CVE 471

WATER RESOURCES ENGINEERING

DAMS

Assist. Prof. Dr. Bertuğ Akıntuğ

Civil Engineering Program

Middle East Technical University
Northern Cyprus Campus

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Classification of Dams

„ A dam is an impervious barrier built across a watercourse to

store water for several purposes:
„ water supply,
„ creating head (energy generation),
„ forming a lake,
„ sediment control,
„ flood control,
„ recharging of groundwater, etc.
„ There are disadvantages of dams as well:
„ imbalance of ecosystem,
„ decrease amount of downstream water,
„ reduction in the fertility of farmlands, etc.
„ Therefore, detailed survey should be carried out to ensure that
the relative weights of advantages over disadvantages are
higher.
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 3. DAMS

Classification of Dams

„ Dams can be classified into a number of different categories

depending upon the purpose of classifications.
„ A classification based on the type and materials of construction:
„ Gravity Dams
„ Concrete gravity dams
„ Prestressed concrete gravity dams
„ Roller compacted concrete (RCC) gravity dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Constant-angle arch dams
„ Constant-center arch dams
„ Variable-angel, variable-cemter arch dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Flat-slab buttress dams
„ Multiple-arch buttress dams
„ Embankment (Fill) Dams

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Classification of Dams

„ Gravity Dams
„ Concrete gravity dams
„ Pre-stressed concrete gravity
dams
„ Roller compacted concrete
(RCC) gravity dams

Karun Dam, Iran

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam

Shasta Dam, California, USA

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Classification of Dams

„ Arch Dams
„ Constant-angle arch dams
„ Constant-center arch dams
„ Variable-angel arch dams
„ Variable-center arch dams

Monticello Dam, California, USA Gordon Dam, Tasmania

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam
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Classification of Dams

„ Buttress Dams
Used mainly in wide valleys, it
consists of an impermeable wall,
which is shored up by a series of
buttresses to transmit the thrust of
the water to the foundation.
„ Flat-slab buttress dams

„ Multiple-arch buttress dams

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Classification of Dams

„ Buttress Dams
„ Flat-slab buttress dams

Lake Tahoe Dam, California, USA

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Classification of Dams

„ Buttress Dams
„ Multiple-arch buttress dams

Bartlett Dam , Phoenix, Arizona, USA

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Classification of Dams

„ Embankment (Fill) Dams

„ Earth-fill dams
„ Simple embankment
„ Zoned embankment
„ Diaphragm type embankment

Upstream of Ataturk Dam, Turkey

„ Embankment (Fill) Dams

„ Rock-fill dams
Downstream of Ataturk Dam, Turkey „ Impermeable-face
„ Impermeable-earth core
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 3. DAMS

Classification of Dams

„ A classifications based on
purpose, such as
„ storage
„ diversion
„ flood control
„ hydropower generation

„ A classification based on
hydraulic design such as
„ overflow dams,
„ non-overflow dams
Gilboa Dam, New York State, USA
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam

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 3. DAMS

Classification of Dams

A timber crib dam in Michigan, USA 1978 Liberty Dam, USA

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dam

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Classification of Dams

„ A classification based on dam height:

„ According to the International Commission on Large Dams (ICOLD):
„ Large Dam Æ if height > 15 m
„ Large Dam Æ if 10 m < height < 15 m
reservoir storage > 106 m3
crest length > 500 m
„ High Dam Æ height > 50 m
„ Small Dam Æ height < 10 m

Distribution of dam heights in Turkey as of 2002.

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Classification of Dams

Percent distribution of dams in Turkey according to purpose

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Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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Parts of Dams

„ A dam is composed of the following structural components

„ Body forms the main part of a dam as an impervious barrier.
„ Reservoir is the artificial lake behind a dam body.
„ Spillway is that part of a dam to evacuate the flood wave from the
reservoir.
„ Water intake is a facility to withdraw water from a reservoir.
„ Outlet facilities are those appurtenances to withdraw water from
the reservoir to meet the demands or to discharge the excess
water in the reservoir to the downstream during high flows.
„ sluiceways,
„ penstocks,
„ diversion tunnels,
„ bottom outlets, and
„ water intake structures
„ Others: Hydropower station, site installations, roads, ship locks,
fish passages, etc.
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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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Planning of Dams

„ There are commonly three steps in the planning and design:

