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Hydrotreating
Hydrotreating
CHAPTER # 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1 NAPHTHA
Naphtha is used as a fuel in fertilizer plant reformers where high temperatures are
required. It is also used as a fuel for steam generation in the plants where reforming is
done with the help of steam. Some gas turbines for power generation have also been
installed recently which will require Naphtha as fuel.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 1
Chapter #1 Introduction
Sulfur, above a critical level, is a temporary poison to Platforming catalysts and causes an
unfavorable change 1n the product distribution. Organic nitrogen is also a temporary
poison to Platforming catalyst. It is an extremely potent one, however, and relatively
small amounts of nitrogen compounds in the Platformer feed can cause large deactivation
effects, as well as the deposition of ammonium chloride salts in the Platforming unit cold
sections.
The Naphtha Hydrotreating Process makes a major contribution to the ease of operation
and economy of Platforming. Much greater flexibility is afforded in choice of allowable
charge stocks to the Platforming unit. Because this unit protects the Platforming catalyst,
it is important to maintain consistently good operation in the Hydrotreating Unit.
In addition to treating naphtha for Platformer feed, there are uses for the UOP Naphtha
Hydrotreating Process in other areas. Naphthas produced from thermal cracking
processes, such as delayed coking and visbreaking, are usually high in olefinic content
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 2
Chapter #1 Introduction
and other contaminants, and may not be stable in storage. These naphthas may be
hydrotreated to stabilize the olefins and to remove organic or metallic contaminants, thus
providing a marketable product.
History:
Until the end of World War 2, there was little incentive for the oil industry to pay
significant attention to improving product quality by hydrogen treatment.
However, soon after the war the production of high sulphur crudes increased
significantly, which gave a more stringent demand on the product blending flexibility of
refineries, and the marketing specifications for the products became tighter, largely due to
environmental considerations.
Furthermore, the catalyst used in the Platforming process can only handle sulfur in the
very low ppm level, so hydrotreating of naphtha became a must. The necessity for
hydrotreating of middle distillates (kerosene/gas oil) originates from pressure to reduce
sulfur emissions into the environment. Overall, this situation resulted in an increased
necessity for high sulphur removal capability in many refineries.
REFINING PROCESSES
a. Separation processes
The feed to these processes is separated into two or more components based on some
physical property, usually boiling point. These processes do not otherwise change the
feedstock. The most common separation process in the refinery is distillation.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 3
Chapter #1 Introduction
b. Upgrading processes
These processes improve the quality of a material by using chemical reactions to remove
any compounds present in trace amounts that give the material the undesired quality.
Otherwise, the bulk properties of the feedstock are not changed. The most commonly
used upgrading processes for jet fuel are sweetening, hydrotreating, and clay treatment.
c. Conversion processes
These processes fundamentally change the molecular structure of the feedstock, usually
by "cracking" large molecules into small ones, for example, catalytic cracking and
hydrocracking
UPGRADING PROCESSES
Merox Process:
In recent years, the Merox (mercaptan oxidation) process, which uses a cobalt-
based catalyst, has almost completely replaced the older technologies.
Most of these chemical sweetening processes do not change the total sulfur
content of the fuel; they merely convert sulfur from one chemical form to another.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 4
Chapter #1 Introduction
Some versions of the Merox process extract the disulfides that are formed and
thus lower the total sulfur content
Hydrotreating Process:
1. The liquid phase (or trickle flow) process for kerosene and heavier
straight-run and cracked distillates up to vacuum gas oil
Both processes use the same basic configuration: the feedstock is mixed with hydrogen-
rich make up gas and recycle gas.
The mixture is heated by heat exchange with reactor effluent and by a furnace and it
enters a reactor loaded with catalyst, in the reactor, the sulphur and nitrogen compounds
present in the feedstock are converted into hydrogen sulphide and ammonia respectively.
The olefins present are saturated with hydrogen to become di-olefins and part of the
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 5
Chapter #1 Introduction
The reaction products leave the reactor and, after having been cooled to a low
temperature, typically 40-50 0C, enter a liquid/gas separation stage.
The hydrogen-rich gas from the high pressure separation is recycled to combine with the
feedstock, and the low pressure off-gas stream rich in hydrogen Sulphide is sent to a gas-
treating unit, where hydrogen Sulphide is removed.
The clean gas is then suitable as fuel for the refinery furnaces. The liquid stream is the
product from hydrotreating. It is normally sent to a stripping column where H 2S and other
undesirable components are removed, and finally, in cases where steam is used for
stripping, the product is sent to a vacuum drier for removal of water. Some refiners use a
salt dryer instead of a vacuum drier to remove the water.
The catalyst used is normally cobalt, molybdenum and nickel finely distributed on
alumina extrudates. It slowly becomes choked by coke and must be renewed at regular
intervals (typically 2-3 years). It can be regenerated (by burning off the coke) and reused
typically once or twice before the breakdown of the support's porous structure
unacceptably reduces its activity.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 6
Chapter #1 Introduction
The hydrotreating process is used in every major refinery and is therefore also
termed as the work horse of the refinery as it is the hydrotreater unit that ensures several
significant product quality specifications.
The by-products obtained from HDT/HDS are light ends formed from small amounts of
cracking and these products are used in the refinery fuel gas pool. The other main by-
product is Hydrogen Sulphide which is oxidized to sulphur and sold to the chemical
industry for further processing.
In combination with temperature, the pressure level (or rather the partial pressure
of hydrogen) generally determines the types of components that can be removed and also
determines the working life of the catalyst. At higher (partial) pressures, the
desulphurization process is 'easier', however, the unit becomes more expensive for
instance due to larger compressors and heavier reactors. Also, at higher pressure, the
hydrogen consumption of the unit increases, which can be a significant cost factor for the
refinery. The minimum pressure required typically goes up with the required severity of
the unit, i.e. the heavier the feedstock, or the lower levels of sulphur in product required.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 7
Chapter #1 Introduction
Hydrotreating can also be used for kerosene smoke point improvement (SPI). It closely
resembles the conventional Hydrotreating Process however an aromatic hydrogenation
catalyst consisting of noble metals on a special carrier is used. The reactor operates at
pressure range of 50-70 bar and temperatures of 260-320 0C. To restrict temperature rise
due to the highly exothermic aromatics conversion reactions, quench oil is applied
between the catalysts beds. The catalyst used is very sensitive to traces of sulphur and
nitrogen in the feedstock and therefore pretreatment is normally applied in a conventional
hydrotreater before kerosene is introduced into the SPI unit. The main objective of
Smoke Point Improvement is improvement in burning characteristics as the kerosene
aromatics are converted to naphthenes.
Hydrotreating is also used for production of feedstock for summarization unit from
paralysis gasoline (pygas) which is one of the byproducts of steam cracking of
hydrocarbon fractions such as naphtha and gas oil.
CONCLUSION
It is obvious from economical data of many commercial Plants that the fixed Capital
Investment on Merox sweetening Process is 90% less then Hydrotreating and the
operating Cost is almost 95% less then Hydrotreating, But the efficiency of Hydrotreating
Units are normally above 99% which cannot be achieved by Merox process, the feed
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 8
Chapter #1 Introduction
CHAPTER 2
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 9
Chapter #1 Introduction
A typical Naphtha Hydrotreating unit processing a straight run naphtha for Platfonner
feed will have a reactor section and a stripper 'section. In addition, some units have a
prefractionation section upstream of the reactor section.
A. Prefractionation Section
In some special applications, it is desirable to produce a narrow boiling range naphtha cut
for feed to a Platformer. An example of this would be an operation aimed at making
aromatics, where the end point of the feed to the Platformer is limited to about 160°C
(325°F) to concentrate aromatic precursors in the feed. A full boiling range naphtha cut
from the crude unit could be processed through a prefractionation section to accomplish
this task.
The prefractionator column bottom is charged to the second (rerun) column, where the
desired product is taken overhead, again controlled by an overhead temperature
controller. Increasing the overhead temperature will increase the amount of material
taken overhead and will increase its endpoint. Thus, if a heart cut of 82-174°C (180-
345°F) is desired, it can be obtained • by adjusting the prefractionation column overhead/
temperature to set the initial boiling point, and the rerun column overhead temperature to
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 10
Chapter #1 Introduction
Usually, the feed to the prefractionator will be heat exchanged with rerun column
bottoms, and a steam heater can be used to provide the remaining heat that is required.
The prefractionator bottom is normally pumped directly to the rerun column without any
reheat. Both columns have reboilers to provide the heat necessary for vaporization of
naphtha so that sufficient reflux can be maintained. The overhead product from the
prefractionator and the rerun bottoms product are sent to storage for blending or further
processing downstream units. A typical prefractionation flow scheme 1s depicted in
Figure IV-1.
B. Reactor Section
Naphtha feed can enter the unit either from intermediate storage or from another process
unit. In the case of feed from storage, the tank must be properly gas blanketed to prevent
oxygen from being dissolved 1n the naphtha. Even trace quantities of oxygen and/or
olefin in the feed can cause polymerization of olefins in the storage tank when stored for
long periods or in the combined feed/reactor effluent exchangers if the feed is not
prestripped. 'This results in fouling and a loss of heat transfer efficiency.
Naphtha feed from the charge pump combines with a-hydrogen-rich gas stream, and this
combined feed enters the combined feed/ reactor effluent exchangers, where the feed is
heated and the reactor effluent is cooled. The combined feed leaving the exchanger 1s all
vapor, and flows to the ch_aj2ge_jTe^tej^here it is heated to the required reaction
temperature. The amount of fuel burned in the heater is controlled by the temperature of
the combined feed leaving the heater and flowing to the reactor. Most reactors are
designed for down flow operation, and contain/ sufficient catalyst to remove
contaminants to the level required.
The reactor effluent flows through the combined feed/reactor effluent exchanger, usually
on the tube side, and then to the product condenser. A water wash injection point is
provided in the reactor effluent line to the product condenser so that any salt buildup in
the line or condenser may be washed out. Reactor effluent flows out of the condenser at a
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 11
Chapter #1 Introduction
low enough temperature to ensure complete recovery of the naphtha and enters the
product separator. A mesh blanket coalescer is provided in the separator to ensure
complete separation of gas, hydrocarbon liquid, and water. The product separator is also
provided with a water boot to collect the water injected for salt removal. This water is
usually pressured to a sour water stripper for disposal.
There are alternate methods for providing the required hydrogen-rich gas to the reactor.
Most common is a recycle gas compressor taking suction from the top of the product
separator with the discharge joining the naphtha feed upstream of the combined
feed/reactor effluent exchanger. Since the process consumes hydrogen, a hydrogen-rich
gas stream is brought into the unit as makeup just upstream of the product condenser.
This stream is controlled by the product separator pressure controller, allowing gas to
enter and hold a constant separator pressure. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-2.
In some units, rather than having a recycle gas compressor, a comparable amount of a
hydrogen-rich gas stream is brought Into the unit on flow control, and flows on a once-
through basis through the reactor section to the product separator where it is vented ''on
pressure control. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-3.
The choice between these two flow schemes is made during the design of each unit based
upon the availability of a high pressure hydrogen-rich gas stream, and the cost of
compression for each stream.
Stripping Section
The liquid hydrocarbon in the separator is pressured on level control through the stripper
feed/bottoms exchanger, and thus heated enters near the top of the stripper. A reboiler is
provided to supply the required heat input for generating vapor. This vapor strips
hydrogen sulfide, water, light hydrocarbons and dissolved hydrogen from the feed to the
stripper, which then passes overhead to the overhead condenser and to the overhead
receiver. Normally, no net overhead liquid product is produced, and all of the liquid in
the receiver is pumped back to the stripper as reflux. A reflux/feed ratio of approximately
0.25 is sufficient to strip the light ends and water from the tower. The reflux is pumped
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 12
Chapter #1 Introduction
into the stripper on receiver level control. To increase the amount of reflux, the reboiler
heat Input must be Increased to provide more overhead material. The net overhead gas
leaves the receiver on pressure control, usually to amine scrubbing and then to fuel gas.
