) it would not take any notice of me or keep me company. I am glad you have come: 1 was very lonely. Did you happen to see a white cat anywhere’? Caesar (siting slowly down on the right paw in extreme wonderment) : Have you lost one? Cleopatra: Yes : the sacred white cat: is it not dreadful? I brought him here to sacrifice him to the Sphinx ; but when we got a little way from the city a black cat called him, and he jumped out of my arms and ran to it. Do you think that the black cat can have been my great-great-great-grandmother ? Caesar (staring at her): Your great-great-great-grandmother ? Well, why not’? Nothing would surprise me on this night of nights Cleopatra : 1 think it must have been. My great-grandmother’s great-grand- ‘mother was a black kitten of the sacred white cat; and the river Nile made her his seventh wife, That is why my hair is so wavy. And I always want to be let 0 do as I like, no matter whether it is will of the gods or not; that is because my blood is made with Nile water. Caesar: What are you doing here at this time of night? Do you live here? Cleopatra : Of course not: I am the Queen ; and I shall live in the palace at Alexandria when I have killed my brother, who drove me out of it. When 1am old enough I shall do just what I like. I shall be able to poison the slaves and see them wriggle, and pretend to Ftatateeta that she is going to be out into the fiery furnace. Caesar: Him! Meanwhile why are you not at home and in bed? Cleopatra : Because the Romans are coming to eat us all. You are not at home and in bed either.158 READY FOR EXAMS Caesar (with conviction) : Yes T am. I live in a tent; and 1 am now in that tent, fast asleep and dreaming. Do you suppose that I believe you are real, you impossible litle dream witch? Cleopatra (giggling and leaning trustully towards him) : You are a fuany old gentleman. I fike you. Caesar: Ah, that spoils the dream. Why don’t you dream that I am young? Cleopatra: 1 wish you were; only I think I should be more afraid of you. 1 like men, especially young men with round strong arms ; but I am afraid of them. You are old and rather thin and stringy ; but you have a nice voice ; and like to have somebody to talk to, though I think you are a little mad. It is the ‘moon that makes you talk to yourself in that silly way. Caesar: What! you heard that, did you I was saying my prayers tothe great Sphinx. Cleopatra: But ths isn’t the great Sphinx Caesar (much disappointed, looking at the statue): What! Cleopatra: This is only a dear kitten of the Sphinx. Why, the great Sphinx is so big that it has a temple between its paws. This is my pet Sphinx. Tell me: do you think the Romans have any sorcerers who could take us away from the Sphinx bby magic? Caesar: Why’? Are you afraid of the Romans? Cleopatra (very seriously): Oh, they would eat us if they caught us, They are barbarians. Their chief is called Julius Caesar. His father was a tiger and his mother a burning mountain; and his nose is like an elephant’s trunk. (Caesar involuntarily rubs his nose.) They all have long noses, and ivory tusis, and litle tails, and seven arms with a hundred arrows in each, and they live on ‘human flesh. (from Caesar and Cleopatra) 1) Which of the following adjectives do you associate with the two historical figures - Caesar and Cleopatra - and which of them do you associate with Shaw's characters : great, glamorous, majestic, funny, kind, timid, shy, attrac- tive, courageous, urbane, dignified, proud, humorous, intelligent, shrewd 2) Comment on Shaw’s original treatment of the historical figures. Find examples In the excerpt above. 3) What does the humour of the play consist in? 4) Analyse the comic effects produced by the technique of reversal in the fragment above, 5) Caesar and Cleopatra is a debate drama, the events and the characters illustrating a general idea about history. Discover the idea which represents the true subject of the play. Literary notions ALLEGORICAL NOVEL; SYMBOL LORD OF THE FLIES by William Golding L Understanding allegory ‘An allegory is a story with more than on level of meaning = 1) a literal one and 2) one or more symbolic levels. Allegory allows the writer both to tell a story about literal characters and to make a moral, religious, or political point. Besides having literal surface meaning, the events, characters, or settings in an allegory also stand for ideas or qualities and have a second meaning at that level. Parable, fable, beast epic are types of allegory. 