„ reconnaissance survey,
„ feasibility study, and
„ planning study.
„ In reconnaissance surveys, the alternatives, which seem
infeasible without performing intensive study, are eliminated.
„ Feasibility Study:
„ Estimation of water demand
„ Determination of water potential
„ Optimal plans
„ Determination of dam site
„ Topography
„ Geologic information
„ Foundation conditions
„ Flood hazard

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Planning of Dams

„ Feasibility Study:
„ Determination of dam site (cont’d)
„ Spillway location and possibility
„ Climate
„ Diversion facilities
„ Sediment problem
„ Water quality
„ Transportation facilities
„ Right of way cost
„ Determination of type of dams
„ Project design
„ Hydrologic design
„ Hydraulic design
„ Structural design

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Planning of Dams

„ Planning Study:
„ Topographic surveys
„ Foundation studies
„ Details on materials and constructional facilities
„ Hydrologic study
„ Reservoir operation study

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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Construction of Dams

„ Details of dam construction are beyond the scope of this

course.
„ The principal steps to be followed during the construction of any
type of dam briefly:
„ Evaluation of time schedule and required equipment.
„ Diversion of river flow
„ Foundation treatment

Evaluation of Time Schedule and Required Equipment.

„ Items to be considered:

„ the characteristics of dam site

„ the approximate quantities of work
„ the preservation of construction equipment and materials
„ diversion facilities and urgency of work

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow

Diversion of the river flow is may be accomplished in one of the following
ways
1. Water is diverted through a side tunnel or channel.

(Applicable for low flow depths ~1.5 m)

Diversion by side tunnel or channel

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

„ Typical cross-section of earth cofferdams
„ f: free board f=0.2(1+h)
„ h: flow depth (meters)
„ G=z/5 + 3 (meters)
„ Cofferdams should be constructed during the low flow season.
„ For fill type dams, embankment cofferdam may be kept in place as part of the
embankment (e.g. Keban Dam and Ataturk Dam).
„ For concrete dams, embankment cofferdam should be demolished after the dam has
been constructed.

Earth cofferdam on impervious foundation Earth cofferdam on pervious foundation

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

Hoover Dam, USA

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 3. DAMS

Construction of Dams
Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)
Hoover Dam Overflow Tunnels (spillways), USA

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

Hoover Dam Overflow Tunnels (spillways), USA

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 3. DAMS
Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

Construction of Dams
Hoover Dam Overflow Tunnels (spillways), USA

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

2. Water is discharged through the construction, which takes place in two
stages.
This type of diversion is normally practiced in wider valleys.

Two-stage diversion

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

Two-stage diversion

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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

A cofferdam on the Ohio River, Illinois, USA, built for the purpose of constructing the lock and dam.
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Construction of Dams

Diversion of River Flow (cont’d)

„ Selection of a proper diversion scheme is based on the joint
consideration of
„ hydrologic characteristics of river flow,
„ type of dam and its height,
„ availability of materials,
„ characteristics of spilling arrangements.
„ The optimum design is based on cost minimization.
„ The cost analysis is carried out for various sizes of diversion
tunnels or channels to determine the corresponding total costs.
„ The optimum tunnel diameter or bottom width of a lined
trapezoidal channel is then determined according to the
minimum total cost of the facility.

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Construction of Dams

Foundation Treatment
„ Foundation treatment for dams is essential
„ to achieve less deformation under high loads,
„ to decrease permeability and seepage,
„ to increase shearing strength, and
„ to satisfy slope stability for the side hills.
„ Highly porous foundation material causes excessive seepage, uplift
and considerable settlement.
„ Such problems can be improved by a grouting operation.
„ In this operation, the grout mix is injected under pressure to
decrease the porosity, and hence to solidify the formations
underlying the dam and reservoir.

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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Gravity Dams

„ Gravity dams are satisfactorily adopted for narrow valleys having

stiff geological formations.
„ Their own weight resists the forces exerted upon them.
„ They must have sufficient weight against overturning tendency
about the toe.
„ The base width of gravity dams must be large enough to prevent
sliding.
„ These types of dams are susceptible to settlement, overturning,
sliding and severe earthquake shocks.

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams

„ Concrete gravity dams area built of mainly plain concrete to
take compressive stresses.

Shasta Dam, California, USA

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

„ Concrete gravity dams have lower maintenance and operation costs
compared to the other types of dams.
„ In the design of these structures, the following criteria should be
satisfied:
„ Dimensions of the dam are chosen such that only compressive stresses
develop under all loading conditions.
„ The dam must be safe against overturning, shear and sliding.

