Stuart Littisichn wes educated at George Heriots School i Scotland end. roeened his “dagraa in” engineering. at Edinburgh Universtty Inindusty he started his career Inthe. Chy Engineer's Departmant, Edin Burgh and than joined Mesora. Mott Hay & ‘Anderson to wore onthe Forth Road nage Alter this he continued his graduate stody Stthe University of heweastle upon Tyne Where Be investigated the efacts of long ‘walling on surlace structures and wat Guarded “PhD. He then. retumed. to industry and jomed Cementation Ground Enginegting Ud, where his work wa concumed with @ wide range of gaotech ficsl procesees including "new develop monte such 88 vibrofiottion and ground In“IB7i he returned to academic lite and lectured in Geotechnies at the Department oF Engineering, Unversity of Aberdeen for 3 pened of five years. During this te Be | founded the Geatechnise Reaearen Grou nd vaseeren topics of poricuar interest Included ground ananors, vibrato driving, Bity in areas of oid coal workings Atlthe. present ime Stuart Litsjoha is ‘echnical Dieeror of the Colerete Group gh Gompatis end Congutant to Greune fachors Utd, Ata professions! engineer Tetaing his. former inerasta eg 8 Choirman of Goen tne Britian Stondard Institution's Cade" of Prectice committes gn ground anchovagae, and the International Sostety ol lock Mechanice’ commatee Feuewing ite anchor testing, stonderd. In Sedition he sa: momber of the institution of Structural Enginesrs” Ad How Committae Gn Steture Sa ineractign end the BS Stucures ne Donald Bruce was educated at Robert Gordon's calage in Seotand and received Bie" test" degree in Geology at Aberdeen University. After"this he continued. ns graduate study as a member of the Goo. fchnic's Research Group athe University’s Department of Engineering. During ®perog of three yoars he studled the. design. and perlormance of prestressed rook anchors [iter receiving his doctorate Donald Bruce Joined the Northern oftes ot Colersts Lid 26 "3 contracts engineer and is curently involved" in ground stobileetion including tupervsion of dam grouting contracts He {n'a member of the Griish Griing Assoc. tion and the Intemational Society of Rock Mochanice’ Commitee, soviswing, rosk Shehor testing.Rockanchors- state of the art by G. S. LITTLEJOHN, BSc, PhD, MICE, MiStructE, FGS, and D. A. BRUCE, BSc, AMICE, FGS Originally published in “Ground Engineering’ magazine between May 1975 and May 1978 FOUNDATION PUBLICATIONS LTD. 1977.Contents PART 1: DESIGN GENERAL INTRODUCTION DESIGN — AN INTRODUCTION UPLIFT CAPACITY OF THE ROCK ANCHOR SYSTEM Page Design procedures Experimental evidence Spacing Remarks BOND BETWEEN CEMENT GROUT AND ROCK. Introduction Fixed anchor design Fixed anchor dimensions ‘Theoretical evidence Experimental evidence Remarks 1 1 1 BV OTeewuNKon BOND BETWEEN CEMENT GROUT AND STEEL TENDON Introduction ‘The mechanisms of bond, Fixed anchor design Distribution of bond Magnitude of bond Effect of rust on bond Remarks TENDON Introduction Tendon characteristics Allowable stresses and safety factors Tendon spacers Remarks GENERAL CONCLUSIONS PART 2: CONSTRUCTION Poge 17 Homing 2 INTRODUCTION 17 GROUTS AND GROUTING 23 ORILLING 17 Grout composition 23 Introduetion 17 Admixtures, 23 Drilling methods 17 Grout crushing strength 25 Choice of driling method 18 Mixing 25 Driling equipment 18 Grouting methods 25 Drilling rates 19 Grouting pressures 25 Flushing 20 Quality contro! 26 Alignment and deviation 21 CORROSION AND CORROSION PROTECTION 27 WATER TESTING AND WATERPROOFING 21 Mechanisms and causes at corrosion 27 TENDON 22 Classification of groundwater aggressiveness 28 Storage and handling 22 Degree of protection recommended in practice 28 Fabrication 22 Corrosion protection systems employed in practice 29 PART 3: STRESSING AND TESTING Page 31 Special test anchors 43 INTRODUCTION 31 Monitoring of the overall anchor rock structure STRESSING a system 47 Mode of stressing 31 SERVICE BEHAVIOUR OF PRODUCTION Practical aspects of stressing 31 ANCHORS 47 Choice of stressing system 33, Introduction au Monitoring procedures 34 Time—dependent behaviour of steel tendons 47 Presentation 35 Relaxation a7 Interpretation 36 Creep 48 Remarks 37 Field observations 43 TESTING 38 Remarks 48 Precontract component testing 38 GENERAL CONCLUSIONS 49 Acceptance testing of production anchors 39 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 49 Long term monitoring of selected production ‘anchors 42| Part1: Design INTRODUCTION THE HISTORY OF prestressed cock enchors dates rom 1934, when the late Andre | Coyne pioneered their use during the ris ing of the Cheurfos Dam, in Algeria. Since then, the employment of rock anchors in ‘dum construction has become word wide, Sind soversi milion tons of warking caps hy have bean suocessully installed. Rock Snehore have sso been ‘sed for many years to ensure the safety of larga und ", Ground’ excavations end the stbilty of Aeturat snd srtielal rock slopes. in recent years the range of applications has’ widened considerably due in part to the success aenieved by soll anchors in tyingtbock retaining walls, holaing down 4ock floors, and pile testing. Now. largely 238 a consequence of the suecess of anchors in these new applicetions, rock anchors are sxpectad to perform without difieuty. ven. when” installed. in relatively poor ‘ually weathered of laminated rock in adsition there sea. tend. towards higher load copecities for individual anc Concentrated. groups of enchors. For the higher dams ia vague today, prestressing Of the order of 200t/m may be required. ‘ecasetating individusl enchors of caps ity well excess of 1000 tonnes. In the field of suspension bridges concentrated ‘roups of anchors with 9 working capacity 01-6 000t are aireedy baing seriously con Sidered, and design loads of 18 000% are Anticipated inthe future. Even in strong Competent rocks, these igh presress levels are domanding engineering ludge- ments in afeae where no rolevant prece dents exist ‘Bearing theee points in mind, the suthors believe that there 138. growing need to fstobish and employ reliable design formu- Tae" and realistic safety factors together waitn ralevant uality controls and testing procedures. “The frst article in this state-of-the-art review, thorelore, considers design proce: (urae relating to overall stability, grout/ Fock bond, endan/grout bone, and tandon, Slang with tha chole of setety Factors The second srlcle deals with the practicalities Of instalation, construction and quality Control, whist the thir examines testing and stressing procedures “Tae puroose af this goneral appraisal Is to describe currant practice in ‘elation to Fock anchors by drawing on the axparience [gained in various countries over the post 50""yesrs. Experimental and theoretical Studies in the elds of reinforced and pre SHvossed concrete ara also included where felovant. itis hoped that the information provided willbe of direct benait to anchar {ng specialists but, at the some time, the feign of articles are intonded ae 2 bass for Siseussion since points ar highlighted con- teeming the validity of the basic design as. sumptions, and the lack of knowledge of Tullscale anchor performance DESIGN—AN INTRODUCTION A groutea rack sncnar may fal in ane or mare, of the following moses! (2) by failore within the rock mass, UPLIFT CAPACITY OF THE (b) by failure ofthe rock/grout bond, ROCK ANCHOR SYSTEM (2) By flute of the grout/tendon bose, or Design procedures (3) by Tlie of the steel tendon or top Thi section ‘desis with methods cur- snehorage. tently used in practice to estimate the ‘Therslore im arder to establish the overall anchor depth required to ensure that the salaty tector for the anchor each of the working load will be resisted aaely with- above phenomens must be considered in Out fallure occurring in the rock mass. The tor methods described apply to anchors which ‘Broadly speaking, present design criteria have been constructed In a. vertical or may be cessitied io two equally unset: steeply inclined downwards direction, factory groupe. On the one hand there are In the case of single enchors, most engin- the procedures based. on the clesi¢al eS assume that, at failure, an inverted theory of elasticity Cleely, the validity of cone of rock is pulled out ofthe rock mass esol derived from, for example, phote- (Fg. 1). The uplift capacity is normaly ‘laste or finte element techniques epen- equated to the weight of the specified rock Gent on. such a. theory, is questionable cone, and where the ground is situated be- anon ‘desing with a heterogeneous vock Meath the ‘water table, the submerged mass. On ine other hand, anchor pare: weight of rock Is used, The depth of anchor Imotars are frequently selected by. at best, calculated in this manner may, of course Gade ompiial rules or tral end. error be reduced where it can be demonstrated fmotheds. and ot worst, By pure guesswork, By test anchors that the working force can ‘The gap between these two extremes ig De otherwise achieved solely, Stil Very real despite » growing awere- The effect in groups of anchors the fess of the problems, es witnessed by the production of fat, vertical plane at the Fecant appearance of stendorée or drait\nterace of adjoining cones (Fig.2). As the Codes on ground enehors i several coun: spacing fora single line of anchors reduces tes. further, a simple continuous wedge failure ‘The mein design concepts are now re- inthe rock is assumed, This approach hes vigwed with respect tothe four tallure been employed by many engineers in prac: Imoses listed obove, but it should be em: tee and is. described by Parker (1858), Phaslsed that these concepts relate pric Hobst (1966), Littlejohn (1972) and Hilf marly to prestressed cement grout injec: (1973). tion anchors However, athough the shape of the fall (a) Load TRANSFER 3 Bon. (21 L0k0 TRANSFERRED BY END PLA Fig, 1. Geometry of cone, assumed t9 be mobilized when failure occurs in @ homagensous rock mass Fig, Interaction