'W. Golding was considered by some critics “not a novelist, but an allegorist” Gohn Wain). The allegorical value of his novels is obvious in the moral issues ‘which lie beneath the surface level. Lord of the Flies is not a simple adventure story of boys on a desert island; it is essentially @ fable about the end of innocence, about the darkness of man’s heart. The defects of society are the result of the defects of human nature. The idea is thatthe evil, the “beast” is part of the human soul, of the human nature Il. Understanding the central symbol in Lord of the Flies A symbol is anything that stands for or represents something else. The central symbol in Golding’s novel is the “lord of the flies”. This name is a translation of the Hebrew Ba'alzevuv, meaning the Devil. However, the Devil is, not presented in any traditional, religious sense. It is its modern equivalent, the anarchic, amoral, driving force which lies deep in the human heart, The tenets of civilization, the moral and social codes can not destroy this uncontrollable evil force, they can only cover and disguise it temporarily. ‘The conch, the hunting expedition, the fire, the struggle between Ralph and Jack, the killing of the sow have symbolic meanings, suggesting the main theme, of the book ~ the flight between good and evil, between civilization and the basic. wildness in human heart,18 [READY FOR EXAMS Assignments 1) Read the following excerpts from Chapter two: Fire on the Mountain and ‘comment on the symbolic meanings of the island, the conch, the fire, the two leaders ~ Ralph and Jack, the rules established by Ralph. By the time Ralph finished blowing the conch the platform was crowed. Ralph sat ona fallen trunk, his left side tothe sun. On his right were most ofthe choir ; ‘on his left the larger boys who had not known each other before the evacuation ; before him small children squatted in the grass Silence now. Ralph lifted the conch to his knees and a sudden breeze scattered light over the platform. He was uncertain whether to stand up or remain siting. (...) “Well then.” All.at once he found he could talk fluently and explain what he had wo say. He ‘passed a hand through his fair hair and spoke. “We're on an island. We've been on the mountain top and seen water all round, We saw no houses, no smoke, no footprints, no boats, no people. We're ‘on an uninhabited istand with no other people on it.” Jack broke in. “All the same you need an army ~ for hunting. Hunting pigs -.” “Yes. There are pigs on the island.” “We saw —" “Squealing ~ “It broke away —" “Before I could kill it ~ but-next ime! * Jack slammed his knife into a trunk and looked round challengingly. “So you see,” said Ralph, “we need hunters to get us meat, And another thing. (..) We can’t have everybody talking at once, We'll have to have ‘Hands up" like at school”. He held the conch before his face and glanced round the mouth. “Then I'l give him the conch,” “Conch?” “That's what this shell’s called. I'l give the conch to the next person to speak. He can hold it when he's speaking. And he won’t be interrupted. Except by me.” Jack was on his feet. “We'll have rules!” he cried excitedly, “Lots of rules! Then when anyone breaks’em ~ “Whee-oh!” “Waco!” “Bong!” “Doink 1 ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE, 139 ‘Ralph pushed back the tangle of fair hair that hung on his forehead. “So we may'be here a long time.” Nobody said anything. He grinned suddenly. “But this is a good island. We - Jack, Simon and me - we climbed the ‘mountain, It’s wizard. There’s food and drink, and ~” “It’s like a book” At once there was a clamor. “Treasure Island -” “Swallows and Amazons -” “Coral Istand — Ralph waved the conch. “This is our island. It’s a good island, Until the grownups come to fetch us we'll have fun.” “Now we come to the most important thing, I've been thinking. I was thinking While we were climbing the mountain.” He flashed a conspiratorial grin at the other so “And on the beach just now. This is what I thought, We want to have fun, And ‘we want t0 be rescued.” ‘The passionate noise of agreement from the assembly hit him like a wave and he lost thread. He thought again. “We want to be rescued ; and of course we shall be rescued.” Voices babbled. The simple statement, unbacked by any proof but the weight of Ralph's new authority, brought light nd happiness. He bad to wave the conch before he could make them hear him. (...) Ralph waved the conch. Shut up! Wait! Listen.” Hee went on in the silence, borne on his triumph. “There's another thing. We can help them to find us. Ifa ship comes near the island they may not notice us, So we must make smoke on top of the mountain. ‘We must make a fire.” “A fire! Make a fire!” ‘At once half the boys were on their feet. Jack clamored among them, the conch forgotten. 2) How do you explain Ralph’s authority? Why do the other boys accept him as a leader? 