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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

„ In the construction of concrete gravity dams special care is
required for the problems due to shrinkage and expansion.

Formation of the body of the concrete gravity dam

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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Forces Acting on Gravity Dams
The weight:
Wc= dead load

Hydrostatic forces:

Uplift Force:

φ: uplift reduction coefficient

Moment arm of Fu=B(2h1+3h2) / 3(h1+h2)

Actual uplift pressures are determined by pressure

gauges installed at the bottom of the dam. Free body diagram. Forces acting on a concrete gravity dam
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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Forces Acting on Gravity Dams
Sediment Force:

γs: submerged specific weight of soil

Ka: active earth pressure coefficient according to the
Rankine theory.
Ka = (1-sinθ)/(1+sinθ)

Ice Load (Fi):

Free body diagram. Forces acting on a concrete gravity dam

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Forces Acting on Gravity Dams
Earthquake Force:
Fd = kWc
k: earthquake coefficient

Dynamic Force in the reservoir induced by earthquake

Fw = 0.726Ckγh12
 θ′ 
C = 0.71 − 
 90 
Dynamic Force acting on a spillways

ΣF = ρQ∆u
obtained using momentum equation
Free body diagram. Forces acting on a concrete gravity dam
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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Forces Acting on Gravity Dams

Wave Force may be considered for wide and long

reservoirs.

Temperature Loads may be severe during

construction because of hydration reactions

Free body diagram. Forces acting on a concrete gravity dam

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ Stability analyses are performed for various loading conditions
„ The structure must prove its safety and stability under all loading conditions.
„ Since the probability of occurrence of extreme events is relatively small, the
joint probability of the independent extreme events is negligible.
„ In other word, the probability that two extreme events occur at the same time
is relatively very low.
„ Therefore, combination of extreme events are not considered in the stability
criteria.
„ Floods (spring and summer) ÅÆ Ice load (winter).
„ No need to consider these two forces at the same time.

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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ Usual Loading
„ Hydrostatic force (normal operating level)
„ Uplift force
„ Temperature stress (normal temperature)
„ Dead loads
„ Ice loads
„ Silt load
„ Unusual Loading
„ Hydrostatic force (reservoir full)
„ Uplift force
„ Stress produced by minimum temperature at full level
„ Dead loads
„ Silt load
„ Extreme (severe) Loading
„ Forces in Usual Loading and earthquake forces

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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The ability of a dam to resist the applied loads is measured by some
safety factors.
„ To offset the uncertainties in the loads, safety criteria are chosen
sufficiently beyond the static equilibrium condition.
„ Recommended safety factors: (USBR, 1976 and 1987)

F.S0: Safety factor against overturning.

F.Ss: Safety factor against sliding.
F.Sss: Safety factor against shear and sliding.
„ However, since each dam site has unique features, different safety
factors may be derived considering the local condition.
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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The factor of safety against overturning:

F .S0 =
∑ Mr where ΣMr: total resisting moment about the toe.
∑ M0 ΣM0: total overturning moment about the toe.

„ The factor of safety against sliding:

f ∑V
F .S s =
∑H
where f: coefficient of friction between any two planes
ΣV: vectorial summation of vertical forces.
ΣH: vectorial summation of horizontal forces.
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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The factor of safety against sliding and shear:
f ∑ V + rAτ s
F .S ss = (in the dam)
∑H
f ∑ V + cA
F .S ss = (at foundation level)
∑H
where A: Area of the shear plane,
τs: shear strength of concrete
r: factor to express max allowable average shear stress
r=0.33, 0.50, and 1.0 for usual, unusual, and extreme loading, respectively.
f: coefficient of friction between any two planes
ΣV: vectorial summation of vertical forces.
ΣH: vectorial summation of horizontal forces.
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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The contact stress between the foundation and the dam or the
internal stress in the dam body must be compressive:

σ=∑ ±
V Mc
A I

Normal stress Bending or flexural stress

Base pressure distribution

where σ : vertical normal base pressure

A: Area of the shear plane,
M: net moment about the centerline of the base (M = ΣV.e)
e: eccentricity ( B / 2 − x )
c: B/2
I : Moment of inertia (B3/12)
ΣV: vectorial summation of vertical forces.
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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The contact stress between the foundation and the dam or the
internal stress in the dam body must be compressive:
„ In order to maintain compressive stresses in the dam or at the foundation
level, the minimum pressure σmin ≥ 0.
„ This can be achieved with a certain range of eccentricity.
ΣV Mc Σ V Σ V × e × B / 2 Σ V  6e 
σ= ± for a unit width
σ min = − = 1 −  ≥ 0
A I A 3
B / 12 B  B
„ σmin ≥ 0 can be achieved if e ≤ B/6
„ Full reservoir Æ σmax at the downstream face
„ Empty reservoir Æ σmax at the upstream face