of inverted cones in an overall stability analysis! ‘TABLE |—GEOMETAIES OF ROCK CONE RELATEO TO FIXED ANCHOR WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED IN PRACTICE ure volume ia widely agreed, its position ‘with respect to the grouted fed anchor length (socket) varies somewhat in prc tice. This sspect is illustrated by Table | whieh “containg examples drawn from Snchor designs in. various. counties. An. other feature which is widely appreciated but receives litle attention is that a slid, homogeneous rock. mace is seldom en: countered, and so, in the vast majority of Cases, modifications to. the simple cone ‘pproseh should be made by experienced ‘ck mesnanies engineers In connection with this "weight of rock” ‘method of calculating the ultimate resis tance to witharawal, litle data are aval able on the safety factors employed. How: ver, it's known thot safety feetors of 3 nd 2 have boon used by Schmidt (1956) fang Rawlings (1988) respectively, while ‘ost recently 8 factor of 1.8 was employed for anchors at the Devonport Nuclear Com plex "by. Litojohn end Truman-Davies {[1874)," In currant. practice the Tector of tafety is reduced to unity on many occ ‘Hons of the basis that certain rock para meters, eg shear strength, otherwise ig- noted inthe design will give rise to. {uficientlylrge factor of safety asa matte of course, This Bonus of she strength s, ot coure, greatly reduced when anchors ¢ Someone Germany Siecker (7) maton cart (986) eit re instaled in highly fesured “loose” rock masses, especially those with much Inter. {ital material or high pore water pressure ‘This pant was fecognised by Hobst (1985) linen ne presented the formulae. given in ‘Fable I for esleuating the depth of the 1 sheer stongth of rack (Gonnesym). F = factor of safety aginst face (F223 customary) = Spacing of anchors (metas) 3 = ahalect ston arose Specie gravity of ack (Soames!) Nove thet the shear strength is consid rad in dealing with anchore in homogene tus rock, whereas ock weight is the domi- nant parameter whan dasling with fissured Fock tasses.In Britain, the shear strength arameter is usually ignored in proctice {nus ering conservatively) since quanti tive data on te Yrcture geometry and shear stength of the rack mass are seldom Svallable at the design stage In this con ection itis noteworthy that Klopp (1970) found in typical Rhine Siate, hat elevated hydrostatic’ end seepage pressures could Feduce the shear strength of mylonitic TABLE II_DEPTH OF ANCHOR FOR OVERALL STABILITY (after Hobst, 1965) Formula for depth of cone Fock type One anchor Group of anchors "Sound homogeneous FP FP rock — a faa 283-02 Ireagular fissured rock rane Yaune Irregular submerged .foee fissured rock ars (1 s.ta06 zones to about 20 per cent of the “ides! laboratory. dry value, snd oecationally to 25 low a5 4 per cont of ths houre Other enginoers eonliem shat rock she strength "generally. contributes major Component of the ultimate pullout resis: tance. Brown (1970) states that the ti- ‘mate capacity of an anchor, In homogen us, massive rock, is dependent onthe ‘Shear strongth of the rock and the surface Sea of the cone, wich for'8 90 deg cor Is proportional to the square of the depts of embedment ie. drh*. Usually @ maxi- ‘mum allowable shear sess is species, Seting over the cone surface e.g. QO34N/ ‘mm! (Saliman and. Sehavter, 1868). Hit (i87a) advocates that regardless of rock type 9 value of O024N/mm* may” be Allowed and specifies 3 safety factor of 2 On. test oad displacement af up to 12mm. Values in excass of OO2EN/mm? may be used if verted by fold vests, Experimental evidence "ih general, theres 9 dearth of data on anchor failures in the rock mase but 9 $08 of teats which provides some results on {he overall stability aspect presonted By Selimen and Sehaster (1958) who describe the falure of grouted bars on the Trinity Claar Crovk 250k tranemission line. Fout tests were cored out on deformed rein: foreement bare peouted into. Tomm ax meter holes to a depth of 152m im sedic iments, lorgely shale In all cases Tolle SSccured wen ® block of grout and rock Puled-out tha prapagetion of erocking &o {he rock surface gave an indication of the cone of influence (Fig. 3). Assuming ¢ bulk density of 2Ma/m® for the rock, beck fnalysts of the fllureloods Incestes very conservstve results salty factors on he Pelvout load between 78 ana. 235—1 & Sper of the 90 deg one Is assumed atthe ‘mis point of the anchor length, but lower fRetore—08 to 29for 8 cone with the Spex athe base However in lominated dolomite ia which Brown, (1370). inetaled shallow test anchors, the shape of the pullout zone ould not be ebserved, slough the ex: tensive area over which the rock surface {its pied around certain anchors, uy. [ested faire siong ¢ horzonal bedding Blane (laminar failure) Spaci "Roce tsilres of this mode Brown thought to be vestricted to shallow anchors luring service has Tad to the adoption of Staggered anchor lengths even at great deptns for closaly spaced anchors. In un ‘evouroble conditions, for example wher rock bedding planes occur normal to the Snehor axis, the purpose of staggered lungthe is to reduce the intensity of stress ‘cross such planes atthe lovel of the feed Snchors ei thus evident that while 9 majoe fac torin the choice of anchor depths the size of rack cone oF wadge to be engaged, the possibility of laminar failure may also influ. nee. the designers choice of length in Closely spaced senor groups. “The South. Afrcan’ Recommendations (1972) suggest tat inthe case of a "cone Centrated” group, where the fed anchors re spaced at less. than 05 x the fixed anchor length spsrt, the stagger between Slternate anchors should be 0% the fixed22000Lb, 22000 Lb. 15000Lb. TEST No3 TEST Nod. Fixea anenor avsigts "ihe ausight shaft anchor relies mainly fon the development of bond or shear in the Fagion of the rock/grout interface, and Uescribed by Littlsjonn (1972) itis usual in Britain to assume an equivalent uniform Aisteloution of bond Stross along the fixed fanchor. Thus tha anchor load, Pi celated {othe fed anchor design by the equation: 48000 Lb. JEST Not, TEST No2 a ” Fig, 3 Possible alure modes besed on tast results at Trinity Clear Creek ees te ian 0 Saar, 1958) zed anchor Jong plex by Littlejohn and Trumsn-Davies wide range of rock materials and masses working Bond sess UShay” whore “Zo00KN anchors were which have been carefully clssifed, in are) ne cases Another method to order 10 study te shape and position of This approach is used in many counties Fae ena ots mato, 12 the rock aones Mebiised at falure. Such eg. France (Forget, 1972), italy, (Mas ‘imply to install anchors fnations asin the Ti9SE) for the ‘ardeses Dam, Algeria. In inclinations. Only in t Uy omer countries 8 minmum gistance design in relation to Between" anchors. is stipulated. Broms optimised both techn (iaee), reviewing Swedish practice, confir- cally. fed 8 minimum spacing of 25m, winlst tho Siete ci programmes should accommodate single card, 1973), Canada (Coates, 1970), and a emeotanshe grchors and groups tasted over a range of USA (White, 1873), is woy can anchor "Tha. rule’ ig. baaed on the following ‘peor stability be simple sssumptions ically and. aconomi. (). Transfer of the load from the fixed Snchor tothe rack occurs by a uniformly GiStnbuted strese acting aver the whole of Fees ini ee gy jecommends 16m, BOND BETWEEN CEMENT GROUT the curved surface of the fixed anchor AND ROC! ne consideration being to reduce "inter= Sale “gouting’ although this phenomenon Introduction ref necaszoriy 2 lesdvantage in prac- Most designs to dat tee. sinaft fixed anchors hav UG) The diameter of the borehole and the ‘xed anchor ore wdotica te concerning straight (i) Failure tekes place by sliding at the we been suecessflly rock/grout interface (smooth borehole) oF 2 soteworthy that these guide rules besed on the aaxumption of uniform bond by shearing adjgcent to the rock/ grout in- or approaches are based on experience distribution over the She engineering judgement, and not on an area. In other words imate knowledge ef atrese distibution Socapted that, the broune the anchor merely 3 function of ‘Tlons and applied lose Remarks ‘Howaver, recent Siren ‘egard to uplift capacity no experi- theoretical manta or practeal evidence and only very cheracter of the bond fixed enchor suttace terface in weaker medium (rough bore irae been generally hole) ond Geveloped. 18 (iv). There are no discontinuities or inher- fined enehor dimen. ene weakness planes along which failure fan be induced, and experimental and {v) There ie no local debonding et the lyses have indicated that the grout/rock interfece othe rock ia more Where shear strength tests are cerried antl or practical eigenen oars “the complex and efets additonal parameters out on representative samoles of th rock Mithods currently used (Tabla) to caleu- which offen give se fo. a markedly non- mass, the moximum average working bond methods currently used (Tae if Sat'ai uniform stress diribution, Thus, in many stross at the rock/afout interface, should Mwidual, or groupe. of anchors, indeed, cases the assumed ‘mechanism of load not exceed. the minimum shear strength ingdua o ouPS orcs (Solimehwanafer in the fixed snehor zone may be divided by the rlavantglety factor (nor PS sthootes (1808). and Brown (1970)) grossly Inaccurate, For Sinien inieate that folure ina rock mass ton could well arise wher that folue Aa form oan capacity anchor, the level of bond stress at axiel compressive str dos not ger oe 05 dea cone or wedge. However, the loaded (0° proximal) end may Be ex- th it's reossuring to know thot most designs emely high, possibly Te eer ea te conservative In ecepting a whoress the more aistal parts of the fied Gre method with no allowance for the anchor may in eect b Shear strongth of the rock mass uch 9 situation will Nisverhelses, some. standardisation on overall stability analys safety factors for temporary and. perma- of snchor