The stripper overhead system is equipped with inhibitor addition facilities to prevent
corrosion of the process lines and equipment by the hydrogen sulfide in the overhead
vapor. The corrosion inhibitor is pumped directly from a drum, diluted with a small'
slipstream of reflux, and injected directly into the overhead vapor line at the top of the
stripper.
The stripper bottoms material is pumped through the feed/bottoms exchanger and usually
is charged directly to the Plat forming unit. On many units, a small slipstream of stripper
bottoms is further cooled in a trim cooler and sent to storage for later use as sweet startup
naphtha. This flow scheme is depicted in Figure IV-4.
The dry, stripped naphtha hydrotreating unit product must meet the following
specifications to be acceptable as Plat former feed:
Additionally, water plus total oxygen must be low enough to produce less than 5 mole
ppm water in the Platformer Recycle Gas with no water injection to that unit.
2.2 CHEMISTRY
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 13
Chapter #1 Introduction
As previously stated, the main purpose of the Naphtha Hydrotreating Process is to "clean-
up" a naphtha fraction so that it is suitable as charge to a Platforming unit. There are six
basic types of reactions that occur in the hydrotreating unit.
A. Reactions
4. Saturation of olefins
B, Discussion
1. Sulfur Removal
For bimetallic Platforming catalysts, the feed naphtha must contain less than 0.5 weight
ppm sulfur to optimize the selectivity and stability characteristics of the catalyst. In
general, sulfur removal in the hydrotreating process is relatively easy, and for the best
operation of a Platformer, the hydrotreated naphtha sulfur content should be maintained
well below the 0.5 weight ppm maximum. Commercial operation at 0.2 weight ppm
sulfur or less in the hydrotreated naphtha is common.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 14
Chapter #1 Introduction
C C-C C
C C-C C
It is possible, however, to operate at too high a temperature for maximum sulfur removal.
Recombination of hydrogen sulfide with small amounts of olefins or olefin Intermediates
can then result, producing mercaptans in the product.
2. Nitrogen Removal
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 15
Chapter #1 Introduction
5. Halide Removal
6. Metal Removal
Most metallic impurities occur at the part per billion (ppb) levels in naphtha. The UOP
Hydrobon catalyst is capable of removing these materials at fairly high concentrations, up
to 5 weight ppm or more, on an intermittent basis at normal operating conditions. Most
metallic Impurities are permanently deposited on the catalyst when removed from the
naphtha. The catalyst loses activity for sulfur removal as higher metal loadings are
reached. Some commonly detected components found on used Hydrobon catalyst are
arsenic, iron, calcium, magnesium, phosphorous, lead, silicon, copper, and sodium.
Removal of metals from the feed normally occurs in plug flow with respect to the catalyst
bed. Iron is found concentrated at the top of catalyst beds as iron sulfides. Arsenic, even
though it is rarely found in excess of 1 weight ppb in straight run naphtha's, is of major
importance, because it is a potent Platinum poison. Arsenic levels of 3 weight percent and
higher have been detected on used Hydrobon catalysts that retain their activity for sulfur
removal / Contamination of storage facilities by leaded gasoline and reprocessing of
leaded gasoline in crude towers are the common sources of lead on used Hydrobon
catalysts. Sodium, calcium and magnesium are apparently due to contact of the feed with
salt water or additives. Improper use of additives to protect fractionator’s overhead
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 16
Chapter #1 Introduction
systems from corrosion or to control foaming account for the presence of phosphorus and
silicon.
The approximate relative reaction rates for the three major reaction types are:
Desulphurization 100
Olefin Saturation 80
Denitrification 20
The approximate heats of reaction (1n kJ per kg of feed per cubic meter of hydrogen
consumed) and relative heats of reaction are:
Desulphurization 8.1 1
Olefin Saturation 40.6 5
Denitrification 0.8 0.1
As can be seen from the above summary, desulphurization is the most rapid reaction
taking place, but it is the saturation of olefins which generates the greatest amount of
heat. Certainly, as the feed sulfur level increases, the heat of reaction also increases.
However, for most of the feedstock processed, the heat of reaction will just about balance
the reactor heat loss, such that the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor inlet and outlet
temperatures are essentially equal. Conversion of organic chlorides and oxygenated
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 17
Chapter #1 Introduction
The following table summarizes the physical properties of UOP Hydrobon catalysts.
TABLE I
UOP HYDROBON CATALYSTS FOR NAPHTHA HYDROTREATING SERVICE
Designator S-6* S-9* S-12 S-15 S-16 /
Metals: Ni N1 Ni
Mo Mo Mo Mo Mo
Co Co Co
A. Reactor Pressure
The unit pressure is dependent on catalyst life required and feed stock properties. At
higher reactor pressures, the catalyst is generally effective for a longer time and reactions
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 18
Chapter #1 Introduction
are brought to a greater degree of completion. For straight run naphtha desulphurization,
20 to 35 kg/cm2g (300 to 500 psig) reactor pressure is normally used, although design
pressure can be higher if feed nitrogen and/or sulfur contents are higher than normal.
Cracked naphtha contain substantially more nitrogen and sulfur than straight run naphtha
and consequently require higher processing pressures, up to 55 kg/cm2g (800 psig).
Similarly, higher operating pressures are necessary to completely remove organic halides.
Halide contamination of naphtha is usually sporadic in occurrence and is normally due to
contamination by crude oil well operators.
The selection of the operating pressure is influenced to a degree by the hydrogen to feed
ratio set in the design, since both of these parameters determine the hydrogen partial
pressure in the reactor. The hydrogen partial pressure can be increased by operation at a
higher ratio of gas to feed at the reactor inlet. The extent of substitution is limited by
economic considerations.
Most units have been designed so that the desulphurization and denitrification reactions
go substantially to completion well below the design reactor temperature, for the design
feedstock. Small variations in pressure or hydrogen gas rate in the unit will not cause
changes great enough to be reflected by significant differences in product quality.
B. Temperature
The decomposition of chloride compounds in low concentrations (< 10 weight ppm) will
require about the same temperature as the sulfur compounds decomposition.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 19
Chapter #1 Introduction
temperature. Because this reaction is very exothermic, the olefin content of, the feed must
be monitored and perhaps limited to keep reactor peak temperature within an acceptable
temperature range.
At very high temperatures, an apparent equilibrium condition limits the degree of olefin
saturation. This may even cause the residual olefins in the product to be greater at higher
temperatures than would be the case at lower operating temperatures. In certain cases,
when processing a naphtha with a significant amount of light ends over fresh catalyst, S
can react with these olefins to form mercaptans. In such a case, lowering the reactor
temperature can eliminate residual olefins and thus mercaptan formation.
The demetalization reactions are not very dependent on temperature. Above 315°C
(600°F), metals removal is essentially complete. Below this temperature, there may be
some cases where all the metals will not be removed.
Normal reactor design temperatures for both straight run and cracked naphtha (SRN) are
399°C (750°F) maximum. "Actual operating temperatures will vary, depending upon the
feed type, from 285°C (550°F) to 285 °C (650°F). Cracked stocks may require processing
at higher temperatures because of the higher sulfur, nitrogen, and olefin contents. For
these feeds, the reactor delta T will be higher, 1n the range of 10-55°C (20-100°F).
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 20
Chapter #1 Introduction
As the catalyst ages, the product quality may degenerate, which may be corrected by
Increasing reactor inlet temperature. If increasing the temperature does not improve the
product quality, a regeneration or change of catalyst will be required, depending on the
history of the operation and catalyst state.
In addition to catalyst deterioration, scale and polymer formation at the top of the bed
may cause high reactor pressure drops which may result in reactor channeling. This may
be corrected by skimming the top of the catalyst bed; and/or unloading, screening and
reloading. High pressure drop problems should be/ corrected as soon as possible to
minimize the possibility of equipment damage and degradation of product quality
C. Feed Quality
The final selection of reactor temperature should be based upon product quality. The
above relations of feed quality and temperature assume operation within the normal
temperature operating ranges given 1n the preceding section.
For straight run naphtha of moderate sulfur content, 40-75 nm 3/m3 (250-400 SCFB) is
normally required. Cracked naphtha must be processed at higher H2 ratios [up to 500
nm3/m3 (3000 SCFB)]. As feedstock varies between these limits, the hydrogen to feed
ratio is proportioned between the extremes.
Ratios above 500 nm3/m3 (3000 SCFB) do not contribute to the rate of reactions. The use
of low purity hydrogen as makeup gas is limited by economical operation of the recycle
compressor. Recycle gas with hydrogen sulfide contents up to 10X and with large
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 21
Chapter #1 Introduction
quantities of carbon monoxide and nitrogen are not harmful/ to the catalyst, again when
reasonable desulphurization is the only criterion. For nitrogen removal or complete'
sulfur removal, high hydrogen purity (70X minimum) is necessary, and CO may act as a
temporary catalyst poison. The prevention of excessive carbon accumulation on the
catalyst requires maintenance of a minimum H2 partial pressure, so impurities present in
the makeup gas require higher operating pressures.
Lower hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratios can be compensated for by increasing reactor inlet
temperature. The approximate relation for these variables is 10°C (18°F) higher reactor
temperature .requirement for a halving of the hydrogen/feed ratio. This rule assumes
operation above the minimum values of 315°C (600°F) reactor inlet temperature and 40
nm3/M3 (250 SCFB) hydrogen ratio. This relation is approximate, and it should again be
pointed out that product quality should dictate the actual reactor temperature utilized.
E. Space Velocity
The quantity of catalyst per unit of feed will depend upon feedstock properties, operating
conditions, and product quality required. The liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV) is
defined as f ol1ows:
With most charge stocks and product objectives, a simplified kinetic expression based on
sulfur and/or nitrogen removal determines the initial liquid hourly space velocity. This
initial value may be modified due to other considerations, such as size 'of unit, extended
first cycle catalyst service, abnormal levels of feed metals and requirements of other
processing units in the refinery flow scheme. Relative ease of conversion for Hydrobon®
catalysts indicate that olefins react most easily sulfur compounds next, then nitrogen and
oxygen compounds. There is considerable overlap with several reactions occurring
simultaneously and to different degrees. Charge stock variability is so large that only
approximate ranges of space velocities can be indicated for the various feed types. SRN
is processed at 4-12 LHSV and cracked naphtha at 2-8 LHSV.
For daily changes in the LHSV, inlet temperature on the Naphtha Hydrotreating reactor
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 22
Chapter #1 Introduction
or
Where T^ = required inlet reactor temperature at LHSVi T2 = " " " " “LHSV2
The above relation assumes operation between 4 and 12 LHSV and assumes that reactor
temperatures are within the limits discussed in Section II.
The process variables employed affect the catalyst life by their effect on the rate of
carbon deposition on the catalyst. There is a moderate buildup of carbon on the catalyst
during the initial days of operation, but the rate of increase in carbon level soon drops to a
very low figure under normal processing conditions. This desirable control of the carbon-
forming reactions is obtained by maintaining the proper hydrogen to hydrocarbon ratio
and by keeping the catalyst temperature at the proper level.
The primary causes of catalyst deactivation are: 1. accumulation of coke on the active
sites, and 2. chemical combination of contaminants from the feedstock with the catalyst
components. In normal operation, a carbon level above 5 wt-% may be tolerated without
significant decrease in desulphurization although nitrogen removal ability may be
decreased.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 23
Chapter #1 Introduction
Permanent loss of activity requiring catalyst replacement 1s usually caused by the gradual
accumulation of inorganic species picked up from the charge stock, makeup hydrogen or
effluent wash water. Examples of such contaminants are arsenic, lead, calcium, sodium,
silicon and phosphorus. Very low concentrations of these species, ppm and/or ppb, will
cause deactivation over a long period of service because buildup of deposits depends on
the integrated effect of both temperature and time. This effect is important in SRN
processing for Platformer feed.
Hydrobon® catalysts exhibit a high tolerance for metals such as arsenic and lead. Total
metals content as high as 2 to 3 wt-% of the catalyst have been observed with the catalyst
still effective. However, if the calculated metals content of the catalyst is 0.5 wt-%, the
frequency of product analyses should be increased to prevent metal breakthrough to the
Platforming catalyst. Organic lead compounds are decomposed by Hydrobon® catalysts
and for the most part deposit in the upper portion of the catalyst bed as lead sulfide.