Base pressure distribution

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The contact stress between the foundation and the dam or the
internal stress in the dam body must be compressive:
„ Tension along the upstream face of a gravity dam is possible under
reservoir operating conditions.

„ z = 1.0 (if there is no drainage in the dam body)

„ z = 0.4 (if drains are used)
„ P: hydrostatic pressure at the level under consideration

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ Concrete gravity dams have varying thickness.
„ Hence the inclined compressive stresses parallel to the face of the
dam need to be computed.
„ For a concrete gravity dam with slopes of 1V:mH at the upstream face and
1V:nH at the down stream face, the major principle compressive stresses,
σiu (parallel to the upstream face) and σid (parallel to the downstream face)
are obtained from the static equilibrium of forces in the vertical direction as:
(ΣFy=0)

where σu and σd vertical normal compressive stresses and pu and pd hydrostatic pressures
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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ Internal horizontal and vertical shear stresses at the upstream and
downstream faces are obtained by equating the total moment to zero
as (ΣMA=0, ΣMB=0):

where τhu, τhd, τvu, and τvd are the horizontal and vertical internal shear stresses
at the upstream and downstream faces, respectively.

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 3. DAMS

Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ The maximum compressive stress, σmax ,must be smaller than a
certain fraction of the compressive strength of concrete, σc, and
foundation material, σf.

Unconfined compressive strength, σf

Safety criteria for concrete gravity dams for foundation materials

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Gravity Dams

Concrete Gravity Dams (cont’d)

Stability Criteria
„ Excessive care must be taken during the filling of the reservoir.
„ Initially 1/3 of the dam height may be filled first.
„ After waiting for several weeks and assuring that the dam is safe,
further filling is performed.
„ Since safety levels change with respect to upstream water depth,
gravity dams must be analyzed for various operating levels and empty
reservoir cases, separately.
„ For the empty reservoir case, the overturning tendency must be
checked with respect to the toe and heel, separately.
„ The stability against sliding may be improved by providing a cut off
wall in the foundation at the upstream side.

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Gravity Dams

Prestressed Concrete Gravity Dams

„ In a prestress concrete dam, forces are applied to the dam before
the reservoir is filled in order to counter undesirable stress that
would develop in the absence of the prestressing forces.
„ For prestressing, either small-diameter high-tensile wires or high-
tensile steel bars can be used.
Roller Compacted Concrete (RCC) Gravity Dams
„ RCC dam is constructed using cement, water, fine and course
aggregates, and fly ash which are mixed in certain proportions to
have a no-slump, rather dry composition.
„ Construction is based on the compaction of this mixture by heavy
static or vibrating rollers.
„ Construction period of RCC dams is shorter than that of
conventional concrete gravity dams.

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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Arch Dams

„ Arch dams are thin concrete structures.

„ Gokcekaya, Oymapinar, Karakaya, Gezende, and Berke dams in Turkey.

Gokcekaya Dam Berke Dam Karakaya Dam

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Arch Dams

„ Arch dams: Oymapinar Dam, Turkey

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Arch Dams

Hoover Dam, USA

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Arch Dams

„ Arch dams are thin concrete structures.

„ Stability of an arch dam is based on its self weight and its ability to
transmit most of the imposed water loads into the valley walls.
„ At the sites of arch dams, the side formations and foundations should
be very stiff to resist the applied load.
„ For effective arching action, the radius of the arch should be as small
as possible.
„ They are formed by concrete blocks having base dimensions of
approximately 15 m by 15 m and height of 1.5 m
„ Reinforcement is not generally required in thick arch dams because it
increases the cost drastically.
„ Arch dams have normally higher structural safety than conventional
gravity dams.