extensions, ent”enchors is desirable together with beheviour, SSteemont.on whet allowances should be Oesign criteria are example, the sua. mally not lass than 2). This epproach ap- “ore high plea primarily to soft rocks where the un sath (UCS) Is ess Nj, and in whieh the holes have Sprasehing falure, been driled using 8 rotary percussive tech inthe. absence of shear strength fe redundent. clearly, ‘of field puinour. tests, Littlejohn haves bearing on (1972) states thatthe ultimate bond stress lor the interpretation 9 oftan taken a6 one-tenth of the uniaxist Sid longeterm creep compressive strength of massive rocks G00 per cent core recovery) up to a max: wiowed relating to mum’ valve ry of S2N/mm, assuming agreement on what slowance® feoldeted the magnitude ond distribution of bond, that the crushing strength of the cement TRorburden and the effect of upper layers fixed anchor dimensi sae ana factors of grout is equal to.oF graater than 42N/mmé, ot weathered rock sie Tor comporson, the results of rele- Applying an apparent safety factor of 3 or IRentered rok. should now be ex: vant iheortcl and expermental mvest- moe, whieh is conservative, bearing in pended) in the form of field testing in 8 gations are presented, (hind the lack of flovent date, the works 90°07] m9 (UCS oc Tue (UES /2!an(e5°-9/21 Fig. 4, Relationship between shear stress ond uniaxial Camnveseive sent 05, | 1 oa ran sues, NY 2 | 0 oo 5 17 30870 a r, Fig. 5. Etect of gon Myc ratioIn this connection it ie noteworthy that Coates (1970) allows » maximum working ond of 2.46N/mm* but with safety ac tor of 1.75, which indicates 9 value Of ray of 43N/mm. in same rocks, particulaly grenular, westhored varieties with rel. Uvely low valu, the essumption that ry equals 10 per cont rock UCS may lead 16 an artificially low estimate of sheer ‘strength (Figs 4 and 8). In such cases, the Ssaumption that ry, equals 20-98 per cer UCS may be juste, As 8 guide to specialists, Bond values, {3 recommended throughout the world for Wide renge of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rocks, are presented In Table Ii, Where included, the factor of safety telates to tho ultimate and working bond Velues, calculated assuming uniform bond Gistbution. It common to find that the magnituge of bone ie simply assessed by ‘experianced engingers; the value adopted for working Bond stress often ies in the range 0.35 fo 14N/mm®. Koch (1972) su ‘este bond stresses inthis range for we: medium and strong rock the Australien Code CA35—1973. states that a value of 1.05N/mm? bas boon used Ina wide range of igneous and sedimen- tary rocks, but confirms that ste testing has permitted bond values of up to 24 N/mm to.be employed In ths connection the draft Czech Stand- ard (1974) concludes that since the esti= ‘ation of bond magnitude and distribution is © complex probiem, field anchor teste should. always be conducted to confi Bond values in design, as thera is no affel- ent or reliable alterna ‘mon procedure amongst anchor designers is to. arrive at estimates of permissible ‘Working bond values by factoring the valve ff the average. ultimate Bond caleulatod from test anchors, when available. Usually the recommended safety factor ranges from 2't0.3, but is Trequently lower in Very ‘competent rocks, and higher in weaker, fissured, oF woathered varieties, The degree of weathering of the rock is f * 1 mn00 rund OK capacity 00007 Zrwroune Tuer . TuNweaTHeReD) 4 3 soon 20000 ayyoune TUFF (wearwereD, soe or 0203 DEFLECTION (st Fig, 6.Etfect of weathering at Curreconti ‘Midway Tranemission Line Saline an Scheser, 188) oe 08 SSS RPS UAT SO ‘TABLE inl—ROCK/EROUT BOND VALUES WiHicH HAVE Bech RECOMMENDED FOR DESIGN ‘i ORii Ei, Ry ey OP oda ks UNI fo anatase RS B35 fee Zeaea—le ar 38 iain—titejonn (1873 33 cues (84) 332 Ea ined ein ee WEES nam We vans arouse (Perms) Eorcee 182% eae veacrer ‘TABLE IV—ROCK/GROUT BOND VALUES WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED IN PRACTICE Fock tyme, toltnmsy ci crime) cree) Sate) Source 1 on 1B a0 om) td pephite oazasr ox en sngsio (1983) tBooan Erie dtee a ons“any st ERE boty cy SB sae Seeman aay sa a Hes 8g iacanat 1 13 triatir g, Bo 8 CAE a sry on te Beatie BENET onthe vu EERE a ae 1 major factor which affects not only the Uiimate bond but also the load-defiection Characteraties. Fig. 8 shows. the. results produced by test anchors in thyalte tuft Ef both sound and weathered varieties. No {ota ore provided on grout or rock strengths but itis signiean that the equivalent uni form bond sess at maximum jack capa- city is searealy OAN/mm For dasign in oft or weathored rocks there are signe that the standard penetration test is eng for eral shanna ay MateeesSletanche Co td 188 12 PI on >» ese “ mana ng se Thempean a Ssaemecease ee ther exploited. For example, Suzuki er af (1972) etote that for weathered granite the magnitude of the bond can be deter mined trom the equation .07N + 0.12 (N/mm) ber of blows per 0am (2) Simiary, Littlejohn (1970) itusvates 3 correlation between N end ultimate bond for StTietaeRalle es Followsr 0.01 (N/mm!) (8) In grades I, 11 and 1 of chalk, he ob: served a ange of ru, of 021-1 07N/evm Based on test anchors pulled to failure, ‘Although it would appear from evidence presented in subsequent sections thet the fumptions made. in relation to uniform Sond estibution are not strictly accura itis noteworthy that Yew felures ere en Countered at the rock/ rout inerece and how designs are often based on the suc asst completion of. lormer” projects thot ', former “working” bond values are rocampioyed or slighty modified depend: ing on the judgement ofthe designer. “able IV contains dato sbstracted from repone of rock anchor eontacta Through: bout the world In addition 10 the working. fest, and ultimate bond valves, the mes: Sure and designed sofety actors sre pro. ‘ided where avalible. In certain canes, the fixed enchor diameter has been inferred, 10 {eciitate anelysis ofthe data, as published “i will bo noted that, even for one Tock type, the magnitude of bond used in prec toe ia extremely varable. There ete mony Feosons for ths, the most importent of ‘hic are i) Diforont designers use diferent bond Vives ‘and sefety factors. which may: be ‘elated fo type of anchor and extent ofthe {nchor tstng programme, (i) "Standard values for 9 certain rock {ye have’ often bean modified to reflect local peculeitiee or ieegularities of the goolouy. {iy “Factors related to the construction techniques e.g. dling method. Mushing procedure, end_ grout pressure wll infu Ene the resuits obtained. (The elect of these sepacte willbe discussed in Part 2— Construction) ‘On the whole however, it would appear thatthe bond values employed are to a de- Gree consistent with rack type. end com. Peteney. Fixed anchor dimensions "The recommendations made by various longinoers with respect to length of fixed ‘anchor ere presented in Table V. Under cer {sin conditions i i tecognised thet much shorter Tongthe would suffice, even after the application of 8 generous. factor of salety, However, for a vory short anchor the aifect of any sudden drop in rock Quality along the enchorage zone, and/or onsiructional. errors or. inelclences, ‘could induce. a ‘serious decreese in that Snchor’s capacity. With regard 10 the choice of anchor dia- meter several considerations mey be token (i) Type and sizeof tondon, (i) The ‘elation of diameter 10 perimeter Grea of fed anchor and hence the fnchor capacity, assuming uniform bond, (ii) Ratio of stool area to cross-sectional area of borehole for ecient bond ds: {ribution and corrosion protection (iv) Driling' method ‘and ig 10 be used, and (w) Nature of rock in the anchor zone and Presence of unconsolidated over- Burden, i any ‘Tho suthors find from 9 survey of sev: feral hundred commercial ancher repens that no direct relationship mey be obser- {Ved Beering in mind the range of anchor types, but that most anchors. conform to the tend indicated in Toble V1Tawue vt "WAEU ANCHOR LENGTHS FUR CEMENT GROUTED ROCK ANCHORS. ‘WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED OR RECOMMENDED IN PRACTICE re torn mae) (oy 8 oe) (oo oe) Boa Ri Le. ot ete cor) ‘Sout Alcr—Cade of Prete (1972) shir ares com ‘Assen Tannoling 20-8. (1973) ct ‘TABLE VI_ APPROXIMATE RELATIONSHIP. BETWEEN FIXED ANCHOR DIAMETER AND WORKING ‘CAPACITY Capscity, EN Diameter, mm 200 1200 0-100 1 000— 3.000 50150, -3.000— 8 500 160-200, 450018 000, 200400 ‘The third and fourth considerations will be deatt within Part 2~-Construction, but it is noteworthy thee where corresion pro: tection is. important, the South African Code "(1972)" stipulates. that the. fixed snchor diameter should be equal to. the outside diameter ofthe tendon plus atleast ‘2mm. Ths approach has also beon ds cussed by FIP (1872) who recommend {rout cover to the tendon of Sm, and 0mm for temparery and permanent rock ‘anchors, respectively. ‘With regord to. tha amount of steel which should be placed in an anchor Borehole there is a searety” of informe tion although Littlejohn and Truman-Dovies (1878) suggest that tha steel should not exceed 15 por cant of the borehole cree sectional ‘Theoretical evidence ‘Studi of the strese datibution ground 4 sylindrical anchorage in 3 taxil stress field have been carrad out by Cos ‘Yu (1970), using 2 finite element method, Figs. Ta and 7 show the sypicel anchor geometry and the model employed. to aleulate spproximately the stress induced by an anchor losded either in tension or compression. The authors. show that the shear stress (i. bond) distribution, is dee Dendent on the ratio of the elastic modu (f the anchor material (E.) and the rock (E,). Fig. 8 shows the variation of the ‘shear stess ‘slong the Interfece of a anchor of length equal to sik times ts {divs for E,7E, ratios of 04,1 and 10. The smaller this’ ratio the larger fe the atess Caleulsteg ot the proximal end of the bnehor higher values of the ratio are asso ated with mora even stress