Metals are not removed from the catalyst during regeneration. When the total metals
content of the catalyst starts to approach 1 to 2 wt-%, consideration should be given to
replacing the catalyst.
The only certain method of minimizing the effect of trace metal contaminants on the
catalyst is to limit their entry to the system. This is done by careful, conscientious feed
analysis and correcting the source of, or conditions, causing the presence of the metal
contaminant.
Dissolved oxygen, though not a catalyst poison, should be eliminated from the feed. With
oxygen in the feed, excessive fouling of equipment, particularly the feed-effluent
exchangers can occur.
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 24
Chapter #1 Introduction
Hydrotreating of Naphtha 25
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
CHAPTER 3
Basis
= 166.66 bbl/hr
MW = 109.7
So
Weight of Naphtha
= 19539.18 kg/hr
= 42987 lbs/hr
For getting high %age desulphurization we take 400 SCF H2 Per bbl
(from literature)
So
= 66664 scf/hr
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
H2 lb moles = 66664/379
= 175.9 lb mol
= 79.95 kg moles
= 247.05 lb
= 1125.2 kg
Balance Around Heat Exchanger and furnace is same as same amount of combined feed
is entering and leaving that is
= 45462 lbs/hr
= 20664.5 kg/hr
As first we know how to calculate the chemical hydrogen consumption in the reactor.
As there are a number of reactions going on in reactor so the scientist have developed a
formula for calculation of chemical hydrogen consumption that is as follows.
The general formula for the chemical hydrogen consumption applicable to all feed stocks
can be written as
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
E extra consumption
= .1033
= 0.0095 % wt
= 0.0598 wt % H2 on feed
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
So
0.0598
H2 Consumption = 42987
100
= 25.71 lbs
= 11.68 kg/hr
0.1033 42987
Lb moles H2S formed =
100 32
= 1.388lbs
= 0.63 kg mol/hr
The reactor effluents passé through H. exchanger & after this some amount of condensate
is added for removing salts coming with Naphtha and for dissolving some NH 3 which is
formed in reactor.
= 795.45 kg/hr
In separator some gases streams are separated in gas phase and most of water added is
separated from boot (The remaining waters evaporated).
So
In stripping section the remainder gases ion naphtha are removed and hydrotreated
product is obtained
SO
= 42944 lbs/hr
= 19520 kg/hr
Cold Side
= 19539.18 kg/hr
Cp = (0.388+0.00045T)/(SP.G)½
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
Taking molar weighted heat capacity and neglecting. Molar heat capacity departure from
weighted value
Cp =
= 0.616 kcal/kg
= m Cp T
= 2352419.57 kcal/hr
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
= m
= 19539.18 98
= 1,914,839.64 kcal/hr
= m Cp T
= 953.502.60 kcal/hr
Heat Requirements for heating hydrogen gas stream from 49C 327.22C
= m Cp T
= 233,224.59 kcal/hr
= 5,453,986.4 kcal/hr
Hot side
Overall Cp = 0.715
Temp = mCp T
= 1950287.19Kcal/hr
Heat required to lower the temp of liquid naphtha + gaseous stream up to 115C.
= 1586176 kcal/hr
= 105453.74
= 20664.38 kg/hr
Feed in at = 621F
= 327.2C
= 368.8C
Heat Requirements in F1 = m Cp T
= 1.21 kg moles
So
= 13310 kcal/hr
So
0.042 19539.18
H2 Extra consumption =
100 2
= 4.103 kg mol/hr
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
= 65651.64 kcal/hr
= 78961.64 kcal/hr
Cp = 0.72 Kcal/kg
Q = mCpT
Q/mCp = T
78961.64
T =
20664.38 0.72
= 5.3C
= 374C
= 443063 Kcal/hr
= 221480 kcal/hr
BALANCE AROUND
= 1643156.7 kcal/hr
= 4645 .95
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
= 441275 kcal/hr
= 52250.62(151.66-60)
= 296932.5 Kcal/hr
= 441275 + 296932.5
= 53925.13 kcal/hr
Chapter #3 Material and Energy Balance
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
CHAPTER 4
EQUIPMENT DESIGN
Introduction:
In the majority of chemical processes heat is either given out or absorbed, and fluids must
often be either heated or cooled in a wide range of plant such as furnaces, evaporators,
distillation units, dryers and reaction vessels.
The process of heat exchange between two fluids that are at a different temperature and
are separated by a solid wall occurs in many chemical engineering applications. And the
device used to implement this exchange is known as ‘heat exchanger’.
Definition:
The word ‘exchanger’ really applies to all type of equipment in which heat is exchanged
but is often used specifically to denote equipment in which heat is exchanged between
two process fluids.
Such as:
Vaporizer:
Reboiler:
Evaporator:
Fired exchanger:
Heat transfer will take place in one or more of three different ways:
Conduction:
In a solid, the flow of heat by conduction is the result of the transfer of vibrational energy
from one molecule to another and in fluids it occurs in addition as a result of the transfer
of kinetic energy. Heat transfer by conduction may also arise from the movement of free
electrons.
Convection:
Heat transfer by convection arises from the mixing of elements of fluid. It occurs as a
result of actual mixing of hotter part of the fluid with the colder part of fluid due to
density variation caused by temperature difference. There are two type of convection:
when convective heat transfer is caused by temperature variation and some external
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Radiation:
All the bodies radiate thermal energy in the form of electromagnetic waves at a certain
temperature. These waves pass through vacuum and air and falls on a body then there are
three possibilities either they are:
Transmitted
Reflected
Absorbed
Depending upon the material upon which they fall. Only the absorbed radiations affect
the heat transfer.
In many of the applications of heat transfer in process plants, one or more of the
mechanisms of heat transfer may be involved. For example in the case of heat exchangers
heat passes through a series of different intervening layers before reaching the second
fluid.
1. Tubular
2. Plate
(a) Gasketed
(b) Spiral
(c) Lamella
3. Extended Surface
(a) Plate-Fin
(b) Tube-Fin
4. Regenerative
(a) Rotary
1. Single Pass
2. Multi Pass
1. Two-Fluid
2. Three-Fluid
3. n-Fluid(n >3)
2. Single phase convection on one side, two phase convection on other side
The principle types of heat exchanger used in the chemical process and allied industries
are as follows:
8. Agitated Vessels
9. Fired Heaters
One of the more important actions taken by the design engineer in arriving at a
satisfactory solution for a specific heat exchange is the careful selection of the heat
exchanger type that should be used.
The selection process include a number of factors, all of which are related to the heat
transfer application. These are as:
1. Thermal requirement
2. Material Compatibility
3. Operational maintenance
5. Availability
6. Cost
In the chemical industry the preferred choice has been the shell and tube heat exchanger
due to the fact:
(7) More than one heat exchanger can be used in a parallel or series arrangement to
meet special heat transfer or physical requirements.
(8) High thermal performance, even with fouled heat transfer fluids.
___________________________________________
Designing Steps:
STEP 1
= 2553427.8 Btu / hr
= 178868.25 Btu / hr
STEP 2
STEP 3
Log Mean Temperature Difference:
Δ T1 – Δ T2
Δ Tl m =
ln ΔT1
Δ T2
(T2 – t1)
(230 – 120.2)
104.4 - 109.8
=
ln (104.4)
(109.8)
= 107 oF
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Ft = 0.86
Δ Tm = Ft x Δ Tl m
= 0.86 x 107
= 92.02 oF
STEP 4
Provisional Area:
As
Q = UAΔ Tm
= 496 ft2
= 55.1 m2
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
STEP 5
Tubes
16BWG
Baffles:
For 2 pass
Bundle Dia:
Db = do (Nt / K1)1/n1
K1 = 0.156
N1 = 2.291
= 0.58 m = 1.9 ft
Shell:
Shell-bundle clearance:
= 0.6 x 0.673
= 0.4 m = 1.31 ft
No of Baffles:
STEP 6
Physical Properties:
API Gravity = 59
= 0.61 Btu / lb oF
= 43.958 lb / ft3
= 0.285 cþ
= 0.6897 lb / ft hr.
= 0.669 Btu / lb oF
= 4309 lb / ft3
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 0.19 cP x 2.42
= 0.4598 lb / ft hr.
STEP 7
1. Flow Area :
ID x C x B
as =
PT
ID = 0.673 m
= 0.673 x 3.281
= 2.2 ft.
C = 1 – 0.75
= 0.25 inch.
= 0.0208 ft.
B = 0.4 m
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 1.3124 ft
= 0.72 ft2
2. Equivalent Dia.
Pt = 0.083 ft
De = 0.078 ft
3. Mass Velocity
Gs = Ws / as
= 45506.67 / 0.66
4. Reynolds No
Re.s = De Gs /
0.078 x 68949.5
=
0.6897
= 7797.68
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
5. jH Factor
jH = 47
6. Prandtl No
Pr = (c / k) 1/3
= 1.6475
= 47 x (0.087/0.078) x 1.6475 x 1
1. Flow Area:
Nt at
at =
n
n = 2
Nt = 324
= 0.0021 ft2
324 x 0.0021
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
at =
2
= 0.34 ft2
2. De = ID of tube
= 0.62 inches
= 0.0516 ft.
3. Mass Velocity
Gt = Wt / at
= 45506.67 / 0.34
4. Reynolds No
Re.t = De Gt /
0.0516 x 133843.14
=
0.4598
= 15020.2
5. jH Factor
jH = 70
6. Prandtl No
Pr = (c / k) 1/3
= 1.5228
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
hio = hi x ID/OD
A = Nt a ” L
= 324 x 0.1623 x 12
= 631.0 ft2
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Rd = 0.00243
STEP 8
Pressure Drop:
Re.s = 7797.68
= 0.0023
Ds = 0.642 m
= 2.11 ft.
N+1 = 10
De = 0.078 ft.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
s = 0.7424
Gs = 68949.5 lb / hr ft2
0.0023 x (68949.5) 2 x 2.11 x 10
Δ Ps = = 0.076 Psi
10
5.22 x 10 x 0.7424 x 0.078
Where
Or
mass flow rate of liq phase
=
total mass flow rate
42987
=
4.88
= 0.95
2
B =
Y+1
B = 0.25
Y = 2/2.25 – 1
= 8-1 = 7
= 49 [0.01187 + 0.9025]
= 44.8
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 3.42 Psi
Re.t = 15020.2
= 0.00025
L = 12 ft.
n = 2
De = 0.0516 ft.
s = 0.7424
= 0.053 Psi
4n v2
Δ Pr =
s 2g
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
V2 = 0.0023 x 46/144
2g
= 7.3 x 10-4
4 x 2 x 7.3 x 10-4
Δ Pr =
0.7424
= 7.8 x 10-3
Δ PT = Δ Pt + Δ Pr
Δ PT = 0.053 + 0.0078
= 0.0608 psi
= 49 [ 0.001187 +0.9025 ]
= 44.8
Δ PTP = lo2 x Δ PT
= 44.8 x 0.0608
= 2.7 psi
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification: Unit Shell And Tube Heat Exchanger
Item No. E-110-A
Type 1-2 Pull Through Floating Head
Operation:
Heat Duty ‘Q’ 690480 kcal/hr
Heat Transfer Area ‘A’ 58.6 m2
Uc 301.5 W/ m2. K
Ud 272.55 W/ m2. K
Rd 0.00243
4.2 FURNACES
Introduction:
Furnace is a device for generating the control heat with the objective of performing work.
Definition:
A furnace is an enclosed place in which heat is produced by the combustion of fuel, as for
reducing ores or melting metals, for warming a house, for baking pottery, etc.’ this is
drawn sufficiently wide terms to cover almost all heating operations. The range of
operation and the condition under which those processes must be carried out cover a very
wide field, and the types of furnaces are equally diverse; therefore, no attempt will be
made to describe or figure particular types of furnace.
Furnaces may operate over a range of temperature from 300 F or thereabouts, to upwards
of 3000 F and they may be intermittent or continuous in operation. The capacity may
vary from that of a small pot furnace used for the tempering steel springs, where a few
gallons of oil is heated to about 500 F to a blast furnace producing a thousand tons of pig
iron a day at a temperature of about 3000 F. The number of types are as great as the
number of heating operations, but most comprise a combustion chamber in which the fuel
is burned and a hearth (or its equivalent) on which the charge is heated.