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Arch Dams

Types of Arch Dams

„ Arch dams are classified
according to geometric
characteristics of the valley where
they are adopted.
„ Arch dams are classified
according to the location of the
center and magnitude of the
central angle
„ Constant-center (variable
angle) arch dams are suitable for
medium-high dams in U-shape
valleys. They have single
curvature in plan with vertical
upstream face.
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Arch Dams

Types of Arch Dams

„ Variable-center (constant angle)
arch dams are suitable for V-shape
valleys.
„ Radius of the arc reduces with respect
to depth.
„ So arching action is more pronounced
at low depths.
„ Since these types of dams are normally
thinner than constant-center dams,
Variable-center (constant angle) arch dams
they are more elastic and safer.

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Arch Dams

Types of Arch Dams

„ Variable-center (variable angle)
arch dams are composed of the
combination of two types described
above.
„ Load distribution in vertical direction
governs the cross-sectional shape of
the dam.
„ This type has a pronounced double Variable-center (variable angle) arch dams
curvature
„ They utilized the concrete strength
more compared the other types
resulting in thinner and more efficient
structure.
„ However, tensile stresses may develop
in the dam body.

Gokcekaya Dam
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Arch Dams

Types of Arch Dams

„ Variable-center (variable angle)
arch dams

Gokcekaya Dam

Cross-section of Gokcekaya Dam

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Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ Structural design of an arch dam requires the determination of load
distribution in the dam body using the trial load method and
applications of the theory of elasticity and the theory of shells.
„ Structural design is beyond the scope of this course.
„ Simplified design:
„ The determination of the thickness at any elevation of an arch dam
whose crest elevation has already been determined in the hydrologic
design step.
„ In the arch dams, the total load is shared by arch and cantilever
actions and transmitted to the sides and foundation, respectively.
„ Therefore, the base width of arch dams is usually much narrower
than that of concrete gravity dams having almost the same height.
„ Hence, the effect of uplift pressure can be ignored.
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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ However, effect of temperature stresses
should be checked to ensure that they are
smaller than tensile strength.
„ Near the crest of the dam, most of the
loads taken by arches and transmitted to
the side abutments.
„ Near the bottom of the dam, cantilevers
take most of the load and transmit to the
foundation.

Gokcekaya Dam

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ In the following analysis, the
water thrust induced by
hydrostatic pressure is assumed
to be taken by arch action only
and transmitted to the sides.
„ The differential force acting on a
differential element having a
central angle of dΦ is
dFv= P r dΦ

The vertical component of this Free-body diagram for arch dam analysis

force is
dF'v= P r dΦ sinΦ

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ Integration of this force along the
arc length gives the total
horizontal force, Hh.

π 
 
2
 π   π θa   θa
Hh = 2 ∫ γhr sin φ d φ = −2γhr 


cos 
2
− cos −
2
 
 = 2γ
2 
hr sin
2
 π θa 
 −  Free-body diagram for arch dam analysis
2 2 

where
h: the height of the arch rib relative to the reservoir surface
r: the radius of arch
θa: the central angle

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ The equilibrium of forces in y-
direction involves
H h = 2Ry
where θ 
R y = R sin  a 
 2 
Therefore
θ  θ 
2γhr sin  a  = 2 R sin  a  Free-body diagram for arch dam analysis
 2   2 
R = γhr
where
R: the reaction offered by the sides against the transmission of water thrust.

As observed from the R = γhr, the reaction at the sides is directly proportional to the arc radius at
a given height. Therefore, narrow valleys having stiff geological formations and small r-values are
suitable for arch dams.

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ If the thickness of the arch rib, t, is relatively small as compared with
r, there is small difference between the average and maximum
compressive stresses in the rib and σ≈R/t.
„ The required thickness of the rib is then

γhr
t= (the thickness varies linearly with depth.)
σ all
where
σall: the allowable working stress for concrete in compression.

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ The volume of concrete per unit height of a single arch rib across a
canyon of width of Ba is
V=Lt
where L is the arch length which is equal to rθa (θa in radians).

„ Inserting the values of L and t into the equation above

γh 2
V= r θa
σ all

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ The optimum central angle θa for a minimum volume of arch rib
can be determined as 133º34‘ by differentiating V with respect to
θa and equating the result to zero.
„ This is the reason why a constant-angle arch dam can be design
to require less concrete than a constant-center dam.
„ In practice, the central angles of arch dams vary from 100º to
140º.
„ However, the formwork of a constant-angle dam is more difficult.