cistibutions. Ieis also apparent that for E/E, > 10, be for very sot rocks, it is reasonable to as: sume that the bond is evenly dltributed long the anchor, and thet the anchor de sign mey be besed accurately and directly fn the shesr strength of the. weaker medium. For anchors subjected to tensile loading the shear stresses in tur induce tensile sttesses in the rock, which reach @ max ‘mum valve et tho proximal end “of the anchorage. Fig. $ilustratas the rapid diss pation of the tensile stresses radilly ot the distal end of the fixed anchor. Fors 1500KN capacity anchor in 2 Tomo cia ‘meter hole, tho maximum tensile stress estimated to be about T45N/mm* et the Proximal end of the fixed anchor in rock, Whilst ot the opposite end, this stress is 4BN/mm*, provides, of course, that the Fock ean sustain these stresees. It seems probable that cracking will occur, and the Magnitude of the meximum tenale stress decrease, as it transite radially outwards, ‘reaching an equiliarium position it the rock famains’ Ia position. The propagation. of sch cracks ‘due to large tensile stresses {cting parallel to the anchor axis possibly lccounts in part for the anchor creep fre ‘quently observed to aceur for @ period of time after stressing. Deformation measures iments. djacent to such “anchors would Provide useful information in ths respect. With regard to the megnitude, of. Philips (1910) quotes 2 valve of 2.1 x N/mm? for a neat gravt of water/cement ‘ratio 04 and Boyne (1972), using ¢ 0.95 \watec/eament rato expansion grout, ob. fained a value of 10x 105N/mm®, There. fore, before the uniform bond distribution an be assumed, the rock must have an Slastie modulus in the range 01-02» 10" N/mma.Using a statistical relationship de- ‘ved by Judd and Huber (1961), which lates rock compressive strength to elestic modulus Fig. 8. Variation of shear stress with depeh along the rock/grour interace ofan anchor (ater Costes ad Yu, 195) e ucs = — 350 ) Philips estimates therefore thet the come pressive strength of te tock in this case) should be signitcanty les than N/mm? However, the majority of rock anchors to date have been installed in'rocks giving Values for the ratio E/E, of between 07 and 1, and for whieh, aeSording to Fig. 8 the bond. distribution is markedly mon: uniform. Indeed, for anchors in these rocks of compressive strength in excess of N/mm stress concentrations at the ross mal end sre most likely, naving @ magni. | {ude possibly 5-10 times the avarage stress level Although less satisfactory trom a theore- tical point of view, anchors in strong rocks at present represent lesa of 9 problem in practice, since large selety factor can be accommodated. without signiteenty ine freasing the cost. However, for the accu: rate design of high capacity anchors, inc sufficient attention hss been paid tothe high siresses at the proximal end, and in Particular to the affect of debonding on (a) Fro “te6 (oh Fig. 7. The geometry ofthe rock anchor studies: ‘masse! (8) definition of axes; (b) rite element4s ounouuun. mn eng coment rmips (1970) suggests three possible approsches 41, Foliowing debonding, the restesint i posed by the rock on the uneven rod Sout interface causes dation. Additional Anchorage movement is only possible through further shear tailre of the. grout, aiving a possible stress distribution as Shown ia Figs, 108 and 106, 2. "The residual bond stress, when con- Sidered alone, and Ignoring dation, will epend ‘onthe magnitude of "ground Dressura" acting normal t0 th ‘This wil probably vary over length and it may be lase than the grout shear strength’ (Fig. 108). Init is greater than the grout shear strength, the stress distribution will revert to that of Figs. 10a ‘and 10b. 3. Itis probable that the sess distribu- tion will vary with spplieg load possibly 85 shown in Figs. 10d, 1de and Y0%. Ths pre umes en inital stress gstnbution siar {0 tho theoratical sess distribution (Fig 40b),"At large loads, virtually the Whole of tye anchor is dabonded is aistebuted according to Felative movement and the degree of i tion of fictional shesr strength mobilised (see Fig. 104. It should be emphasised however that these approaches ace hypothetical and ex perimental work Is. required. to. confm thot valiity in relation frock anchor de~ sign Experimental evidence th Raly much vaivable experimental re search has been conducted, principally by Berardi, into. the clawibution of stresses both along the fixed anchor end into the Fock. In 1967 he reported on teste to deter- imine ‘he. distribution of fixed. anchor Stresses and concluded thatthe active por tion of the anchor is independent of the {otal fixed anchor length, but dependent ‘on its diameter and the mecksnieal proper: tes of tha surrounding rock, expecially its ‘modulus of elasticity. Figs. 11a and 116 are typical ds which illustrate the uneven bond dietbu: tion as caleviated trom strain gauge data Both anchors ware instalid in $20mm dia- meter boreholes In matiy limestone (E Se TON /ms; UCS = 1OON/mm® epproni- imately). Othar results show that te bond istibutions are_mere uniform for high values of Eggy/E saa non-uniform for low Values of sis" ratio" for rock of high Slastic modulus, thus ‘confiming the pre fictions of Coates and Ye, Muller (1868) produced interesting sults in ‘Switterend on the dletbution sheer stess along the Bm figed anchor of @ 220 tonne SEAV anchor (Fig. 12), From ‘esdings obtained during stressing, he con ludad tet the load. wae not Uniformly Aistrbuted tthe rock over the length of {he fixed anchor For axample, st 9 foad of 58 tonnes the force was tranemitted Un formly over the proximal 538m, imalying an average bond of OZ2N/mmi. At 188 tonnes however, load was recorded over the lower 1m of the tendon with 3p- arent debonding of the tendon over the upper 3.8m. About 30 tonnes, wae ressted by the bottom of the anchor, but between poins and ©, (Fg. 12)’ the. sverage ond strass wos sbout O.96N/mm=. At 280 tonnes, a comparaon of theoretical and messured anchor elongatione suggested {hat tote debonding of tne tendon hed oc- curred, and that all the load waa resisted By the foot of the fixed anchor The values 029, 015, oP 010 008 0.09) 0 10 © Eg/E;=10 + Ey/E-=100 20 OF aNcHOR 30 40 W750 60 70 ~80 Fig. 9 Variation of tensile stress inthe rock adjacent tothe end of tension, ‘iter eo 17% 1.0 1/7 1.0, UAD 10 skin FRICTION Ay “ss xa wd ty Aa, I; *y a Ig 7 Te-( 28 (a) (8) (ch W% ima We we we wa SMALL fem LARGE toao toad coaD {0} (E) (F) 1 0 ita es do wand # aria Te ay20 30 40 STRAIN E%a> | / 150It] [ _— FIXED ANCHOR LENGTH = 800m | 185, 5 185.185) ANCHOR CROSS SECTION 54 No. WIRES ‘Tmm DIAMETER Fig, 12 Strain distribution along tendon in fixed anchor zone of @ 220 capacity anchor for bond strength quoted above compare with an average valve, based ‘on uniform fistibution, of about O6SN/mm®, hich is well below both the actual value at 185, tonnes end the grout shear strength Decoupling. equivalent ton edition in free: langth of" 2.2m, has. also. been re ported by Eberhardt’ end: Voltrop_ (1965). uring the stressing af a 13008 capacity test anchor installed in batalt (fied anchor length = 11.5m, dimeter = 408mm) Remarks From mathematical, Iboratory and field evidence: tho distribution ofthe Bond mao Tsed atthe foek grout interace i unlkely to be uniferm unless the rock is "satt™. It ‘appears thet non-uniformity applies to most Tocks where Exy/E,a i eas than 10, In the case of high Sapecity anchors avi- dence exists thst portal debonding in the fined: anenor oecurs, snd that debonding progresses towards the end of the anchor Ss the food. is inereated. Information is scarce concerning the conditions wnere de Bonding is serous Since the validity of the uniform diati- bution of bond which is) commonly summed by designers ig clearly in question, i is recommended that instrumented anchors should be pulled to falura n'a wide range fof rock masses whose engineering and ‘geological properties can be uly classifies, In order to ascertain which perametere dic tate. anchor performance, In this wey it should be possibla:m due course vo provide mare reliable design ertena in general, there fe 9 scarcity of empracal design rules for the varius categories of racks, and” t00 often bond velues ere {uated without provision of strength ato, (2 proper clasifiation of the rock and Cement grout “The prior knowledge of eertoin geolog cal and geotechnial data pertaining to the Fock is ‘ossential for the safe, economic ‘design of the anchor dad correct choice of onstruction method. The authors believe that the following geotechnical properties should be evaluates during the site invest {ation stage, in addition tothe conven Hlonal descriptions of Iology snd. petro. aE mmm gas } | rH PcG i la. iy a t ANCHOR LENGTH Fig, 1. Distribution of bond along fined anchor length ‘ate Race 08 (ate ae, 1956) graphy: quantitative deta on the nature, Srientation, Heaueney and roughness ofthe ‘major rock. mess discontinuities: Strength of these discontinuities: and cum. pressive and_shear strength of the ‘ck moter Also, pariculary in the softer rocks, weatherabilty and dureilty should be a5: essed. especially on samples drawn trom the evel of prospective xed snenor zones, ies realised thatthe determination of the ‘modulus of elasticity rather involved and expensive, particulary for rock. masses. However, af the intoonce of thie pera: meter on anchor performance has slfesdy Been demonstrated ers should be made whenever possible, Yo sbten 9 relate Valve The ground water regime is also of prime importance, especialy the positon of the weater-tgble, and the groundwater rato of flow, pressires ana’ aggessvty. fe should be noted thet the rato of anchor length to discontinuity spscing determines the rela, tie importance of intect motel ‘she {ock mass properties in any one case. For example, where the frectore spacing” is folativaly large, the rock materi properties will be the dominant controls of, for ex. mole. crab