The principle of fuel economy is the same in all furnaces, and involve
Types of Furnaces
However we have made an attempt to classify the furnaces so only the names are
indicated here, which also shows the purposes for which the furnaces are employed.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Without blast
With blast
Natural draught
Forced blast
Natural Draught
Forced Draught
Solid charge
Liquid Charge
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
- Electrical furnaces
Longitudinal Drum
Metal Industries
The metallurgical furnaces are further classified on the basis of following purpose
For Tempering
For Annealing
For Carbonizing
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
For Forging
For Ensiling
Direct Fired
Over Fired
Side Fired
Under Fired
Fired Heaters
Most of the fired heaters used in the petroleum refinery and petrochemical and other
chemical plants is a pipe still heater, which is designed to heat process fluid in tubes
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
effectively by burning fuel. The function of the heater is similar to that of the steam-
generating boiler except that usually process fluid is heated instead of water.
Basically a pipe still heater consists of a combustion chamber for heat release, surrounded
by tubes through which the process feedstock flows to absorb heat by both radiation and
convection. Using a predetermined air mix ratio, the heat is supplied by the gas or oil
burners provided on the floor or on the walls of combustion chamber.
The feedstock is fed into and passed through tubes inside the heater. If a convection
section is provided, the feedstock is fed to the convection section first, then introduced
into the radiant section. During passage of the feedstock through the fired heater, it is
subjected to both radiant and convection heat.
The inside walls of the heater are refractory lined, to cope with the high temperatures
generated by the firing fuel.
The feed stock is heated to the required temperature at the specified phase and fed to the
next unit in the process sequence; e.g., distillation column, fractionators or reactor etc. the
temperature of the feed stock when leaving the fired heater differs according to the
operating requirements, but is generally with in a range of 250oC to 500oC.
The fired heaters most generally used are the box type and the vertical cylinder type.
Fired heaters are classified by their construction and purpose. There are basically two
types of construction, the box type and the vertical cylinder type. These are further
divided by their tube layout, combustion method, purpose and characteristics. Although
there are many types of construction to meet process requirements
1) Heating
Vaporizing a liquid
2) Thermal Cracking
Gas cracking
Liquid cracking
3) Thermal Reforming
Gas reforming
Heat Transfer
In the radiant section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by heat radiation from the
burner flame and the heater walls. This heat is transferred to the feedstock by conduction
and convection. In the convection section, the heat is transmitted to the tubes by
convection of the hot flue gas and is then transferred to the feedstock by conduction and
convection Mechanical drafts are induced, forced or balanced. All the four draft methods
are used in fired heaters, although a natural draft is more generally applied.
Heater Components
Burners
The following types of burners are used for the combustion of oil or gas, or both in fired
heaters:
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
The burners are designed to produce a uniform flame suitable to the type of firebox
involved, together with the most efficient, safe and complete combustion of the fuel.
Refractory
The following kinds of refractories are used in fired heaters to protect the heater casing
(insulating materials) from hot flue gas:
Heating tube
Heating tube is a kind of container in which high temperature and high pressure process
feed stock is contained and receives the heat of combustion.
In some special heaters the tube metal temperature will be more then 8000C.
The material of heating tube is selected from among carbon steel, low alloy and high
alloy steel depending upon service temperature, corrosiveness of process feed stock and
others.
Generally the heating tube is classified into three types, that is, bare tube, finned tube and
studded tube.
Tube Support
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
The tube support is literally, the component that supports the tubes.
Auxiliary Equipment
There are some auxiliary equipment for fired heaters to achieve higher heater efficiency
and to keep the fired heater in proper condition.
Air Preheater
The flue gas at the exit of the fired heater still contains some available heat which is high
enough to heat the combustion air.
Air Preheater is a kind of heat exchanger and is designed to exchange the heat between
flue gas and combustion air efficiently.
With preheated combustion air the fuel quantity required can be reduced, since preheated
air has more heat than ambient air.
When the flue gas is cooled too much some trouble may occur in the air preheater
elements, fan elements and the refractories in the duct or stack, since flue gas generally
contains sulfur compounds.
Soot Blower
When fuel oil is used as a fuel, a large amount of ash, carbon etc. will be generated and
accumulate onto the convection heating tubes, resulting in low heat transfer.
Furnace Calculation
Step 1
Partial pressure of CO2 and H2O (P) is found from graph which is plotted against excess
air.
Step 2
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Emmisivity is found from the graph, it is plotted against PL (product of partial pressure
and flame length) different curves for different temperatures.
Step 3
Exchange factor finally is found by graph, where it is plotted against ratio of refractory
area to cold plane area, (AR/a ACP), different curves for different emmisivities.
3. Arrangement of tubes
There is no universally applicable method for the furnace design for all types of the
furnaces specially fuel used determent the design method applicable , there are four
known design methods
Here we shall consider only method of lobo and evans. This is a trial and error method
which make use of the overall exchange factor () and a Stefan-Boltzmann type equation.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
It has a good theoretical basis and is used extensively in refinery furnace design work. It
is also recommended for oil or gas fired boilers.
As in all trial and error solutions, a starting point must be assumed and checked. For
orientation purposes, we shall estimate the number of tubes required in the radiant section
by assuming an average flux ( permissible average radiant rate ) Btu/(hr)(ft 2 of
circumferential tube area).
First of all we shall assume radiant heat flux. In literature, permissible average
radiant rate for different types of feedstocks are available.
2-Find Q/Acp:
=2 x Average flux
=20x3000
Where,
= effectiveness factor
Q/Acp = 6000/0.6
Lets, Ts=800 F
Tg= 1140 F
7- Heat balance:
Heat balance is necessary for the solution of heat absorption problem. The heat balance is
as follows:
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs – Qw – Qg
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Where,
Qs =Sensible heat above 60F in steam used for oil atomization, (Btu/hr)
Qg =Heat leaving the furnace radiant section in the flue gases, (Btu/hr)
=3.28x106 Btu/hr.
We have taken refinery gases as fuel which are obtained during distillation , cracking and
other processing of petroleum and its fractions which contain paraffins (e.g. methane
ethane , propane and butane) olefins (e.g. ethylene, propene and butene) and hydrogen
are called refinery gases.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
=20500x(1/0.252)x(22.4/1)x(1/2.2)
qf =Qf/L.H.V
=3.28x106/828282.82
=39.8
(d)- Qa = qa x Ha
= 3263.43 x10.78
Qw= 2% of Qf
Qs = 0 lb.mols. / hr.
= 157.6 + 3263.43 + 0
= 3421.23 lbs.hr.
O2 required = 4.55 (lb O2/ lb.mol. Fuel gas) x 3.965 (lb.mol fuel gas)
=18.044 lb.mols.
= 21.65 lb.mols.
N2 8004
O2 8427
CO2 12200
H2O 9602
So,
Therefore,
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs – Qw – Qg
Heat transferred per tube = Average flux x surface area per tube
=3000x20.158
Number of tubes = total radiant section duty (Q)/ heat transferred per tube
= 38 tubes
Tubes are vertically mounted in a single row along the wall of the cylindrical furnace
about one tube diameter away from wall.
= (38x0.625)/ 3.14
= 8 ft.
= 0.79
= 38 x 22 x 0.625
= 523.21 ft2
So,
= 413.33 ft2
At = xD xH
=3.14x8x23.5
= 590.32 ft2
Ar = At - Acp
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 590.32- 413.33
= 176.99 ft2
It depends on the dimensions of the furnace & found from any suitable formula from
table (19.1)
= 1x8
= 8 ft
b- Calculate pxL:
pL = p (CO2+ H2O) xL
= 0.24x8
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
=1.92 atm.ft.
18- CHECK:
= 0.55
Q = 2.3e6
Tg = 1170 F
So, trial indicates that less duty than 2.2 million Btu/ hr. is performed since this duty
does not cool the fuel gases to 1140 F but to only 1170 F , while the flux corresponding
to this duty could be effected by a gas temperature of 1140F.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
SECOND TRIAL:
Qf, Qa, Qw, will remain the same, only Qg (heat taken away by the flue gases) changed.
N2 8774
O2 9251
CO2 13470
H2O 10562
So,
Therefore,
Q = Qf + Qa + Qr + Qs – Qw – Qg
So number of tubes:
Number of tubes Nt = total radiant section heat duty / heat transferred per tube
=(2.0x106 )/60444
=36
(In the previous trial, no of tubes were 38. as there is very small change in the no. of
tubes so we use the previous value (i.e. 38 ) to avoid the repetition of calculations)
Similarly assuming that does not change (actually it will fall slightly)
i.e.
(Calculated) = 0.55
so,
= 101173.38 Btu/hr.ft.2
We have,
Tg = 1155F (calculated)
=(2.3x106 )/ (3.14x0.29x22x38)
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 3019 Btu/hr.ft2
Final Results
Number of tubes = 38
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit Furnace
Item No. E-120
Type Vertical Cylinderical
Operation:
Heat Duty ‘Q’ 2.42*109 J/hr
Furnace Tube
Fluid Circulated Combustion Gases Naphtha + H2
Flow Rates 20664.5 kg / hr
Temperature Inlet 327 oC
Outlet 369 oC
Material Of Construction Carbon Steel Carbon Steel
Refractory material Refractory Brick
Specification Diameter 2.44 m L.T 6.096 m
Height 6.55 m O.D 0.088 m
B 0.4 m C-C.Dis 0.1905 m
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
4.3 REACTOR
Types of Reactors
Fixed bed reactor can be further classified on the biases of either heat is supplied during
reaction or not.
o Adiabatic
o Non adiabatic
The reactions taking place within the reactor may be in gas phase or there might a case of
trickle operation.
For gas phase reactions some important reactor configurations are as under.
2. Radial flow
4. Direct-fired non-adiabatic
Except reactor type and configuration some other factors are important like , Distribution
system and Sporting ceramic balls which also serves for uniform distribution of flow as
well.
Our Reactor in this case is non isothermal adiabatic reactor with basket type distribution
system and standard ceramic balls installation . Detailed calculations of distribution
system is given in design calculations.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Temp = 369oC
Pressure = 29.4atm
Sulpher Contents = 1033.5ppm
Feed rate = 20664Kg/hr
Temp =374oC
Pressure = 29.12atm
Sulpher contents = .5ppm
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
PLANT SPECIFICATIONS
Wt % S in Feed = .10335
Wt % S in Product = .00005
Catalyst
= .474cm2
4/3
= 0.388cm
(/4)(0.31743)
= 345 ft 2 / ft 3
However, some of surface is blocked where the pellets touch. A better figure is 310ft2
= 28.81m2
Per cu ft bed, obtained by graphical interpolation of the values given by Sherwood and
Pig ford, p. 87.
(310)(30)(9)
= 0.004186
L be bed height in ft
As Gm = G/S
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Gm p f dy/y = aPKg L
We get
S 0.00005
Know we have to calculate height and dia of catalyst bed suitable for our bed volume,
Which is decided on the base of pressure drop across the catalyst bed.
For using equation for pressure drop, which is in Perry chemical engineering handbook
on p. 393, we have to calculate Nre first
Nre = DpG
Nre = 0.364 G
(30.48)(0.0383)(2.42)
= 0.128G
637.6
= 71.3
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 0.0000001737fG2
G = 45462/S
1000 128.00 0.039063 0.246229 0.285 0.03 45.46 2.82 0.08 7.61
1500 192.00 0.026042 0.236445 0.262 0.06 30.31 4.23 0.25 6.21
2000 256.00 0.019531 0.22974 0.249 0.10 22.73 5.64 0.56 5.38
2500 320.00 0.015625 0.22467 0.24 0.15 18.18 7.05 1.06 4.81
3000 384.00 0.013021 0.220611 0.234 0.21 15.15 8.46 1.78 4.39
3500 448.00 0.011161 0.217236 0.228 0.28 12.99 9.87 2.76 4.07
4000 512.00 0.009766 0.214355 0.224 0.36 11.37 11.28 4.05 3.80
4500 576.00 0.008681 0.211845 0.221 0.45 10.10 12.69 5.67 3.59
5000 640.00 0.007813 0.209624 0.217 0.54 9.09 14.10 7.67 3.40
5500 704.00 0.007102 0.207636 0.215 0.65 8.27 15.51 10.08 3.24
6000 768.00 0.00651 0.205837 0.212 0.76 7.58 16.92 12.94 3.10
6500 832.00 0.00601 0.204196 0.21 0.89 6.99 18.33 16.28 2.98
7000 896.00 0.00558 0.202689 0.208 1.02 6.49 19.74 20.15 2.87
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
20.00
15.00
10.00
5.00
0.00
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000
G (m ass velocity)
G = 4000lb/ft2.hr = 19560Kg/(m2.hr)
According to stander procedure ceramic balls are located at both ends of catalyst bed.