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 3. DAMS

Arch Dams

Design of Arch Dams

„ The optimum central angle θa for a minimum volume of arch rib
can be determined as 133º34‘ by differentiating V with respect to
θa and equating the result to zero.
„ This is the reason why a constant-angle arch dam can be design
to require less concrete than a constant-center dam.
„ In practice, the central angles of arch dams vary from 100º to
140º.
„ However, the formwork of a constant-angle dam is more difficult.

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Buttress Dams

„ A buttress dam consists of a sloping

slab.
„ Depending on the orientation of slab,
a buttress dam may be classified as
„ flat-slab buttress dam
„ multiple-arch buttress dam
Elmali Dam construction, Istanbul, 1941

A typical buttress dam.

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 3. DAMS

Buttress Dams

„ Flat-slab buttress dams

Lake Tahoe Dam, California, USA

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 3. DAMS

Buttress Dams

„ Multiple-arch buttress dams

Bartlett Dam , Phoenix, Arizona, USA

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 3. DAMS

Buttress Dams

„ Some advantages of buttress dams over conventional gravity dams:

„ They can be constructed on foundations having smaller bearing
capacity then required for gravity dams.
„ Since they have thinner slabs, possibility of development of vertical
cracks is less.
„ Problems encountered during the setting of concrete are reduced.
„ Unless a mat foundation is used, uplift forces are negligibly small
because of hollow spaces provided between the buttresses.
„ Ice pressures are also small as the ice
sheet slides up the inclined slab.
„ Main disadvantage of buttress dams:
„ May have comparable costs, because of
increased formwork and reinforcement .
„ There is only one buttress dam in
Turkey (Elmali 2 Dam).
Elmali 2 Dam

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

„ They composed of fill of suitable earth materials at the dam site.

„ Coarse-grained soils (gravel and coarse sand)
„ relatively pervious,
„ easily compacted,
„ resistant to moisture,
„ Clay is considered as a core material (impermeable)
„ unstable when saturated (expands due to wetting, hard to compact)
„ Therefore, clay mixed with sand and fine gravel is used as a core.
„ Core must be compacted in thinner layers with fairly accurate moisture
control.
„ Compacted asphalt may also be used as an economical core material
in case of loose foundations.
„ Asphalt can absorb earthquake shocks effectively.

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

„ Embankment dams are usually safer against deformations and

settlements.
„ Embankment dams
„ Earth-fill dams
„ Rock-fill dams

(More than 50% of the

total material is of rock.)
„ Earth-fill dams in Turkey
„ Seyhan Dam

„ Demirkopru Dam

„ Cubuk 2 Dam

„ Bayindir Dam

„ Rock-fill dams in Turkey

„ Keban Dam

„ Ataturk Dam

„ Hasan Ugurlu Dam

Hasan Ugurlu Dam

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

„ Body volume of embankment

dams is relatively greater
than the other types of dams.
„ Normally cheaper than the
other types where there is
enough fill material in the
close vicinity.
„ Fill dams comprise more
than 70% of the dams in the
world and 90% in Turkey.

Keban Dam

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Earth-fill Dams
„ Construction:
„ Placement of selected material on layers of 50 cm thick and
compaction.
„ Non-organic and non-plastic soils are needed.

„ The embankment soil is usually irrigated at the borrow area.

„ Piezometers can be placed in the embankment at various depths

during the construction to measure the pore water pressure.

„ A typical earth-fill dam is constructed in a multi-layer formation.

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Earth-fill Dams
„ A typical earth-fill dam is
constructed in a multi-layer
formation.

Earth dam on pervious foundation

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Earth-fill Dams
„ Seepage through an earth-fill dam.

The flow rate, ∆q, between two flow lines can be expressed using the Darcy law as

 ∆h  K: the hydraulic conductivity

∆q = KAi = K∆D  i : the hydraulic gradient
 ∆L  ∆h: head loss (h/N)
The total flow rate, q N : number of equipotential drops
 Kh 
q = N ′  N’: the number of stream tubes
 N 
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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Earth-fill Dams
„ Drainage systems in an earth-fill dam.
„ Chimney drains, in the embankment as well as enlarged toe drains

are effective in controlling the seepage through the dam.

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Rock-fill Dams
„ Having relatively high pore space
„ Can be adopted to weaker foundations where a gravity dam cannot be
constructed.