and rack/arou bond However, this is rarely the cate, and the properties of the rock mass ore Usually ‘Srutial, particule in the sesessment of the overall stoilty of the anchor system Of tho. site investigation should be determined by the importance of the contract. and the potontal dicultion fnd risks inherent ints execution in sta {anchor tests shouldbe eared out wherever possible to clarity design propocals Bearing in mind that anchors ore often led at very close contest would op. insite Investgotion thet 2 “construe. Hon” stage is required where dl logs, Penetration rates, grout consumptons. and heck "pull-out tote are montored. in Srder 10 highight "alifiesit” or changed Tock conditions, These terms need to be ‘etinad In oer to avold legal problems and the question is mportant whenover Aube sbout anchor competence ene,BOND BETWEENTCEME: ‘AND STEEL TENDON Introduction Little attention hag boon paid to. this sspoct of rock anchor design, principally because. engineers usualy consider that the fixed anchor longth chosen with spect Tock/grout bond ensures mare than adeguete. tendon embedment Tang. However, as het been demonstrated in the Section dling with rock/ grout bend Tittle stendordigation or uniformity of 8p. proach is apparent related to the grout {ondon bond, and the rather simple design {sumptions commonly mado ara in conto Giction to certain experimental observa. in this section, the mechanisms of bond are" discussed "ond" snchor” design pro Geaures employed in practice ere re Viewed. Bearing in mind the searcty of Information pertaining to anchors, dato abstracted largely trom the felde of ro inforced and prestressed concrete are also rovonted, which relate tothe magnitude fre distribution of bond, ‘The mechanisms of bond Teg widely aceopted that there are three mechanisms TAdhesion. Thie provides tho inti “bond” before sip, and srises mainly from the physical imerocking (ue. gluing) of she micfescopically rough steal and. the. sur Founding grout (Fig 13). Molaculae ates: CEMENT GROUT STEEL BAR OR WIRE TENDON Fig. 13. Magnified view of interface between grout and stee! tion ig also thought to act. Adhesion a con. Siered to_dseppear when aip comparable Sith the size ofthe micro indentations on the steal occurs 2 Frieton. This component depends: on the confining pressure. the surface cherse: toraties of the steel, and the amount of Slip, but is largely independent of the mage nite of the tendon stress. The: phone. mena of distaney and wedge action elso Contribute to. ti Weonel resistance. a8 ‘edi strains are mobilised where the long tudinal ara changes 53. Mechanical inteiock. Ths is simile to imiero mechanical fcking, But on a much larger scale, as the shear strength of the grout is mobilised against major tendon regularities, eg, res, wise ‘An idestsed” representetion of these {vee major bond components is shown in Fig. 14. For short embedment fengthe the schesive component is most importent, But (MECHANICAL INTERLOCK) FRICTH N feores0u a Fig. 14. Idealised representation of major ‘components of bond for longer lenaths, all three may operate— adhesion false occuring intally at the proxmal end and then moving Proofer: Evely distally to be replaced by tction band or mechanical interlock. Frictional and interlocking resstoncessnerease th at- tel compression and decrease with ltesi tension” Clearly. the grout shear strength tnd the nature of the tendon surece, both ‘mrovand macroscopically. ere majer fac tors in datorminng bond choracteries FRE Sommn' Peatice to Gnd embed. ment langthe for bors. wires and strands Quoted as equivalent to 9 certain number Of diameters, os this method ensures o maximum velue of apparent avorage bond Stress for each type of tendon. The war mission length ie the length required to Hansmit the initial prestressing force ins fendan to the surcunding. grout or con. In Bits, the following general recom: _pardatens oy, bo, oiowes. boas on 119, 1972 and information supplied by “Stacie eg (1968), 1a. Foe at or rst, pin o in ih o rusted, plain or inden eam ete. ho ten O'Smm atezat 40mm pitch,» transmasion Tength of 109 dlometes may be aseumed ‘when thaeube strength ofthe conerete or rout at hanson not loss than 38N mm {i} Fora: wire of » considereble crimp 9. 1.0mm of-eet, 40mm pitch, = bond Tangth of 65 diameters may be assumed for the above conditions. (iid) Galvanised wire. providers poor Bond, aes than half that of comparable plan wie. (iv). Ie may be assumed that 80 per cont Of the maximum stress is developed in 8 ongth of 70" diameters for the conitions ‘mentioned in () and Ih length of 54 dia ‘ators for the conditions mentioned in (0) Strand () From the avallebie experimentel data, the wensmission tongth for small ismeter frdinary strand Ig not proportional to the Slametor ‘of the tendon. Tobie Vil_gives Values of transmission length. for_trand Working at an init stress of 70 per cent Sltimate in eonerste of strength 345-383 Nymme SET ABLE NETH IESTRANSMISSIOWLENGTHS- FOR SMALL DIAMETER STRAND, Transmission Tenath Diameter of 178 strand (rm) fmm) (diameters) 93200 (=25)—*19.28 30 (5%) 2628 500 (5560) 2631 (i), Tests in concrete of strength 41.4. 48.3N/mmm= with Dyform compact strand ft 70 por cent ultimate show an average transmission length of 30-38. dlometers, ‘According tothe results of on FIP questionnaire (1974) ‘nstionsl_ specifics. tons. vary ‘considerably for transmission lengths, the most optimistic being those of the Unitod Kingdom. It is sccepted. tht compact strand e.g. Dylorm, hes transmis sion lengths 25 per cant grter than those for normal 7-wire stand, and that sudden release of load also increases the trans ‘mission fength, (An sddtionsl 25 per cent 's recommendad in Rumania) Bar ()_ With regard to permissible bond stresses for single plan and deformed bars in concrete, “Table Vil iustrates the Values stipulated by the Brilsh Code for Gitferont grades of concrete. These values taro applied 0 neat Cement grouts an occs: (if) For a group of bars, the etlective Derimeter of ‘the individual bars ie mut pliod by the reduction factors. below No.of bars in group ‘Reduction factor 2 8 3 08 4 oa Ie ig important to note that no information 's provided in the Code on group geometry ‘2g. minimum spacing, where the reduction factors should be employed. In sdation no guidance of any kind ie given for groupe ot strands oF wire, ‘With reference to minimum embedment lengths, Morris and “Garret (196) have Calculated fram stressing teats on Sm dio ‘meter wires that the minimum necessery ‘mbedment is just over 1m. Golder Brow: nor Assocs. (1973) found that elthough the sgrout/strand bond is higher than expected from teste on single wires due to "spiral interlock", the vaive drops rapidly IT the fombedment longth ie fess then Om. Re- Sults from Froyssinet anchors with spacers Nave shown that each strand can with: Stang about 158-173KN with 0.6m embed: ment. Since the capacity of such strand 's usually in the range 178-270KN, Golder Braver Assocs. conclude that no strand of 8 rock anchor logically needs sn embes- fant length in excess of 1.5m. However, {or other reasons a length of Sr f usually 1d the minimum aéceptabie. lbstracted from papers. describing Fock anchor contacts "i presented in ‘TABLE VIII-ULTIMATE ANCHORAGE BOND STRESSES Gheractorete strength of eonerate (F,,, N/mm") Type of 25 % oo i Maximum bond stress, N/m Fin cE 1a 1s 7 Deformed 7 19) mr 28Tables IK. X ana XI for bat, wire and grout then forthe bond developed by bare bas, especially deformed types ison avers strand esgcively.Inall the calculations, ana wires with grou. The value ol the bond ago gnifcenty Neher on ee dele xcept where nherwise noted, the bond is (up to OBN/mm#) for 182mm stvend 's by sends or wince Aine We eee eee ‘sumed uniorm over the wihele tendon slighty higher overall than that for 127mm dafamiies Weaseea Wee ee fembedment zone, which is taken as equal svand (up to O72N/mm), and in both by up toZ tes with nape one aee fe the length of tho fixed snehor fates there is 2 tnd towards a reduction Besring in snind the, of the band with an incresse in number of Distribution of bond ber of values, comment swrands Much of the work to investigate the is following! (ii) The actual safety factor against fail-_ sribution of bond slong gecereet ies, (i) There would appear to be a greater ure ofthe grout/tendon bond te usvelly faces hes boon carey con wy Ue egree of uniformity on values chosan for well in encess of 2 ‘States in connection with prestressed and the working bond between strand and (ii) "The average bond developed by reinforced, consiete, “Gikeye ersten TABLE IX—GROUT/BAR BOND VALUES WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED OR RECOMMENDED IN PRACTICE Bar tendon nT" FRR anime) cniminny (ny ements Source Te ein a bone aepenaan Br SPTTY #8 Brtain—tone (197) JA Hopgmteaeose mage Conede—Biewn (om) 2%, Canta—ontai yo t82) Big da Bo oi TRS ean Ben) 25mm dtm ar a 2 ono dtemnea €2008*-Br00n (8%) Bann ga pa BoB oy Te ‘itadbioaa res) 8 a ttre ie) oo 2” Ip peor ae ‘TABLE X—GROUT/WIRE BOND VALUES WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED OR RECOMMENDED IN PRACTICE Marti aninsy THERE mamares Source * ero TA, ‘§ tits se) nt Gant aps 1 a (873) Xu B 3 Eseesedl gat a H 88 8B Meter Shesaaemiagetag ser) 19 93 ° zovand== Weather (868) is ‘og EEREES anor ttre 197)and Beal (1840) discuss in general terms the bond characterstice of bors during pullout. As the load inereeses progressive Slip at the proximal end occurs, and the location of the moximum intensity of bond stresses moves towards the distal end. The {otal resistance continues to increase pri- marily because the length of the tendon Wick has passed its maximum resistance foes not release entraly but exerts a resi tesistance or drag acting concurrently With tho adhesive: bond in the region of ‘maximum bond stress, Fg. 15 ip an ideal- Fig. 18. Qualitative variation of (2) bond ‘tress, (0) total tensile stress, durig pullout