Generally the balls used are of 3mm Dia, 6mmdia and 19mmdia.
= 0.1524m
According to the conventional procedure 60% of small baskets is dipped in catalyst bed,
= 7x (0.52) x 4 x 0.6
4 x 13ft2
= 0.217 ft = .0661m
So
Identification:
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Unit Reactor
Item No. R-130
Type Fixed Bed, Catalytic, Adiabatic,
Nonisothermal
Reactor Catalyst
Fluid Circulated Naphtha + H2 Stream Name S-7
Feed Rates 20664.5 kg / hr Composition
Temperature Sulphur Contents 5% Cobalt Oxide
Inlet 369 oC Feed 1033.5ppm 10% Nicle Oxide
Outlet 374 oC Product: 0.5ppm 20% Molybdenium oxide
P = 0.278atm On Silica / Alumina Sport
Material
An ACHE is a device for rejecting heat from a fluid directly to ambient air. This is in
contrast to rejecting heat to water and then rejecting it to air, as with a shell and tube heat
exchanger.
Air cooler has many advantages over water cooling so there is a comparison between air
and water cooling
Air Water
1. Air is available free in 1 Water is corrosive and require
abundant quantity with no preparation treatment to control both scaling and
cost. deposition of dirt.
A support structure high enough to allow air to enter beneath the ACHE at a
reasonable rate.
= 47212.2 lb/hr
Feed Temperature:
Q = mCpΔT
= 47212.2x0.74x(200-140)
= 2096221.68Btu/hr
Assuming,
U = 75 Btu/hr.ft2. 0F
Fins Selection:
Thickness = 0.017in
8fins/inch
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Tube OD = 1 in
= 0.5384
From graph
KVfAf/wCp = 1.8
So,
Af = 1.8x47212.2x0.74/1.08x650
= 90ft2
= 2096221/1.08x90x650
= 33.170F
= 1230F
= 62.54 0F
P = t2-t1/T1-t1
= 123-90/200-90
= 0.3
R = T1-T2/t2-T1
= 60/33.1
= 1.81
From graph we found the correction factor for log mean temperature difference
FT = 0.99
ΔTlm = 62.54x0.99
= 61.90F
As,
Q = U A LMTDc
= 451.41 ft2
Area = 90x5.04
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 453.1 ft2
Area = 96x5.04
= 483.84 ft2
Number of tubes /Row = Total bare area/No. of row x Length x Tube bare area /ft of tube
23 = 483.84/4x24x0.2260
= 16.5 in2
= 2.041 in2
= 0.508
Gm = 650x0.073x60/0.508
= 5604.3 lb/ft2.hr
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
From figure,
= 0.56
Dfo/Dt = 2.25/1
= 2.25
= 624in2
= 4.33ft2
= πdo(1-nt) L
= 3.14x1x(1-8x.017)x12/144
= 0.2261 ft2
= 19.15
= 0.1707ft2
= 47212/0.1707
= 276578.8lb/ft2hr
Re = DG/µ
= 0.0695x276578.8/0.46
= 41787.44
hi = 0.023xk/dx(Re)0.8 x(cµ/k)1/3
= 0.013308
U = 75.15
So from above it is proved that selection of U is right so the area selected is right too
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Where,
Gm = mass velocity at minimum cross section through the rows of the tube
ρ = density of gas
the diagonal, in
(4836x4/4.18x108x0.063)
= 0.17lbf/ft2
= 0.00471psi
= 0.129in H20
Total ΔP = 0.916 in
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Fans
As fan area is 40 to 50% of bundle face area, fan must be 6in apart from the bundle wall
So,
= 42.41 ft2
Motor Hp = actual ft3 /min (at fan) – total pressure drop /6356
= 650 x 42.41-0.916/6356 – 80 - 95
PERFORMANCE DATA
CONSTRUCTION
TUBE FIN
Killed
MATERIAL steel MATERIAL ALUMINUM
OUTER DIA m 0.0254 TYPE CIRCULAR
INNER DIA m 0.0211 HEIGHT m 0.0158
NO. OF TUBES 90 NO. OF FIN /m 315
∆ PITCH m 0.06 THICKNESS m 0.0004
NO. OF PASSES 2
NO. OF ROW 4
MECHANICAL
EQUIPMENT
FAN
NO. OF UNIT 6
DIAMETER OF FAN m 0.9146
NO. OF BLADE 4
BLADE MATERIAL PLASTIC
CAST
FAN MATERIAL IRON
POWER KW 1
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
The separator used in that process is actually three phase separator in which we are
adding water to remove solid particles from naphtha stream .so we have here
Liquid stream
Water
DATA:
Gas:
Liquid:
= 45955.32 lbs/hr
= 0.349 lb/sec
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Moles of gas
= 1257.2/6.4
= 196.43 lbmoles / hr
Volume of gas:
Volume of gas = ?
PV = nRT
V = nRT / P
= 3245.8 ft3
Density of gas (ρ )
v
= 1257.2 / 3245.8
Density of liquid (ρ )l
= 46.9 lbs/hr
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Selection of Lv/Dv
hv = Dv / 2
Fv = 0.5
= 0.767 ft / sec
Ua = 0.15 x Ut
= 0.115 ft / sec
= 0.349 / 0.387
= π Dv2 / 4 x 0.5
= 0.392 Dv2
= Qv / Av
= 2.3 Dv-2
Vapor residence time required for the liquid droplets to settle on the liquid surface:
= hv / Ua
= 0.5 Dv / 0.115
= 4.347 Dv
= L v / Uv
= 4 Dv / Uv
= 4 Dv / 2.3 Dv-2
= 1.74 Dv3
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Dv = 1.6ft
= 12.76 / 46.9
= π (1.6)2 /4 x 0.5
= 1 ft2
Length ‘Lv’
Lv = 4 Dv
= 4x1.6
= 6.4 ft
= 1 x 6.4
= 6.4 ft3
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 6.4/0.272
= 23.52 sec
= 0.392 min
This is unsatisfactory, 3 minutes minimum required. Need to increase the liquid volume
this is best done by increasing vessel diameter the diameter must be increased by the
factor of roughly (3/0.392)1/2 = 2.76
= 4.42 ft
New Lv = 4 x Dv
= 16 ft
= 100.5 ft3
= 100.5 / 0.272
= 369.5 sec
= 6.15 min
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
BOOT DESIGN:
= 179.4 lbs
= 82.6 L
= 2.92 ft3
Lv/Dv = 5
As interphase is on 50%,
= π D2 / 4 x 5 x D
Dv = 1.23 ft
Lv = 1.23 x 5
= 6.2 ft
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Vapour liquid mass transfer operation may be carried either in plate column or packed
column. These two types of operations are quite different. A selection scheme
considering the factors under four headings.
i) Factors that depend on the system i.e. scale, foaming, fouling factors,
corrosive systems, heat evolution, pressure drop, liquid holdup.
iii) Factors that depends upon the physical characteristics of the column and its
internals i.e. maintenance, weight, side stream, size and cost.
iv) Factors that depend upon mode of operation i.e. batch distillation, continuous
distillation, turndown, intermittent distillation.
i) Plate column are designed to handle wide range of liquid flow rates without
flooding.
ii) If a system contains solid contents, it will be handled in plate column, because
solid will accumulate in the voids, coating the packing materials and making it
ineffective.
iii) Dispersion difficulties are handled in plate column when flow rate of liquid
are low as compared to gases.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
iv) For large column heights, weight of the packed column is more than plate
column.
vii) Design information for plate column are more readily available and more
reliable than that for packed column.
viii) Inter stage cooling can be provide to remove heat of reaction or solution in
plate column.
For this particular process, “Acetaldehyde, ethyl alcohol and water system”, I have
selected plate column because:
i) System is non-foaming.
There are four main tray types, the bubble cap, sieve tray, ballast or valve trays and the
counter flow trays. I have selected sieve tray because:
i) They are lighter in weight and less expensive. It is easier and cheaper to
install.
Distillate
580 kg/hr
Feed
20104.9 kg/hr
D-180
Q-181
Bottom Product
19524.9 kg/hr
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
rf
X nl
1 r f 1 i x fh
6.26
0.738
1 r 6.26 1 0.195
1 X dA X
Rm LH dB
LH 1 X nl X nH
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
1 0.02448 0.0078
Rm 1.776
0.776 1 0.118 0.738
= 0.31
Fenske equation
X X
log a b
X b D X a B
Nm 1
log AB
Nm + 1 =1.298/0.249 = 5.16
Nm = 4.16
N N m R Rm
N 1 R 1
N 4.16 8 0.3
N 1 8 1
N = 33.4
0.75
So,
LW V
FW
VW L
24434 9
FWTop
25710 700.4
= 0.1076
90132 10.26
FLV Bottom
47193 742.4
= 0.22
Uf = flooding velocity
L V
U f K1
V
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
700.4 9
U f Top 0.08
9
= 0.700 m/s
742.4 10.2
Uf Bottom 0.07
10.2
= 0.6 m/s
25710
Top 0.36 m3/sec
2.2 9 3600
47193
Bottom 0.58
2.2 10.26 3600
Column Diameter
0.73 4 1.36 4
Top , Bottom
= 0.96 m = 1.31 m
Top = 11.38
Bottom = 3.08
2
Column Area Ac d
4
Ac = 1.33 m2
= 0.159 m2
Net area An = Ac – Ad
= 1.33 – 0.159
= 1.171 m2
= 1.33 – 2(0.159)
= 1.012
= 0.988 m
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Check Weeping
= 7.966 kg/sec
5/ 4
Maximum how 750
11 .38
742.4 0.159
= 40.29 mm liquid
2/3
Minimum how 750
7.966
742.4 0.98
= 37.86 mm liquid
= 87.86 mm liquid
K2 = 30.8
K 0.9 25.4 an
U min 2
10.261/ 2
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 3.883 m/s
0.7 0.58
0.1012
= 4.01 m/s
0.58
Uˆ h 5.73 m/s
0.1012
Ah Ah
and A A 0.1
p a
lo = 0.84
2
Uˆ
hd 51 h V
lo L
2
5.73 10.26
hd 51 = 32.8 mm liquid
0.84 742.4
Residual Head
12.5 103
hr 16.83 mm liquid
742.4
ht = 139.92 mm liquid
Take hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
= 0.03952 m2
2
l
hdc 166 wd
L An
2
11 .38
hdc 166
742. 4 0. 039
= 25.64 mm ~ 26 mm
Backup in downcomer
= 205.85 mm
= 0.20585 m
= 3.03 sec
Check Entrainment
Satisfactory
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50 mm imperforated strip round plate edge; 50
mm wide calming zeros.
Lw/Dc = 0.76
QL = 99
Mean length of calming zone 1.3 50 103 sin 99
2
0.95 m
Area of calming zone 2 0.95 50 103 0.095
Total area of peeforations, Ap = 1.012 – 0.095 = 0.917 m2
Ah 0.1012
0.11
Ap 0.917
No of Holes
0.1012
No. of holes
1.964 105
= 5152.74
TOP DIAMETER
V 9
L 700.4
2
Ac = Column Area = d 0.72 m2
4
An Ac Ad 0.72 0.0864 m2
= 0.6336 m2
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Aa = Ac – 2Ad = 0.5472 m2
0.0864
Weir length 100 12
0.72
lw
0.76
Dc
Hole diameter = 5 mm
Plate thickness = 5 mm
Check Weeping
Minimum liquid. Rate at 70% turn down 0.7 6.78 4.76 kg/sec
5/ 4
Maximum how 750
6.78
700 0.0864
= 48.65 mm liquid
2/3
Minimum how 750
4.76
700 0.729
= 33.24 mm liq.