Cross-sections of typical rock-fill dams

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Rock-fill Dams (Ataturk Dam)

„ Largest dam in Turkey
„ Reservoir Volume: 48.7 x 109 m3
„ Installed capacity: 2400 MW
„ Annual energy production: 8.9 x 109kWh
„ Irrigated land: 874200 ha (with the completion of the project)

A cross-sections of the Ataturk Dam

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 3. DAMS

Embankment (Fill) Dams

Rock-fill Dams (Ataturk Dam)

A cross-sections of the Ataturk Dam

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams

„ A suitable dam cross-section should be provided such that both safety

and desired functionality concerning service requirement are attained.
„ Sufficient crest width, tc must be provided.
„ a width of two lane traffic may be selected.
„ For small embankment dams

up to Hf=15 m.
tc=0.2Hf+3
„ For large embankment dams

up to Hf=150 m.
tc=3.6 (Hf )1/3
where tc and Hf are in meter.

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 3. DAMS

Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams

„ By examining some existing muti-purpose concrete gravity dams

throughout the world, Yanmaz et al. (1999) proposed the following
regression equations to define the shape of a gravity dam.

H*=0.1075 Ht

tc=0.0475 Ht +2.392

where all variables are in meter

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 3. DAMS

Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams

„ United States Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) propose the following

formulas for cross-sectional layout of arch dams:

tc = 0.01(H t + 1.2 Ba )
H t / 400
 H 
tb = 3 0.0012 H t Ba B0.15  t  All the dimensions are in ft
 400 
t0.45 H t = 0.95tb

where Ba: the span width at the crest

B0.15: the span width at 15% of the dam height above the base
t0.45Ht: the dam thickness at 45% of the dam height above the base.

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 3. DAMS

Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams

„ The crest elevation of a dam is to be determined such that there is almost no

overtopping danger of the flood wave during the occurance of the design
flood.
Freeboards on flood levels for concrete and embankment dams

„ Greater freeboards are required for embankment dams since they are
susceptible to erosion at the downstream face due to overtopping from their
crest.
„ The required side slopes of concrete gravity dams are determined from
stability analyses.
„ The maximum downstream slope of gravity dams is 45°.
„ Side slopes of embankment dams are determined on the basis of seepage
and slope stability analyses.
CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 95/101
 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams

„ Excessive kinetic energy of the flowing water at the downstream of

outlet works (spillways, sluiceways etc.) should be dissipated in order
to prevent the erosion of the streambed and the banks below the dam.

Local scour at the downstream of the dam and sluice gates

„ Excessive scours at the downstream of Keban Dam have resulted in serious

foundation stability problems (depth of approx 30 m).

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 3. DAMS

Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams

„ Some of the scour prediction equations are given in the table.

Scour prediction equations for the downstream of dams. ds: the maximum depth of scour hole in m.

b: the thickness of the jet in m.

Φ: the side inclination for the scour hole,

Fr: Jet Froude number.

U: the velocity of the jet in m/s

∆=(γs- γ)/γ,
γs: : specific weight of sediment in kN/m3
γ : specific weight of water in kN/m3.

Wf: Fall velocity in m/s

q: unit discharge in m3/s/m

Hg: gross head in m

h: tailwater depth in m

D50: median size of bed material in m.

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 3. DAMS

Overview

„ Classification of Dams
„ Parts of Dams
„ Planning of Dams
„ Construction of Dams
„ Concrete Gravity Dams
„ Arch Dams
„ Buttress Dams
„ Embankment (Fill Dams)
„ Cross-sectional Layout Design of Dams
„ Local Scour at the Downstream of Dams
„ Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

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 3. DAMS

Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

„ Excessive care must be taken in planning, design, and construction

stages of a dam.
„ Major causes for a dam break:
„ Inadequate spillway capacity,
„ Improper construction of any type of dam,
„ Insufficient compaction of embankment dams or compaction with
undesirable water content,
„ Improper protective measures,
„ Excessive settlements, etc
„ Continuous inspection and monitoring are required to assess the
safety level of the dam throughout the lifetime.

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 3. DAMS

Dam Safety and Rehabilitation

„ Upon periodic inspection, the following deficiencies may be observed

that are indicators of problems:
„ Large horizontal and vertical movements of crest,
„ Tilting of the roadway along the crest,
„ Deformation of embankment slope,
„ Higher than usual pore water pressure in embankment dams,
„ Unusual seepage at the toe or edges of an embankment dam,
„ Seepage flows with not decreasing with low flow conditions,
„ Turbit outflow through the embankment,
„ Tilting of the spillway crest
„ Increased leakage into inspection galleries in concrete dams, etc.

CVE 471 Water Resources Engineering 101/101