tet {Efe cuney, Coamsedsin & es, 190) ised diagram showing the progressive na tie. of bond davibution. et successive stages of @ test. Curves (2) represent Io: tenaites of bond stress between the bar id concrete, Curves (6) may be con sidered se stresses in bar, at successive Bointe slong the specimen. It should be Fecognised that for curves (bj. the ine fensty of bond stress at any point (rate of change of strass in the bat) ie ropre: ented by the slope of the curve, with Fespeet 1 the axis of the specimen, ot that point. Bond is whet makes stress transter possibie end can be present only Ine rogion of chenging stress in the sted! or tha conerste Considering Fig. 15, it for plan ber pullout tert. (i) ‘Band resistance fret developed near {he proxmal end of the ber, and only a Slight lip occurs are tensions and bond Suesses wansmitted prograssvely distally (ii) The region of maximum intensity of Bond stress moves away Tram the proximal nd. 35. the pull increases. Batweon the proximal end’ and the region of mexmum Bond stress there fe 9 aly uniform tic. ‘onal or drag resistance of greatly reduced (ii) "Fist slip" occurs only shar the ‘maximum intensity of bond resistance has ‘avalied nearly the full length of the spect ‘mon and has approached the distal end of the bor (iv) After apprecisble slip, the primary ‘dhesive resistance disappears and the bar Ofers "a Wieionsl or drag resistance throughout its entire length, amounting to perhepe hall the ultimate total resistance Staines In Britsin, Hawkes and Evans (1951) ‘wore able 9 conclude fom pull-out teste ‘that the distroution of bond obays an ox: ‘orertil lw ofthe form: parent that ‘TABLE XI-GROUT/STRAND BOND VALUES WHICH HAVE BEEN EMPLOYED OR RECOMMENDED IN PRACTICE ira tendon TA [nb Remand Abeldean question Ve acho Hole, ager tet eta EMCEE RUAN) Peng re ee eae ing. 8 9 ei Nt Elbe "Type Fda Apanor en and Co, (1972): Rely 0 FP question 1 eh teen =. rR: opscta on “voy mw cio) diate Aeorge Ho 080, Ba Berd ee Cae at Be, Hod spots Bie caiee bt acai EB Banal communis wy, (96 MN nd E.'S ope Sartore” RoePart 2: Construction INTRODUCTION IRRESPECTIVE OF THE caro and conser- atam spol tothe designs of an anchor System, toughtore or corass conse ‘ona! procedures can cause rock onchort {0 ta at very low loa Tho melonty of ‘Churn too 10 be retad to the gute ing atanesthough some bon falres have Stony boon 00 poor tendon prepa. Stan’ Ona Yew oceans the dling and Homagwocligase may Rove Deon ne comect Foranstely, fares ferrets" ftr aad thoas hove uruly eon highlighted at the aesiny snd tes It is significant ‘that although the tech- salugy of asling snd growing con bo BGR comple ake testmiqes_ on he wife swat fo sled and experenced Spvalats, sod siose ona inspection by Siporvaing engineers hae boon relay Snconmon fo See, ‘Tus, reo anchoring Siter aD your il rogeded an ar Wise a's apprected hat the Nohly Virable ground conditions encountered in practice, ‘pving vito 8 large number of Eontructontachnigues, ned to te mye Sue of enchorng. nevertheless 1 seems shar the time overdue for certain guise ines on constuction grace to pe tented" for eonnderaca by ‘shi gs “he second par ofthis review discusses sanenor comtrdcton tectngues ‘sat ‘niin, “fushing, water testing, tendon freneion ‘an iewtalnton reing aod fnaiy conasion protectors. Sinoe anchor Ship emphasise laced on gully contol nd cate onsite nuperriion, ‘pect of ancborsesing and tenting wi be reviewed tm th tied and conclude Inaporrstthaveres of atcle DRILLING Introduction In practice driting rates often dictate anchor production rates end therefore in- fiuence in a major way overall costs As 8 result major decisions to be taken by an- hor specialists before each contract in clude (The selection of the mest suitable nd eiteane riling method, and (i) Tha prediction of penetation rtes With respect to choice of driling method, the rock type, rate and scale of Sriling operations, svelability of plent, hole ‘geometry and labour end driling costs ‘must all be assessed. ‘Tne presition of deiling ratas involves caretul study of machina cherscterstcs, Bit and flushing medium properiea 29 well fs rock and Borehole parameter, Ite con: Sldored that a prior knowledge of driling fates provides 4 sound basis for evaluating {he feasibility of plannod operations and for selecting sktemative operational pro- Cedures it necessary. “The range snd selection of driling equip ment and. methods sre. seccrbed. bre, fogether with guide information on the Prediction of driling rots. The latter is Perforee "qualitative, simply Because. ine Suffiiene ‘esearch hes yet been conducted sor publisned—on the. determination of Tock lability indies” Driling toleran- ces. are mentioned in relation vo current Fock anchor practice, Drilling methods ‘The major mechanical criling_ systems in use are rotary, percussive and rotary Percussive, Each system le chorscterised by the manner in whieh the bit attacks the rack, and 8 simple comparative analyse of the mechanics of verius ciling systems {an olten reveal the inherent limitations of fS2ch and indicate the most promising sys fem for 8 specific type of rack. For ex: ample a rook a! high compeensve strength, Togardless of its abrasive. properties, Te Tkely to respond ‘well to the. eruhings chipping action of a. percussion bit. On tho other hand, & rock classihed 25 hard because iis highly abrasive, but which is ‘weakly bonded, may respond to percussive Seton more ike 2 ductile mataral than brittle ene. For such a rock & percussion Dit woulg do inferior work compared with 8 woorrresistant rotary drog bit A current Fula af thumb Tor the applicability of rile Ing methods for cifernt rock estegores |g beaed gn the resistance of rock to pane tration, ag shown in Table Rotary eis "A rotary ail imparts two besie actions through the del rad and bit nto the rock Sy" axal thrust (estate action). and (rotational toraue (= dynam action) ‘The resultant force epplid to the rock ig increased until rock Trecture vs induced land each machine has 9 point where. an Optimum axial thrust interrelated with the Sviilable torgue can achieve a maximum Penetration rate for a particular rock, Op- froting below the optimum. thrust de- Greases the penetration and imparts hoticeable polishing or grinding aetion to the bit. Operating above the optimum thrust ragutes high rotational torgue, and Stalling of the machine i ikely Tn general, rotery rls have higher torque autput then ether percussive or Fotary-percussive drills and require higher ‘thrust capabilites. Types af machines and ‘operating practice are described in detail ina US Army Report (1958) Where ‘specified, most core dling is caries out using diamond bits whieh are Svallsblo in two main forme—(a) "Surface S2C" bite with individuel elamonds set in 3 metal matric and. (b) “impregnated Bits” with fine diamond dust incorporated ‘The diamonds used for the surface set bits Vary in both quality and size. Choice Ss governed by the rock to be cried but it can Be summarised thet "the Rarder the rock, the smaller the size and the higher the quality of the diamonds” Dixon and Clarke (1975) give epacitc recommends tons on size of eiamoncs in bits related to type of rock. [eis noteworthy that tung- Sten bits are less costly than dlamand bits but are not cegerded & suitabla Tor die ing in very ara racks ‘Whom delling with surface set diamond bits, Paone et 2! [1968] have shown thet tho”'most significant parameters affecting penetration rates are trust. and rotetion Epeed of the aril, and the rock compres. sive strength, hardness, ans_ quartz cons Diamond driling i not commonly em: ployed in anchoring, partly for economic Fessone, end partly due ta the smoothness at tho hole it creates, thereby loading to oorer rock-grout bond. characteatics Borehole roughness is undoubtedly in: creased by using percussive methods, but to-date this does not appear to have been ugncieg. For anchor construction in soft rock formations, such ss st-hard clays ‘and TABLE |, APPLICATION OF DRILLING SYSTEMS Fesistance to penetration of rock Method Sere Medium Had Very hard Rowanyarag ur x x Rotary-roler bit x x x Rotary-diamond bit x x x x x x x x x x x ‘Bir Poe, Ur‘TABLE Il DRILLING METHODS AND EQUIPMENT RELATED TO GROUND CONDITIONS [assed tan aris, augers are often employed. They {all into three broad categories (6) ‘Standard continuous fight augers for formal open hole driling, (2) Continuous tight augere with hallow couplings to permit water, bentonite for cement grout to be pumped into the bottom of the hale, and hallow stem sugers with « removable Cento bit’ t2. fectitate sampling though the centre of the auger dur- Ing the driling stage, and subsequent iy to permit homing of the tendon Brion fo. withdrawal of the “auger [Rugere sre avalobla which can accept the standard US sampler tube, end on ‘ceations tis driling method ean be Very attractive from 2 quality contol poi of vow In general, © wide range of dil bits Is avilable from suger tool manufacturers but experience ie required in making the Correct choice in proctce, For example, tungsten upped fingar bit is normally suite ble for moserate to hard formations such fs herd shale, aitstone, and soft decom- Posed sandstone whist ¢ fshtal bit is teen ideal for boring clean Roles through Soft sole and atit/hord ay Pereuesve dil Pereossive dil penetiete rock by the setion of an impulsive blow, usually from 2 chisel or wedge-shaped bit: repeated ap- plication of a high intensity short duration force crushes oF fractures rock when the bow ig suffelenty larga. Torque, rotation: St speed, and. thrust requirements. aro Elgnieantly lower for perevssive systems than they are for rotary or rotary porous sive systems, Hammer dls, in which the hammer ¢ moins oe the surfece, are used Yor dling oles up to'125mm in diameter. Down: hole tools, (OTH) in which the hammer is always immedately above the it. oo Used’ mainiy_for hole diameters ranging from 120 10 750mm. ene