= 83.24 mm liq.
K2 = 30.8
0.7 0.36
0.054
= 4.66
6.78 / 9
Uˆ h 13.95 m/sec
0.054
and Ah / Ap = 0.1
2
13.95 9
Ad 51
0.84 700
= 21.5 mm liq.
Residual Head
= 138 mm liq.
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Take hap = hw – 10 = 40 mm
= 0.0291 m2
2
6.78
hdc 166
700 0.029
= 18.51 mm liq.
= 255.16 mm
= 0.255 m
0.255 < ½ (Tray spacing + weir height) So, tray spacing is acceptable.
> 3 is Satisfactory
Check Entrainment
0.36 0.36
Uv 0.56 m/sec
Ah 0.6336
0.56
Percent flooding 0.81 %
0 .7
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
Trial Layout
Use cartridge type construction. Allow 50mm upperforated strip vannd plate edge; 50mm
wide calming zone.
lw
0.76
Dc
QC = 99o
Mean length, unperforated edge strip 0.96 50 103 8 / 180 1.28 m
Area of unperforted edge strip 0.96 50 103 sin 99
2
0.692 m
Area of calming zone 2 0.692 50 103 0.0692 m2
Ah 0.0547
0.11
Ap 0.478
No. of Holes
1.964 105 m
2
Area of one hole
0.0547
No. of holes 2785.13
1.764 105
Chapter #4 Equipment Design
SPECIFICATION SHEET
Identification:
Unit Distillation Column
Item No. D-180
Type Sieve Tray Column
DESIGN DATA
Trays design Hole design
No of Trays : 43 Weir Height: 1in
Tray Spacing: 0.4m Weir Length: 0.988m
Diameter: 1.3m Hole area: 0.1012m2
CHAPTER 5
MECHANICAL DESIGN
Shell side:
Tube side:
Shell thickness:
= 0.45mm
Head thickness:
t h = PRcW / 2 fJ
Rc – crown radius
Rk = 6% Rc
W= 1 / 4 [3+ (1 / 6) 0.5]
J= 1
= 0.689 mm.
Segmental baffles:
Thickness of baffles = 6 mm
Flanges:
Shell thickness = go = 8 mm
= 689 mm
Gasket width:
Thus,
do / di = 1.002
Let di of the gasket equal 683 mm [10 mm greater than shell dia]
= 6.83 x 10-4
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
do = 0.696 m
G = di + N
= 0.683 + 0.012
= 0.695m
= 0.06004 MN
Hp = G(26)mp
= 6.6 x10-3 MN
Wo = H + Hp
= 0.066MN
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
Wg = Gby
= 0.2783 MN
= 0.2783/138
= 2.02 x 10-3 m2
R = 0.027m
go = 8mm
= 0.76564 m
C = 44 x 0.066 /
= 0.9243 m
= 0.968 = 0.97m
Wo = W1 + W2 + W3
W1 = (B2 / 4) P
/ 4 (0.689)2 0.11
= 0.0410
W2 = H-W1
= 0.06004 – 0.0410
= 1.9 x 10 -3
= 6.6 x 10 -3 MN
a2 = (a1+a2) /2 = 0.241
Mo = 1.1 x 10 -2
Mg = W. a3
W = (Am +Ab)/(2). Sg
Ab = area of bolt
= 44 x 1.56 x 10 -4
= 6.76 x 10 -3 m 2
Sg = 138N/mm 2
W = 0.562 MN
a3 = 0.241
Mg = 0.135 MN-m
Mg is controlling moment
Flange thickness:
t 2 = (MCfY)/(BSt) = (MCfY/BSfo)
K= (A/B)
= (0.97/0.689)
= 1.407
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
Assume, Cf =1
M = 0.1275MN-m
St = Allowable stress
=100MN / m 2
= 0.0055
t = 0.074m
= 8.36 mm
th = Gc [KP/95]1/2
= 0.695 [1.407x0.55/95]1/2
= 6.27mm
Nozzle:
Vent – 50 mm
Drain – 50 mm
= 0.293
Corrosion allowance 3 mm
tn = 4 mm
Considering the size of the nozzle & the pressure rating, it is necessary to provide for a
reinforcing pad on the channel cover.
A = d x th = 100 x 10 = 1000 mm 2.
Saddle Support:
Diameter = 454 mm
= 27.24 mm
= [454x27.4 / 2 ]1/2
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
H= 78.63mm
A = 0.5 x R = 113.5 mm
= W/2 ( L + 4H/3)
=18834.1 Kg
M2 = 10218 Kg.m
F1= M1 / k1 R2 t
K1 = 1
= 0.9865 Kg / cm2
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
F2= M1 / k2 R2 t
K2 = 1
F3= M2 / R2 t
= 789.46Kg / cm2
Fd = P Di / 4 t
f3 + fp = 813.015 kg / cm2
CHAPTER 6
PUMP SELECTION
1) Many different factors can influence the final choice of a pump for a particular
operation. The following list indicates the major factors that govern pump selection.
2) The amount of fluid that must be pumped. This factor determines the size of
pump (or pumps) necessary.
3) The properties of the fluid. The density and the viscosity; of the fluid influence
the power requirement for a given set of operating conditions, corrosive properties of the
fluid determine the acceptable materials of construction. If solid particles are suspended
in the fluid, this factor dictates the amount of clearance necessary and may eliminate the
possibility of using certain types of pumps.
4) The increase in pressure of the fluid due to the work input of the pumps. The head
change across the pump is influenced by the inlet and downstream reservoir pressures,
the change in vertical height of the delivery line, and frictional effects. This factor is a
major item in determining the power requirements.
= 4000 bbl / std * 1std / 24hr * 1hr / 60min * 42 U.S . gallons / bbl
-6.39 x 10 -7 F2 G + 4 x 10 -10 F2 G2
Where
F = Developed Head, ft
Eff = 76.5%
Where
CHAPTER 7
The important feature common to all process is that a process in never in a state of static
equilibrium except for a very short period of time and process is a dynamic entity subject
to continual upset or disturbance which' tend to drive it away from the desired state of
equilibrium the process must then be manipulated upon or corrected to derive some
disturbance bring about only transient effect in the process behavior. These passes away
and the never occur again. Others may apply periodic or cycle forces which may make
the process respond in a cyclic or periodic fashion. Most disturbances are completely
random with respect to time a show no repetitive pattern. Thus their occurrence may be
expected hut cannot be predicated at any particular time. If a process is to operate
efficiently, disturbances in the process must be controlled.
A process is designed for a particular objective or output and is then found. Sometimes
by trail and error and sometimes by referring from the previous, experience that control
of a particular variable associated with some stages of the process is necessary to achieve
the desired efficiency.
Each process will have associated with it number of variables which are independent of
the process and/ or its operation and which are likely to change at random. Each such
change will lead to changes in the dependent variables of the process one of which is
selected as bring indicative of successfully operation. One of the input variable will be
manipulated to cause further changes in the output variable will be manipulated to cause
further changes in the output variable the original conditions, Process may controlled
more precisely to give more uniform and higher quality products by the application of
automatic control, often leading to higher profits additionally, process which response too
rapidly to be controlled by human operators can be controlled automatically. Automatic
control is also beneficial in certain remote, hazardous or routine operations. After a
period of experimentation, computers are now being used to operate automatically
control processing systems, which may too large and too complex for effective direct
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
human control.
Since process profit is usually the most important benefit to obtained by applying
automatic control. The quality of control and its cost should be compared with the
economic return expected and the process technical objective. The economic return
includes reduced operating costs, maintenance and of the specification product along with
improved process operability and increased throughout.
Process
Any operation of series of operations that produce a desired final result is a process. In
this discussion the process is the purification of natural
Measuring Means
As all the parts of the control system, measuring element, is perhaps the most important.
If the measurements are not made properly the remainder of the system cannot operate
satisfactorily. The measured variable is chosen to represent the desired condition in the
process.
Variables to he Measured
a. Pressure Measurement
b. Temperature Measurement
d. Level Measurement
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
Variables to be Recorded
7.3 CONTROLLER
The controller is the mechanism that responds to any error indicated by the error
detecting mechanism. The output of the controller is some predetermined function of the
error. There arc three types of controllers.
1. Proportion action which moves the control valve indirect proportion to the
magnitude of the error.
2. Integral action (reset) which moves the control valve based on the time integral of the
error and the purpose of integral actions is to drive the process back to .its set point when
it has been disturbed.
3. Ideal derivative action and its purpose are to anticipate where the process is
heading by cooking at the time a rate of change of error. The final control element
receives the signal from the controller and by some predetermined relationship changes
the energy input to the process.
CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTROLLER
a. Pneumatic controllers
b. Electronic controllers
c. Hydraulic controllers
While dealing with the gases, the controller and the final control element may be
pneumatically operated due to the following reasons.
maintenance. The maintenance men have not had sufficient training and background in
electronics, so pneumatic equipment is simple.
MODES OF CONTROL
The various types of control are called modes, and they determine type of response
obtained. In other words these describe the action of controller that is the relationship of
output of output signal to the input or error signal. It must be noted that is error that
achieve the controller. The four basic mode of control are:
1. On-off control
2. Integral control
3. Proportional control
In industry purely integral, proportional or derivative modes seldom occur alone in the
control system. The on-off controller is the controller with very high gain. In this case the
error signal at once off the valve or any other parameter upon which it sites or completely
sets system.
Alarms are used to alert operators of serious and potentially hazardous, deviations in
process conditions, key instruments are fitted with switches and relays to operate audible
and visual alarms on the control panels.
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
1. A sensor to monitor the control variable and provide and output signal when a preset
value is exceeded (the instrument).
3. An activator to carry out the required action close or open a valve, switch off a motor.
For instrumentation and control of different sections and equipments of plants, following
control loops are most often used.
Here is given a short outline of these control schemes, so that to justify our selection of a
control loop for specified equipment.
be sent to the final control element through the controller so that to adjust the incoming
quantity according to desired value (set point). But in fact change has already occurred
and only corrective action can be taken while using feed back-control system.
A method of control in which the value of a disturbance is measured, and action is taken
to prevent the disturbance by changing the value of a process variable. This is a control
method designed to prevent errors from occurring in a process variable. This control
system is better than feed back control because it anticipates the change in the process
variable before it enters the process takes the preventive action. While in feed back enter
system action is taken after the chanee has occurred.
RATIO CONTROL
A control loop in which, the controlling element maintains a predetermined ratio of one
variable to another. Usually this control loop is attached to such as system where two
different streams enter a vessel for reaction that may be of any kind. To maintain the
stoichiometic quantities of different streams this loop is used so that to ensure proper
process going on in the process vessel.
This type of control loop is normally used for a huge vessel where, readings of a single
variable may be different at different locations. This type of control loop ensures safe
operation because it employs all the readings of different locations simultaneously, and
compares them with the set point, if any of those readings is deviating from the set point
then the controller sends appropriate signal to final control element.
In this loop controller is per set with different values corresponding to different action to
be take at different conditions. The advantage of this loop is to maintain the proper
conditions and avoid abnormalities at very differential levels.
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
This is a control in which two or more control loops are arranged so that the output of,
one controlling element adjusts the set point of another controlling element. This control
loop is used where proper and quick control is difficult by simple feed forward or feed
backward control. Normally first loop is a feed back control loop. We have selected a
cascade control loop for our heat exchanger in order to get quick on proper control.
7.6 INTERLOCKS
Where it is necessary to follow a fixed sequence of operations for example, during a plant
start-up and shut-down, or in batch operations. Interlocks are includes to prevent
operators departing from the required sequence. They may be incorporated in the control
system design, as pneumatic or electric relays or may be mechanical interlocks.