3) Find clues in the text which point to Jack's hidden violence 4) Im the end Jack and the “savages” defeat Ralph and those who support him. Comment on the significance of this ending1 READY FOR EXAMS '5) The fragment that presents the most deeply symbolic incident in the book is the “interview” of Simon with the pig head, the Lord ofthe Flies. Analyse the symbolic meaning of the latte’s words: “Fancy thinking the Beast was something you could hunt and kill! said the head. For a moment or two the forest and all the other dimly appreciated places echoed with the parody of laughter. “You knew, didn’t you? I'm part of you’? Close, close, close! I'm the reason why it's no go? Why things are what they are?” ‘The message of the head frightens Simon because it reveals the usefulaess of Ralph and Piggy and Simon's attempt to impose human moral systems, t0 impose sensible rules. Finally “Simon found he was looking into a vast ‘mouth. There was blackness within, a blackness that spread. (...) Simon was inside the mouth. He fell down and lost consciousness.” What does the ‘blackness stand for? Comment on the symbolic meaning of the mouth swallo- wing Simon, 6) Inthe end the boys are rescued by a cruiser. Read the final passage of the novel and comment on the significance of Ralph's sorrow before leaving the island. ‘The officer nodded helpfully “L know. Jolly good show. Like the Coral Istand.” Ralph fooked at him dumbly. For a moment he had a fleeting picture of the strange glamour that had once invested the beaches. But the island was scorched up like dead wood ~ Simon was dead ~ and Jack had... The tears began to flow and sobs shook him. He gave himself up to them now for the first time on the island; great, shuddering spasms of grief that seemed to wrench his whole body. His voice rose under the black smoke before the burning wreckage of the island ; and infected by that emotion, the other little boys began to shake and sob too. ‘And in the middle of them, with filthy body, matted hair, and unwiped nose, Ralph wept for the end of innocence, the darkness of man’s heart, and the fall through the air of the true, wise friend called Piggy. Literary notions POETIC CREED; FREE VERSE SONG OF MYSELF by Walt Whitman I. Understanding Whitman’s conception about poetry Inhis Preface to Leaves of Grass, Whitman expressed his poetic creed, his views ‘on the poetic act which implies : 1) the poet, 2) his language, 3) the subject matter, 4) the reader. 1) The poet identifies himself with his world, his spirit “responds to his country’s spirit.” The poet’s “I” is everything and everybody. 2) The language of poetry is revitalized, the vulgar and the obscure words ‘become poetic. The language of the street is used by the poet. The style is simple and devoid of poetic ornaments. 3) The subject matter is primarily the nation, the “United States themselves”, with men and women, the “largeness of nature” and “the largeness and generosity of the spirit ofthe citizen.” As the poet identifies himself with his country, his own self becomes his great poetic subject. The poet must give free and full expression to his own self in his poetry. “I celebrate myself, and sing myself.” 4) The reader rust identify himself with the poet and re-experience the poet's revelation of the world: “what I assume you shall assume/ For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you.” (Song of Myself) Il. Understanding free verse Free verse is poetry uot waitten in a regular rhythmical pattern, or meter. Instead of having metrical feet and lines, free verse has a varying rhythm that suits its meaning. Free verse has greater rhythmical units than conventional verse. In conventional verse the unit is the foot or the line; in free verse the unit is the ‘stanza ot strophe. ‘This form is frequent in wentieth-century poetry, but it is not a contribution of our century. Walt Whitman used it before 1860 in Leaves of Grass. He wrote1a READY FOR EXAMS in “free verse”, without rhyme or stanza pattern and without a regular pattern of stresses and line lengths. The song-like musicality of his poems is created by ‘means of repetitions of words and syntactic patterns, alterations, assonances, Assignments 1) Read the following lines from Song of Myself and answer the questions below them. 1 celebrate myself, and sing myself, ‘And what I assume you shall assume, For every atom belonging to me as good belongs to you. 1 loafe and invite my soul, ean and loafe at my ease observing a spear of summer grass. ‘My tongue, every atom of my blood, form’d from this soil, this air, ‘Born here of parents born here from parents the same, and their parents the same, 1, now thirty-seven years old in perfect health begin, Hoping to cease mot till death. (...) A child said: What is the grass? fetching it to one with full hands ; How could I answer the child I do not know what it is any more than be, 1 guess it isthe handkerchief of the Lord, A scented gift and remembrancer designedly dropt, Bearing the owner’s name someway in the corners, that we may see and remark and say Whose? (Or I guess the grass is itself a child, the produced babe of the vegetation. (...) 4) What does the title of the poem suggest about the poet? 'b) What isthe purpose of his poetry? ©) What is the reader's role? ) Metaphor isan implied comparison that compares, like a simile; two objects, which are alike in one respect. However, instead of saying that A is like B, a ‘metaphor states that A is B ~ it equates the two terms. Therefore the words like oF as are not used in a metaphor. They appear only in smiles, eg.: “Moming is a new sheet of paper for you to write on” (Eve Mertiam) Extended metaphor: If a metaphor speaks about an object as if it were something else, an extended metaphor continues the main comparison, ealarging ‘on what has already been said, and it may include several other comparisons. ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE ues e.g.: “What mystery pervades a well: ‘That water lives so far ~ A neighbour from another world Residing in a jar Whose limit none has ever seen, But just his tid of glass ~ Like looking every time you please Inn abyss’s face !* (Emily Dickinson) ©) Personification is a figure of speech in which an object or an abstract idea is represented as a person. Personification of things or ideas makes them seem vital and alive, as if they were human. eg.: “Tonight the waves march in long ranks Cutting the darkness With their silver shanks.” a brief descriptive phrase used to point out a characteristic of a clouds”, “sweet ) Bpither person or thing. In literature epithets are figurative, as: “Iabouri “snarling trumpets”, “meek-eyed peace”, “glimmering landscape silent thought”, “dazzling immortality”. ©) Symbol is an object, action, or idea that represents something other than itself. A conventional symbol is one that is widely known and accepted such asa voyage symbolizing life, or a dove symbolizing peace. A personal symbol is one created for a particular work by a particular author. e.g.: The white whale in Moby-Dick is a personal symbol. ‘The voyage, the ocean in the same book are conventional symbols, being ‘pregnant with widely known meanings (The voyage ~ life) {) Antithesis is a figure of speech which consists in strongly contrasting words, sentences or ideas, one term being balanced against another for impressiveness or emphasis. e.g.: “Man proposes, God disposes” 8). Oxymoronis a figure of speech that puts together two opposing or contradictory terms. Such contrast makes for sharp emphasis e.g.: “eloquent silence”, “freezing fire”, “cheerful pessimist”, “wise fool”. i) Metonymy is a figure of speech in which the name of a thing is substituted for ‘another thing with which its usually associated because of their close relation. e.g: The word “crown” substitutes the word “king” because the crown is an ‘object closely associated with kingship. The word “sweat” often stands for “hard labour” , because of their close association166 READY FOR EXAMS I. Understanding Emily Dickinson's special usage of musical punctuation Emily Dickinson uses very frequently dashes instead of commas, semicolons, full stops. When we read her poems aloud we understand the musical effect of these dashes. The reader has to make significant pauses, which emphasize the meaning. ‘Another specific feature of her poems is the usage of capital leters for the important words, which often have symbolic value in the context. Assignments 1) Find the figures of speech in the following poems by Emily Dickinson ‘The Wind ~ tapped like a tired Man ~ ‘And like a Host ~ “Come in” boldly answered ~ entered then ‘My Residence within ‘A Rapid ~ footless Guest ~ To offer whom a Chair Were as impossible as hand ‘A Sofa to the No Bone had He to bind Him ~ iis Speech was like the Push ‘OF numerous Humming Birds at once From a superior Bush ~ His Countenance ~ a Billow ~ His Fingers, as He passed Let go a music ~ as of tunes Blown tremulous in Glass ~ He visited then like a ‘Again, He tapped ~ "twas flurriedly ~ ‘And I became alone. 1a) Who is the “Guest” entering the speaker’s residence? Who is the “Host* ? ’) What feeling does the speaker have towards this unusual “Guest” ? A narrow Fellow in the Grass Occasionally rides ~ You may have Him - did you not His notice sudden is ~ ‘The Grass divides as with a Comb ~ ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE 19 A spotted shaft is seen ~ ‘And then it closes at your feet ‘And opens further on ~ Several of Nature's People know, and they know me ~ 1 feel for them a transport Of cordiality ~ But never met this Fellow ‘Attended, or alone Without a tighter breathing ‘And Zero at the Bone”. ©) Who is the “narrow Fellow"? 4) Describe the observer's feelings aroused by this creature. 2) Punctuate the two poems in the regular way and then read them aloud. Compare the effect produced by your version with that produced by the original poem (in which dashes are used instead of other punctuation marks).Literary notions IMAGISM ; HAIKU EZRA POUND I. Understanding imagism Imagism, as a literary movement was founded in 1912 by a group of poets led by Ezra Pound. Most of their poems were published by Amy Lowell in Poetry (1917). The most representative figures of the imagist movement were Ezra Pound, Amy Lowell, Carl Sandburg and William Carlos Williams. ‘The major objectives of the movement were: 1) to use language of common speech, but to employ always the exact word; 2) to avoid all cliché expressions ; 3) to create new rhythms as the expressions of new moods ; 4) to allow absolute freedom in the choice of subject ; 5) to present an IMAGE (that is to be concrete, firm, definite, to avoid ‘vagueness in their pictures) ; 6) to strive always for concentration which is the essence of poetry: 7) to suggest rather than to offer complete statements The Imagists were influenced by the Japanese HAIKU, with its single sharp image. HAIKU is a form of Japanese poetry, which states in three lines of five, seven and five syllables a clear picture designed (0 arouse a distinct emotion and suggest a specific spiritual insight. ‘The “haiku” style may be exemplified by E. Pound's poem In a station of the ‘Metro. Getting out of the metro in Paris, the poet saw faces coming against him and passing him, and later he attempted to get his feeling in words. The result was this short poem “The apparition of these faces in the crowd Petals, on a wet black bough.” T ‘THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY COMPETENCE. 