Penevration rates of pereussive drills are shown by Ryd & Holdo [1960] to be roportional to the cate at which energy Supplied by she reciprocating piston, Rotary percussive dels “Those dile impart three actions through he dail Bit: (i) Bal thrust of lower magnitude than @ that of e rotary dei, (i) torque, lower than a rotary dril but much higher then percussive dell and (ii, onpect. “Tne rotation mechanisms may be pow: rod by the impact mechanism of by @ Separate. motor, snd the mechanism ot ‘ock falure ig considered by White [1965] te combine. the chorscteristics of bath rotary and percussive mechanisms, Choice of drilling method ‘The method of driling is chosen prim- (2) the type and capacity of the anchor, fnd hence the diometer and depth of thehale, (8) the mature of the rock material ond (€) the borehole surtuce roughness ce- quirements, (a) the accessibility snd topography of (©) he avallabilny and suitability of the flushing medium, and (0, the deiting rate, 'A guide to-the choice of driling method ig “given by Mawesley [1970] ‘who con idare that in the majority of projects the ‘most lmportant factors affecting enoice are the type of anchor and the strata to be ‘riled (eee Table I). Parker [1958] writes that for holes up to 100m dia. and €Om in length percussive methods are. prefer: ble for mast rock conditions, For deeper holes, which put 9 severe stiain on per Cussive eauipment of poorer ground Gon Gitions, rotary methods are recommended MeGregor [1967) summarises in general terms the relation between rock type and diameter se shown in Fig. 1, and emphae ises the diferonces (see Figs. 2 and. 3) ‘when cing in soe friable rocks and vari le strata. Where the rock hes alterna. ing hard and soft (collapsible) zones the lise of 2 rotating eccentric bit has proved 2 sucezsstul innovation in. recent. years Since It_underreams. the Tock permiting tho use of 2 uniform size of casing, 28 opposed to the mara traditional use of telescopic easing which sracualy reduces Insite mith ineronsng cept, ie ie noteworthy tat one of the die advantages of the down-theshole hammer (Wedied sar Wows, 1) (OTH) was ilustated recently at Muda Dam in Malaysia whore two very expen sive hammers were jammed st depth, Nor molly, the down-the-hole hammer is less prone to jamming than the ordinary. per ussive dell but when it does, the Rrancial Driling equipment (reupectve of te mothod of ding shove be cortan desiable characteristic uch ore common fo mest fy ured sn round “anchoring” wort, Far inmonce, Sawrsiey 910] recommends he folow ingitons “ine should have powered taetion se shat tsa esly be moved ond positoned Iersnch hele. Wher ate foor condigons tre bad the ig should be mounted on Eaaier at hn exception 1 the sbove se nan he ie mounted on another Siace’ot scuipment which Waa move {le tor example fstng pontoon “The contre of ray ot tha should wes law‘ey possible many. anenor Mie’ oe led at anlow anges Tow necessary ilng thant cect Be ep Dies sally anieas the cs stl. “hen show be capable sailing at any"sngie rom norsontalt0 verte and Should be abe to pertorm ae many sing imathocs a pone. roary nd ager Inve wie of he suiors, the fling practosl especie mey sso mart sono Nolte tis novceable that there has boar {recent sing sway fom te tse ot par Sansive or ottyparursve die fo rotry Grin" burtop" soon Ths primary de to role ronticions ands nie level cf 9Sd0A st tis now acid Stearn S10 year it fe seated tat ‘otery percussive dtars wil be banned ‘s'buitup seven fore poring the ‘Geos recommended nar consisereton should be givan To bynes powered oe Tevernsees, whist percussive. ails conse to be employed I's mportnt {SP snancers fo"eprecote hat xporare tolhl noe ine ously ebove S05A Ter canded ‘nme’ perogs ean rogues Shystologis! damaoe to te ea Gn many EShatuction ston, partetany inthe OR. Strings of ti pant hada lesseem in the main to go unheeded. Versatility: Al ngs should be designed to ecommodate & rotary head, rotary per- cussive. drifter, vibrodfver and down-the- hole hammer. Where high production is Fequired, machaniesl handling of il rods Sind casing could bs advantageous end use ‘of ofl eke, rod.changing units and hy> “raule positioners ments consideration. Prime movers” All prime movers 10 oper- fe nas should be “builin" to give a.com: pact independant unit. For. the vast majority of anchor applications power supply of 80.80 np. Is considered suticient ‘ast movements! A sub-mast is required teapabla of rotating 90 deg. in elevation a, vertical to horizontal The main mast, Sttacned to the subsmast through 2 tur {eble/sliing carriage, shoula be capable ‘of rotating 180 deg. i pla. ‘The ability to (a) position the toe of the main mast atthe hole locaton, (8) Rola the. main mast at any level from O-2m ‘sbove the around le considered important Hoist and Teed rating: Beating in mind possible vee of vibrodrivere in the future fo cope with unconsolidated ground over- Tying rock, 2 maximum feed rata of 1O/ rminmay be desirable. A satisfectory holst ‘te ie dm/mins asceptable hoist capacity asin; and sezeptable feed capacity 254 ideally, pressure gauges giving a meas- ure of torque and feed capacity. during Sriting should be incorporated in the rig ‘These gauges could be monitored by an experienced drier or engineer to highlight changes inthe trate, ond thereby improve quality control Exhaust pollution: In the futur, attempts should be made 10 design and. specity Brie movers which emit “clean” exhaust In spite of the above recommendations, itis noteworthy that for anchors installed directly. into. rock. the ‘raditionel wagon Srl witha parcussive Rammer may stil provide the most economical selution in Some circumstances. In general the cartect choice of a dling method and machine for an anchoring pro Jot is @ ertical factor in the eventual sue. {cesful completion of a project and there: fore the grostest care should be exercised Inmoking that choice Drilling rates ‘Since the rate of driling holes in rock epends on ta nature of te materst del fe and the dling machina, iis desirable to have se much knowledge. a» possible ‘om both the rack and the machine pressive and tensile strength, Young's modulus, serateh and impact hardness, toughness and others, is 2 major factor in fstablshing a suitable arilailty seal. Nevertheless, no. definite conclusion has been reached a to which are the most Useful physical parameters to determine, fn no single propery correlates porfecty ‘withering ate, although rock compre Sve strength remaing @ popular snd vse {ul parameter in the hands ofthe specialist. Miost recently, ven Ormer [1978] has attempted to late penevation rete to fock mass and material properties, ond Considers texture (porous to dense fine), hareness. (1-10 on the Moh seala), break ing characteristies (britle to. mallesble) and geological seucture (solid to, lamin- ated) In each case the frst named in the ange. sustaing © foster dling vate than the other extcomes. Toble ll summarises the data. parainng to hardness, and the diling rate for various rocks relative to Regerdiess of onan. all Yocks may 10 (tar Sold, Romogeneous Berre Granite) possoer complex “sovcndery ‘structures, 8 shown in Table IV. The latter table doe Ending or folotion, snd” the “degree ot take into account the. secondery of facturing end westhering, and bedaing ff the rock mass can affect the physical Droperties and the crilabity of the rock Consequentiy, although average or typical properties con be established for sound, Snwesthered specimens of rocks, in practice each site tends to be evaluated Individually. "and purely geologic classi- feations of racks fer little help in group. ing rocks eecording to srilabilty” On the ther hand classifying rocks on the basis fof their physical properties, such as com: Structure of the rock mass—the influence ff whieh, itis claimed, is best determined from experience. Diferences. between measured and predicted “driling rates based on physical properties of the rock fre probably dus to the ever present vari= tion of these properties thoughout the Tength of hole. Altnough rock material and mass anistropy is known to afiect.éril> bility ite work her been carried out to fuantty ite Influence. In viow of its im- Portance however some effects aro sum Srieed by von Ormer in Table V. ‘Whilst solid formations should provide good driling, amy, broker fozmotions i= 7 eae a et [PERCUSSIVE sticking. ° = | swers | ows ons aeaauiody b'percerahe and oterr per. 2 ient of rock strength of the rock to be eed RoTaRY drilled. The test, which wes first described spe cant [elt eases a Sats a natdedte sctng Se oe ca ee ae Ste a eae re Fig, 1, Preferred methods of drilling ditfarene classes of roa ‘does not require elaborate equipment and aS Le ey pm we ae res eae Eo om : percussve-roway —foumoo rus [5 Pha ym oass UGHT ROTARY DRLLS z y i i 9 2 é ~ Bo] recurs i 2005 ROTARY DRLLS ee SEE SE eh a Semjane man ean eatry the apparatus into the fais and make severst determinations In ‘one dey. Good results have boon obtained In coreiting fl penatration rates with the ooaficiont of rock strength for rotary. percussive drils (Unger & Fumanti, 1972) nd for percussive drile (Sehmidt, 1872), ‘One major dgedvantage, however, in using only the cosficient of rock strength for prediction is that mo account & taken ‘of drill omar ond machine characteristics. Penetration rates, particularly for per- ceussive delle, area function of thea pressure supaiied tothe oil, the condition Of the dil and the type and condition ofthe bus Other technics! factors euch 9 hush ing medium and bi diometer are alsa im: portant, but to date have received littl, Investigation. Since these porsmeters are ‘ually dificult to measure with snyde- ‘gree of precision, eepecialy in the feld, Ie not surprising thet some dlaerepanc: jes" Between ealeulsted and. measured Fates are evident [As a result its now widely appreciated thot a step that considers energy output fof the drill must be included to further