To stabilize this feed back control, in almost all cases the control must have a wide
proportional band (i.e, wide range of exit temperature change operates the control valve
through full stroke). The proportional band is determined by gain of other components in
the control loop by process considerations. It is an cxccniion when the usual combination
of conventional control elements permits use of narrow band control mechanism. .
Since heat-exchanger control require a wide proportional band for stabilization, reset
response (rate of change of heating medium How proportional to exit temperature.
deviation from controller set point is normally required to correct for off set in the
controlled variable (temperature). It there are process load change and reset response can
be eliminated in cases where disturbance such as heating fluid header pressure, product
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
flow rate or inlet temperature changes have small effects relative to desired tolerance on
the controlled variable.
A pressure cascade control system cascades output of a standard three action temperature
controller into the set point of a pressure controller. It achieves a more rapid recovery to
process load disturbances in a shell-and-tube exchanger than can be obtained without the
pressure controller. Heating fluid to the heater is regulated by the pressure controller
which is normally provided with proportional and reset responses. Load change is rapidly
sensed by a change is shell pressure which is compensated for by the pressure controller.
The temperature control system senses the residual error and resets the pressure control
set point.
In certain cascade, the time response characteristic of heat exchanger is too slow to hold
temperature deviations resulting from load changes within desired tolerances. In some of
these cases, the transient characteristic of the heat exchanger can be circumvented by by-
passing the heater with a parallel line and bledding cold process fluid with hot fluid from
the heater. In the by-pass system care must be taken in sizing valves to obtain the-desired
flow sprit with adequate flow versus steam travel characteristics. Thermal elements
response time is particularly important since this tie constant is a major factor influencing
performance of the system.
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
Flow Controllers
These are used to control tin- feed rate into a process unit Orifice plates are by far the
most type of How-rate sensor. Normally orifice plates arc designed to give pressure drops
in the range of 20 to 200 inch of water Venture tubes amand turbine meter are also used.
Temperature controller
Thermocouples are the most commonly used temperature sensing device. The two
dissimilar wires produce a millivolt emf that varies with the “hot-functions” temperature.
Iron constant to thermocouples are commonly used over the 0 to 1300 F. temperature
range.
Pressure Controller
Level Indicator
Liquid levels are detected in a variety of ways. The three common are
1. The following the position of a float that is lighter than the fluid.
3. Measuring the difference in static pressure between two fixed elevations, one in
the vapour above the liquid and the other under the liquid surface. The differential
pressure between the two level taps is directly related to the liquid level in the vessel.
Transmitter
The transmitter is the interface between the process and its control system.The Job of the
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
Control Valves
The interface with the process at the other end of the control loop is made by the final
control element in an automatic control valves control the flow of heating. fluid the open
or close and orifice opening as the system is raised or lowered.
Control Valve
(Final Control Element)
Pneumatic
Signal
Control Scheme of
Trim Cooler E-150
Electric
Signal
Temperature Recorder
Controller & Indicator
(Measuring Instrument)
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
CHAPTER 8
As the final process-design stage is Complete, it becomes possible to make accurate cost
estimation because detailed equipment specification and definite plant facility
information are available. Direct price quotation based on detailed specification can then
be obtained from various manufacturers. However o design project should proceed to the
final stages before costs are considered and cost estimate should be made through out all
the early stages of the design when complete specifications are not available. Evaluation
of costs in the preliminary design is said predesign cost estimation. Such estimation
should be capable of providing a basis for company management to decide if further
capital should be invested in the project.
Evaluation of costs in the preliminary design phase is some time called guess estimations.
A plant design obviously must present a process that is capable of operating under
condition which will yield a profit.
Before an industrial plant can be put into operation, large amount of -money must be
supplied to purchase and install the necessary machinery and equipment, land and service
facilities must be obtained and the plant-must be erected. Complete with all pipe controls
Chapter #5 Mechanical Design
inn services. In addition it is necessary to have money available for payment of expenses
involved in the plant operation.
The capital needed to supply the necessary manufacturing and plant facilities is called the
fixed capital investment while the necessary for the operation of the plant is termed as the
working capital investment.
The capital which is necessary lor the operation of the plant is called working capital
investment.
The capital needed to supply flu- necessary maMiif'acttirini 1 and plant facilities is called
fixed capital investment.
i. Direct Cost
DIRECT COST
The direct cost items arc incurred in the construction of the plant in addition to the cost of
equipment.
1. Purchased Equipment
4. Piping
7. Yard Improvement
8. Services Facilities
9. Land
INDIRECT COST
2. Contractor's Expenses
3. Contractor's Fee
4. Contingency
Various methods are employed for estimating capital investment. The choice of any
method depends on the foil owing-factors,
b. Accuracy Desired
2. Unit estimate
The accuracy of an estimate depends on the amount of design detail available; and the
accuracy of the cost data available; and the time spent on preparing the estimate. In the
early stages of a project only an approximate estimate will be required an justified by the
amount of information by then developed.
DIRECT COST
Electrical (installed) 11 % E d
Land 6% E h
INDIRECT COST
Contigency 10%(D+I)= x
CHE-187 = 2145454 Rs
Instrumentation & Process Control = 0.12 3, 74, 54734 = Rs. 4494564
INDIRECT COST
Contractor’s fee
= Rs. 173583804.9
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
Now
26037570.74
=
0.85
= 30632436.15 Rs
(Twenty caroor Fourty two lakes sixteen thousands ,two hundred and fourty one rupees
only)
The final choice of the plant site usually involves a, presentation ol/the economic factors
for several equally attractive sites. He exact type of economic study of plant locations
will vary with each company making a study. It should include the following.
INVESTMENT
Plant
New Money
Existing facilities
Working capital
Annual sales
Cost
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
Manufacturing
Distributing
Selling
Research
Annual Earnings
Operative
On total investment
The limitations of preliminary plan! location cost studies should be recognized pointed
out a management. No matter how carefully a survey is prepared, future trends such as
population and marketing shifts, development of competitive processes and the advent of
new industries. Services and transportation facilities cannot be reliably predicated.
The location of plant has a crucial effect on the profitability of project and the scope
for future expansion. Many factors are considered when selecting a suitable site.
Probably the location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the
choice of a plant site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those
industries in which the raw material is inexpensive and bulky and is made more compact
and obtains a high bulk value during the process of manufacturing.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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ii. Marketing Area
For materials that are produced in bulk quantities, such as cement, minerals acids and
fertilizers, where the cost of e product per ton is relatively low and cost of transportation
has a significant fraction of the sale price. The plant should be located closed to the
primary market. This consideration will be less important for low volume production,
high price product such as pharmaceuticals.
The Transport of material and products too and from the plant will be over riding
consideration in site selection.
If practicable, a site should be selected that is closed to at least two major forms of
transport, road, rail, water way (canal or river) or a sea port. Road transport is being
increasingly used and is suitable for local distribution from a central ware house. Rail
transportation will be cheaper for long distance transport of bulk chemicals.
Air transport is convenient and efficient for the movement of personnel and essential
equipment and supplies and the proximity of the site to a major airport should be
considered.
Power for chemical industry is primarily from coal, water and oil; these fuels supply (he
most flexible and economical sources, in as much as they provide for generation of steam
both for processing and for electricity production power can be economically developed
as a by-product in the most chemical plants. If the needs are great enough, since the
process requirements generally call for low-pressure steam. The'turbines of engines used
to generate electricity can be operated non-condensing and supply exhaust steam for
processing purposes.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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v. Availability of Labour
Labour will be needed for construction of the plant and its operation. Skilled construction
workers will usually be brought in from outside the site area, but here should be an
adequate pool of unskilled labour available locally; and labour suitable for training to
operate plant. Skilled tradesmen will be needed for plant maintenance. Local trade union
customs and restrictive practices will have to be considered when assessing the
availability and suitability of the local labour for recruitment and training.
Water for industrial purpose can be obtained from one of two general sources: the plant's
own source or municipal supply. If the demand for water is larger, it is more economical
for the industry to supply its own water. Such a supply may be obtained from drilled
wells, rives, lakes, dammed streams or other impounded supplies. Before a company
enters upon any project, it must ensure itself of a sufficient supply of water for all
industrial, sanitary and fire demands, both present and future.
All industrial process produce waste products and full consideration must be given to the
difficulties and cost of their disposal. The disposal of toxic and harmful effluents will be
covered by local regulations and appropriate authorities must be consulted during the
initial site survey to determine the standards that must be met
The proposed plant must fit in with and be acceptable to the local community. Full
consideration must be given to the safe location of the plant so that it dies not impose a
significant additional risk to the community.
On a new site, the local community must be able to provide adequate facilities for, the
plant personnel: school, banks, housing and recreational and cultural facilities.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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ix. Land Considerations
Sufficient suitable land must be available for the proposed pant and for future expansion.
The land should ideally be flat, well drained and have suitable load bearing
characteristics. A full site evaluation should be made to determine the need for piling or
other special foundation.
x. Climate
Adverse climatic conditions at a site will increase costs. Abnormally low temperature
will require the provision of additional insulation and special heating for equipment and
pipe runs. Stronger structures will be need at locations subjected to strong winds (cyclone
hurricane areas) or earthquakes.
Capital grants, tax concessions, and other inducements are often given by government's
direct new investment to preferred locations such as areas of high unemployment. The
availability of such grants can be over-riding consideration site selection.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
CHAPTER 9
HAZOP STUDY
Breathing air or gas containing as little as 0.10% (40-60 grains of H 2S per 100 standard
cubic feet) for ONE MINUTE can cause acute poisoning.
Much sour natural or refinery gas contains more than 0.10% (60 grains per 100 cubic
feet), so care must always be taken to avoid breathing such sour gas. The naphtha
hydrotreating recycle gas and high pressure stripper gas contain from 0.5 to 5% H2$,
while the low pressure stripper gases contain from 10 to 50% H2S,
These gases must NEVER be breathed. One full breath of high concentration hydrogen
sulfide gas will cause unconsciousness, and may cause death, particularly if the victim
falls and remains in the presence of such gas.
The operation of any unit processing gases containing H 2S is perfectly safe, provided
ordinary precautions are taken and the poisonous nature of the gas is .recognized. No
work should be undertaken on the unit where there is danger of breathing H2S, and one
should never enter or remain in an area' containing it without wearing a suitable fresh air
mask.
Muscular spasms, irregular breathing, lowered pulse, odor to the breath, nausea. Loss of
consciousness and suspension of respiration quickly follow.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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After apparent recovery, edema (dropsically swelling) of the air passages or lungs may
cause severe illness or death in 8 to 48 hours.
Remove the victim at once to fresh air. If breathing has not stopped, keep the victim in
fresh air and keep him quiet. If possible, put him to bed. Secure a physician and keep the
patient quiet and under close observation for about 48 hours for possible edema of the air
passages or lungs.
In cases where the victim has become unconscious and breathing has stopped, artificial
respiration must be started at once. If a Pulmotor or other mechanical equipment is
available, it may be used by a trained person; if not, artificial respiration by mouth-mouth
method must be started as soon as possible. Speed in beginning the artificial respiration is
essential. Do not give up. Men have been revived after more than four hours of artificial
respiration.
If other persons are present, send one of them for a physician. Others should rub the
patient's arms and legs and apply hot water bottles, blankets or other sources of warmth
to keep him warm.
After the patient is revived, he should be kept quiet and warm, and remain under
observation for 48 hours 'for the appearance of edema of the air passages or lungs.
Breathing air or gas containing 0.01 to 0.6% H£S (6 to 40 grains per 100 cubic feet) for
an hour or more may cause subacute or chronic hydrogen sulfide poisoning.
Headache, inflammation of the eyes and throat, dizziness, indigestion, excessive saliva,
and weariness are all symptoms which follow continued exposure to H2$ in low
concentrations. Edema of the air passages and lungs may also occur.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
6. Treatment of Subacute Poisoning
Keep the patient in the dark to reduce eyestrain and^ have a physician treat the inflamed
eyes and throat. Watch for possible edema.
Where subacute poisoning has been suspected, the atmosphere should be checked
repeatedly for the presence of H2S by such methods as testing by odor, with moist lead
acetate paper, and by Tutweiler determination to make sure that the condition does not
continue.