6 Assignments 1) Which features of the “haiku” style can you notice in Pound's poem Personae 1 will sing of the white birds In the blue waters of heaven, ‘The clouds that are pray to its sea. 2) Read the following poem and find the central image. Why is this an Imagist poem? Girl ‘The tree has entered my hands, ‘The sap has ascended my arms, ‘The tree has grown in my breast ~ Downward, ‘The branches grow out of me, like arms. Tree you are, Moss you are, ‘You are violets with wind above them. Acchild ~ 50 high ~ you are, ‘And all this is folly to the world,Literary notions MODERN POETRY ; AMBIGUITY ; CONNOTATION ; LITERARY ALLUSION THOMAS STEARNS ELIOT 1. Understanding elliptical constructions; their role in modern poetry Ellipsis isa figure of speech characterized by the omission of one or more words which, while essential to the grammatic structure of the sentence, can be supplied by the reader. The device often traps the reader into difficulties. Modern poetry often seems difficult to understand because of the extensive use of elliptical constructions. The poet intentionally skips some connecting words or ideas and the reader must have an active role, filling in what is missing TL. Understanding ambiguity Ambiguity isthe expression of an idea in language of such a nature as to give more than one meaning and to leave uncertainty as to the true significance of the statement. ‘The chief causes of ambiguity are : brevity and compression of statement (i.e. elliptical constructions), unusual (poetical) word order, the use of a word with two or more meanings. In literature words have an astounding capacity for suggesting two or more senses in a given context, for conveying a core meaning and accompanying it with overtones of great richness and complenity. ‘The great poets supercharge words with great pressures of meaning, exploiting the resourcefullness of language. The ambiguity, which results from this capacity of words to stimulate simultancously several different streams of thought, all of Which make sense, is a genuine characteristic of great modern poetry. IIL. Understanding connotation ‘The connotation of a word is the set of associations that the word calls to the mind. Words with similar denotations, i.e. literal, dictionary meanings, often have different connotations. As a result, the words can create different emotional y CULTURE AND CIVILISATION TESTS m reactions and feelings. Poets choose words with appropriate connotations in order to create a specific mood. For example, in the following lines, T.S. Eliot uses the nouns “ash” and “dust” which call to the mind the idea of death, creating a depressing mood, ‘Ash on an old man’s sleeve Is all the ash the burnt roses leave. ‘Dust in the air suspended Marks the place where a story ended, Dust inbreathed was house ~ ‘The wall, the wainscot and the mouse. ‘The death of hope and despair, This is the death of air. TV. Understanding mood Mood, or atmosphere, is the feeling created in the reader by a literary work or passage. The mood may be suggested by the writer’s choice of words, by images, or by the physical setting. The connotations of words are important in literature because they produce certain emotions and attitudes. ‘Understanding the mood of a poem is important in order to understand its meaning. For example, in a poem about death, a speaker may assume a tone of intense grief, resignation or despair. Understanding the specific tone, the reader understands the poet's way of looking at death, and thus the theme of the poem. YY. Understanding allusions ‘Through allusions a writer makes reference to famous historical or literary figures or events. Biblical allusions are conimon in English literature. Complex literary allusion is characteristic of much modern poetry. A good example is TS, Elio’s The Waste Land, which is a tissue of allusions, explained by the author in the Notes. Eliot developed a real technique of allusion in poetry. He created new contexts for the passages from past authors, bringing the oid texts to full relevance. ‘Through these allusions the poet calls to the reader’s mind a host of related associations that add (0 the meaning of the poem. Assignments 1) Read the following poem and comment on the mood suggested by the poet. Find the adjectives, the verbs and the nouns which contribute to the specific atmosphere ‘Ash on an old man’s sleeve Is all the ash the burnt roses leave Dust in the air suspended