The best method for prevention of H2O poisoning 1s to stay out of areas known or
suspected to contain it. The sense of smell is not an infallible guide as to its presence, for
although the compound has a distinct and unpleasant odor (rotten eggs), it will frequently
paralyze the olfactory nerves to the extent that the victim does not realize that he is
breathing it. This is particularly true of higher concentrations of the gas.
Fresh air masks or gas masks suitable for use with hydrogen sulfide must be used in all
work where exposure to it is likely to occur. Such masks must be checked frequently to
make sure' that they are not exhausted. Whenever work is done on or in equipment
containing appreciable concentrations of H2S, men must wear fresh air masks and should
work in pairs so that one may effect a rescue or call for help should-the other be
overcome.
As mentioned above, , the atmosphere in which men work may be checked from time to
time for small concentrations such as would cause subacute poisoning.
8. Further Information
A more detailed information booklet, The Chemical Safety Data Sheet SD36, may be
obtained by writing to:
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
Manufacturing Chemists Association 1825 Connecticut Avenue, NW Washington, DC
20009
Nickel carbonyl [Ni(CO)4] is known to be an extremely toxic gas. Its primary effect is to
cause lung damage with a lesser effect on the liver. The maximum average exposure to
nickel carbonyl recommended by NIOSH is a TLV of 0.001 ppm (1 ppb), and a
maximum spot exposure of 0.04 ppm (40 ppb).
In Naphtha Hydrotreating units, the potential for forming nickel carbonyl exists only with
catalysts containing nickel (S-6, S-7, S-15, S-16), and only during regeneration or during
the handling of unregenerated catalyst. Care must be used to ensure that the procedures
used will prevent the formation of nickel carbonyl. Data has been published showing the
equilibrium concentration of Ni (C0)4 versus temperature, pressure, 'and CO
concentration in a gas. The nickel carbonyl concentration drops rapidly with increasing
temperature and decreasing CO concentration. At 7 kg/cm2g (100 psig) with 0.5 mol-%
CO in the gas, the nickel carbonyl concentration is at the maximum recommended spot
level of 0.04 ppm at 149°C (300°F), and 0.001 ppm at 182°C (360°F).
The following practices should be followed to prevent the formation of nickel carbonyl:
1. Once a reactor containing a nickel catalyst has been exposed to oxidizing conditions
(regeneration), a measurable concentration of oxygen must be maintained until the com-
bustion of all carbon ceases and all CO2 has been purged from the system.
There are many published techniques for determining the concentration of nickel
carbonyl in air (such as a vessel to be entered for maintenance), and several direct reading
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
instruments are available commercially. For further information, see:
American Industrial Hygiene Assoc. Journal May - June, 1968 Jan. - Feb., 1965
1. The reactor should be isolated by positive action, such as blinding, to exclude all
sources of hydrocarbon, hydrogen, air, etc.
2. Just prior to entry, all purging of nitrogen through the catalyst bed should be
discontinued, and nitrogen purge lines should be inserted at points ABOVE the catalyst
bed.
This is to assure that there will be no forced flow of vapors passing upward through the
catalyst bed and into the working area.,
3. Install an air mover outside the reactor near the open man way nozzle to sweep away
the vapors leaving ,the reactor.
4. The man entering the reactor must be equipped with a fresh air mask in proper
working condition, with a proper air supply.
5. "There should be available and ready for immediate use and transfer to the man in the
reactor, a separate spare air supply which is independent of electrical power.
6. The man entering the reactor should wear a safety harness with a properly attached
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
safety line.
7. There should be a minimum of two backup men at the man way nozzle in continual
surveillance of the actions of the man in the reactor.
8. There should be a spare fresh air mask complete with its own separate air supply to
allow a second man to enter the reactor quickly in case of an emergency. Therefore, this
spare equipment must be compact enough to allow the second man to enter through the
man way while wearing the equipment.
10. As an added precaution, it is suggested that the man in the reactor have available to
him in the reactor, an emergency self-contained air supply and appropriate associated
equipment. Preferably, the emergency air supply could be connected to the fresh air mask
he is wearing. Such "reserve air supply" systems are available commercially.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
CHAPTER 10
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT
Petroleum refining is one of the largest industries in the United States and a vital part of
the national economy. However, potential environmental hazards associated with
refineries have caused increased concern for communities in close proximity to them.
This update provides a general overview of the processes involved and some of the
potential environmental hazards associated with petroleum refineries.
Petroleum refineries separate crude oil into a wide array of petroleum products through a
series of physical and chemical separation techniques. These techniques include
fractionation, cracking, hydrotreating, combination/blending processes, and
manufacturing and transport. The refining industry supplies several widely used everyday
products including petroleum gas, kerosene, diesel fuel, motor oil, asphalt, and waxes.
10.2 BACKGROUND
The United States is one of largest producers and consumers of crude oil in the world.
Based on data from the U.S. Department of Energy (1998), in 1995 the United States was
responsible for about 23% of the worlds’ refinery production. With a record high of 324
refineries in the early 80’s, the U.S. was able to produce about 18.6 million barrels per
day. However, because of changes in oil prices, a shift to alternate fuel use and an
increasing focus on conservation, by 1985 the industry lost several primarily small,
inefficient refineries that could not continue to compete. Over the last decade, the number
of refineries has continued to shrink from about 194 to the current 155. This decrease has
been due in part to increasing requirements placed on the facilities for producing cleaner
fuels along with a number of mandated federal and state clean air and water regulations.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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10.3 PROCESSES INVOLVED IN REFINING CRUDE OIL
The process of oil refining involves a series of steps that includes separation and blending
of petroleum products. The five major processes are briefly described below:
5 Auxiliary processes: Refineries also have other processes and units that are vital to
operations by providing power, waste treatment and other utility services. Products from
these facilities are usually recycled and used in other processes within the refinery and
are also important in regards to minimizing water and air pollution. A few of these units
are boilers, wastewater treatment, and cooling towers.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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10.4 ENVIRONMENTAL HAZARDS OF PETROLEUM REFINERIES
Refineries are generally considered a major source of pollutants in areas where they are
located and are regulated by a number of environmental laws related to air, land and
water. Some of the regulations that affect the refining industry include the Clean Air Act,
the Clean Water Act, the Safe Drinking Water Act, CERCLA (i.e. Superfund:
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act), Emergency
Planning and Community Right-to-Know (EPCRA), OSHA (Occupational Safety &
Health Administration), TSCA (Toxic Substances Control Act), Oil Pollution Act and
Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasure Plans. Here is a breakdown of the air,
water, and soil hazards posed by refineries:
1 Air pollution hazards: Petroleum refineries are a major source of hazardous and toxic
air pollutants such as BTEX compounds (benzene, toluene, ethyl benzene, and xylene).
They are also a major source of criteria air pollutants: particulate matter (PM), nitrogen
oxides (NOx), carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen sulfide (H2S), and sulfur dioxide (SO2).
Refineries also release less toxic hydrocarbons such as natural gas (methane) and other
light volatile fuels and oils. Some of the chemicals released are known or suspected
cancer-causing agents, responsible for developmental and reproductive problems. They
may also aggravate certain respiratory conditions such as childhood asthma. Along with
the possible health effects from exposure to these chemicals, these chemicals may cause
worry and fear among residents of surrounding communities. Air emissions can come
from a number of sources within a petroleum refinery including: equipment leaks (from
valves or other devices); high-temperature combustion processes in the actual burning of
fuels for electricity generation; the heating of steam and process fluids; and the transfer of
products. Many thousands of pounds of these pollutants are typically emitted into the
environment over the course of a year through normal emissions, fugitive releases,
accidental releases, or plant upsets. The combination of volatile hydrocarbons and oxides
of nitrogen also contribute to ozone formation, one of the most important air pollution
problems in the United States.
2 Water pollution hazards: Refineries are also potential major contributors to ground
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
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water and surface water contamination. Some refineries use deep-injection wells to
dispose of wastewater generated inside the plants, and some of these wastes end up in
aquifers and groundwater. These wastes are then regulated under the Safe Drinking
Water Act (SDWA). Wastewater in refineries may be highly contaminated given the
number of sources it can come into contact with during the refinery process (such as
equipment leaks and spills and the desalting of crude oil). This contaminated water may
be process wastewaters from desalting, water from cooling towers, storm water,
distillation, or cracking. It may contain oil residuals and many other hazardous wastes.
This water is recycled through many stages during the refining process and goes through
several treatment processes, including a wastewater treatment plant, before being released
into surface waters. The wastes discharged into surface waters are subject to state
discharge regulations and are regulated under the Clean Water Act (CWA). These
discharge guidelines limit the amounts of sulfides, ammonia, suspended solids and other
compounds that may be present in the wastewater. Although these guidelines are in place,
sometimes significant contamination from past discharges may remain in surface water
bodies.
3 Soil pollution hazards: Contamination of soils from the refining processes is generally
a less significant problem when compared to contamination of air and water. Past
production practices may have led to spills on the refinery property that now need to be
cleaned up. Natural bacteria that may use the petroleum products as food are often
effective at cleaning up petroleum spills and leaks compared to many other pollutants.
Many residuals are produced during the refining processes, and some of them are
recycled through other stages in the process. Other residuals are collected and disposed of
in landfills, or they may be recovered by other facilities. Soil contamination including
some hazardous wastes, spent catalysts or coke dust, tank bottoms, and sludges from the
treatment processes can occur from leaks as well as accidents or spills on or off site
during the transport process.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
MARKET AND ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES CHANGING THE FACE OF THE
PETROLEUM INDUSTRY
The U.S. petroleum refining industry has come under considerable strain because of
several important factors and changes in the industry. Over the years, there has been an
increased demand for petroleum products and a decrease in U.S. production; however,
there has been no new major refinery construction in the United States in the last 25
years. This lack of infrastructure growth has caused a tremendous strain on the industry
in meeting existing demand, and the U.S. has had to increase the amounts of imports to
meet these needs.
The Clean Air Act and stringent state regulations have also caused the industry to incur
extremely high costs for environmental compliance. These costs are accrued because
refineries must produce reformulated, cleaner-burning gasoline, which require companies
to replace or modify existing equipment with devices for controlling emissions. These
costs of compliance are having a detrimental effect on refineries trying to expand and to
keep pace with the country’s increasing demand.
The cost of meeting environmental regulations has led many petroleum companies to join
with the federal and state governments in reducing the amounts of hazardous air
pollutants being released. Consent decrees between the petroleum industry and EPA have
been made to reduce air emissions by refineries. One particular agreement was made
between the state of Delaware, Louisiana and the Northwest Air Pollution Authority to
reduce air emissions of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide from nine refineries by more
than 60,000 tons per year (EPA, 2001). The settlements are an effort to reduce the
amounts of illegal releases of harmful air pollutants from these refineries by installing up-
to-date pollution control devices and reducing emissions from leaking valves, flares and
process units within the refinery. This type of collaboration between refineries and the
state and federal governments provides a cooperative effort towards addressing
environmental concerns within the industry.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
REFERENCE
2. Ludwig, E.E, “Applied Process Design, 3rd ed, vol. 3, Gulf Professional
Publishers, 2002.
4. Levenspiel, O., “Chemical Reaction Engineering:, 3rd ed ,John Wily and Sons
Inc., 1999.
5. Peters, M.S. and Timmerhaus ,K.D., “Plant Design and Economics for Chemical
Engineering “, 5th ed, McGraw Hill, 1991.
6. Rase, H.F., “Fixed Bed Reactor Design and Diagnostics, Butterworth Publishers,
1990.
7. Frank L., Evans Jr. “Equipment Design Hand Book For Refineries & Chemical
Plants” Vol 2, 2nd Ed., 1980,
10. Mcabe, W.L, “Unit Operations of Chemical Engineering “,5th ed, McGraw Hill,
Inc,1993.
11. Perry, R.H and D.W. Green (eds): Perry’s Chemical Engineering Hand Book, 7 th
ed. McGraw Hill New York, 1997.
Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
12. Sinnot, R.K.,”Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”, 2 nd ed, vol.6,
Butterword Heinenann, 1993.
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Chapter #8 Cost Estimation and Economics of Plant
Location
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