re- fine the procedure for predicting driling rates, Whilst much work sembing %0 be tackled Paone et af 1968) In a detailed ‘account have already suggested a method ‘of estimating penevation rate. based on the quantity of energy required to cut Unit Volume of rock and the energy output ‘of the criling system. |e ig algo note ‘worthy that Paone et 9! [1968] have sug- ested using the coeficlent "of rock Strength to dotermine the energy required te remove unit volume of rock Flushin itis val t0 move partis from the bit guioky ond efcenty Eoargy oe Bonded on “grinding. such" Fogments Sbvioolyeannot be used for hale ra. Seton comminuton of the Negments Sito incresses ear ofthe bi, Conmeniy used fushing media oe sie veter or mud sual being cael “tspension af bentonte in water Adis. {inion aap dean Detwoes sina oe feverte Miah velaton: in he formar, ih" rosused vi the fede ond i Sra’ rewine to the suriace Between the {0d and tho hole wah the ater, the Sppostestunion occur. ‘Of the media lated, aii probly tho mont oficent senvenga, water tho best Soolent and mud the est ubiant Ais She commonest fd ured for suaca eit ing wih perevanve machines nd wih Grate ane ralor rota dling in Slnrios. Ales bast used ‘wy ean Sitough can be teed n vary wat son dione provced apie aig vate Sut ster lite advantage over wet siting Underground and im contin spaces gos rata urnatalctory unans aes Th fevers creulaton becae of tho heath hovard of ust panicles Rocking in Sontned spaces such a tuoale fore normaly eat ‘ton Ailing. te later being one sari of rat ccuation Water flushing is the standard method used for 'delng in sts gouna hore theres '@ mal inflow Sf tar Io itm the rock ony sufcent to swith she eotgs to fom a poste or"where there ate covey yon) foe Sting under tho water oe at dont, Secor among” dling. The cosy stator ised Ts not snessive™-suely Ys ‘han ites per minute Tar convrtona TABLE Il. WARONESS OF SOME ROCKS AND MINERALS —Oeerrr—_ereeerv Mint or 00k Hardness Sete et Biamond v0 Cerborundum 35 Sapphire 30 Chrjber 8s Teper 80 Zircon 2s Quereite 30 Chert P 65 Quartz Trap rock BE] 20 uae Magee 2) oss Gis chit Eq] 8 Kets Apatite g] ots Keto Gente fl ot |» rae Dolomite as | E Kite Limestone so |S Copper coin Galena 2s |e Copper exin Potash —2a | 8 Finger ype 18 Finger Tate to Fingernai (iar van OH) TABLE IV. DRILLING CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMON ROCKS: ee Comparative Ccharacterieiee daling speed Rock materia) Hordnese— 1-2 1Sandup Shales Sehist Pecans) Ohio Sandstone Breakage—Shetters Indiana imestone _——— ee Five =3a 1w1S Lnewione cet TextreLoote gained ogni alr arestoge—Brte to saving Neti _————— ee Havanese — 45 06t010 Granite Trap Rock “Texture—Granitod to fine grained Meee ned igneous Most quartzite Breskege—Strong Greise er Maraness— 6.8 OB and fess Hematico ({ine-ained, grey) Texture—fine grain to dense Kimberiy chert, Broakage—Maliaabie Taconite — Sa (Bar ven Somes Te TABLE V. EFFECT OF ROCK MASS STRUCTURES ON ORILLING RATES —rr_rorvrnanrevevs mens PATS Rock mass Nature of fractures Dill ate errr Oe Massive — Feet Stratified Perpendicular to crillrod; > 1.2m apart, clean Fast Medium Laminated Perpendicular to drill rod; < 1.2m apart clean Medium Steeply dipped Small angle to drill od, 1.2m apart clean Slow Medium Seamy Various inclinations to dil rod; close, open Siow SS (attr van mer 18)anchor hole driling. In spite of this wot Grling ig often regarded az a messy and Ineonveniant methad, whilst mud flushing ig considered expensive. and thought t0 Fequire 9. sfost deal of preparation, Mud flushing ig not common’ in rock anchor construction although it has been used Suecesstully in Fronce for open hole delle ing though silts and sands overlying rock “The type of flush employed may in cases Improve the effcioncy of hola formation. In weakly ‘cemented sandstones for ex- ample, water flushing widens and cleans the hole. and ensures better bond at the grout/rack Interface, "However, in rock Strate able. to. deterioration trom’ water fetion such b= marly ond chelke, water flushing where necessary should be kept garalass of the supposed efficiency cof tha flushing process, itis usual in anchor onstruction to leave ® “sump” lengtn for Gebrisat the bottom of the borehole. In torrent. practice, 03-0.7m ie commonly ladded to the. designed borehole. length After each hola has Deon drill to it ful Gepth and throuahly. flushed out in order to remove any loose matril, tho hole Should then "be sounded to. ascertain whether “fllin” of "blow-up" of material ha occurred and whether It wil prevent the snenor tendon reaching. the required Gepth. I satisfactory the top of the hole Should then be affectvely plugged to pre ‘ent debris fling inta "With ragard te. the logging of date re- lating primary to ground wator and flush Ing medium. H Nee been shown thot loes! Vatiations in ground coneitions, over a few metres, can hav marked effects on subso- {Quant ‘anchor performance-—especially. in Soft rocks. Much qualitative data can be Sbtained on ground conditions by logging 4rling rates and the degree of bit blocking but a:more sensitive record is often pro: vided by observing changos in the amount land composition of flush return. Other ate relating to ground water, pressure and permeability "can isa. be Fesdily obtained it close lason is estab: lished and maintainad with the dela Far example, the following. should be noted (the depen at which ground water le frst encountared inthe hala, i) any water sdded to the hole to asst dling, (ii) the level of water, nd amount and Giameter of casing in the boring at the ond of the shit nd (iv) the level of water when work recom: Alignment and deviation In the drling of rock anchor boreholes, ies important to maintain a tue, srsight hole, terminating in the" expected. cl ulated. position Three causes of errors ‘may be recognised (2) incorrect setting-up, with the drill Bointing In the wrong direction at the Start of ering, (8) misalignment. ia whieh the: dil ie Correctly lined up but the hole Is out ‘of line with the oxi af tho dil, and (c) deviation in which the hole ie started in the correct lino bur subsequently siterssrecton, Correct setting-up of a dsl is largely 2 matter of cara anda good oye, but should Siwaye be aided by the use of 2 profile "dept level The se of 4. cosing_ oF Gril rod guide plate et the base of the nil mast ie advantageous Regardless “of “cause, misalignment is TABLE VI LIMITING FLOW RATES WHICH HAVE BEEN RECOMMENDED OR EMPLOYED TO DETERMINE THE NEEO FOR WATERPROOFING Flow rate Flow rate Source (recommended or employed) (gal/ttimin/atm)* GERMANY (erunner) 5 ttees/min 0.00091 (Bomberd & Sperber) 1 litre/metre/min/10 atm 0.00670 ‘SWITZERLAND (Moschlor & Matt) 1 itre/metro/min/10 atm 0.90670 (Bure) 2.08 gal/te/min/10 atm 0.00800 ‘SOUTH AFRICA 0.075 g31/100 f/min 00013 NEW ZEALANO 0.01 gal/te/min 00167 AUSTRALIA 0.001 gain. ia/tt/min 0.00067 usa 0.001 gain. ia/tt/min 0.00063 (hole fll plus S pa) MALAYSIA 0.003 gate/min 0.00050 uk (Parker) 0.0 gai/tr/min ooo67 (Faimoutn) 0.25 gal/min overs (Devonpert) 1 iee/matre/min/10 atm 0.00670 troublesome and can result in damage to the dell and string as well 3s causing jam Iming of the rods. Furtiermare, MeGragor [196077 notes tnat the eudbing of the rods fon the wall of the hole may dislodge rack fregments whilst the. resultant tretion— especially in rotary driling—ean incresse fenormousiy the torque requirements, Re Settlement of the rg) when the. tiling thrust Is relaxed may also be a problem In soft ground and experience. indicates that special care ie required when driling {rom free-floating platforms. Deviation of the hole during driling does rot normally arse rom a single citeum Stance. it may onginate by using too thin fads, from excessive thrust, or By the bit following ® facure or other rock planar Eructure. Deviation is not usually & se ‘us. problem for OTH “aflls, but ie ex Sagerated by the hole length in diamond ein ‘Tho above remarks have been primarily falated to vertical Sownwars-holes, With angled holes, the rods are apt to lia on the Tower side of the hole and thi has the fect of upturaing the bit slightly. Hence Sngle holes often--out nat invarabiy—tond fo follow a shallow curve away from the varie, ‘Wherever possible, dell holes should be planned $0. that” they intrasct the moior rock discontinuities at's high an nolo oe possible It ths rule ie not ob Sarved, then its probable that 2 propor on of the holes will tend to deviate Bong the planes of the rock. In mica-sehist for example, holes. will fllow the mica defined sehistosity if orginally deiled ‘ay. 0 5 deg. angle toi Tee therelore essential to setup the rill with the. grestast care and precision land to monitor the progress of the hole. It becomes progressively more difficult find costly to alter the disetion of the hale efter driling has proceeded beyond Yow metres itu guidance on maximum permitted deviations hae speared, but tolerances of (0° 28" (Parker 1986), 1 10" (Eberhard and eltrop. 1965) snd 6° 42 (Littlsjahn. and ‘Traman:Davies, 7974) may ba compar with the less rigorous maximum of 2° 30" permitted by the South African Code. Contractors often quote average devi. tions of in 60 12. 1° OS and tolarances fre usually relaxed in the fixed ‘anchor Zone. (Tolerance is measured 36 9 cov ation of anchor hole trom the specified entre line divided by the length of dal hele). ‘A common method of inexpensively checking the deviation in vertical holes fo lower toreh down it and observe by how much, iat all the face Is obscured at Yarious depths. Alternatively, the deviation ‘may be more accurately checked at our intervals using @ single-shot photographic for continuous reading. borsholeinclin WATER TESTING AND ‘WATERPROOFING (On completion ot erling, the anchor borehole must be fasted for “watertight: ness", since subsequent loss of grout from round’ the tendon In the fixed anchor 2ane is of prime importance in relation 10 ‘ticiont load ‘rarsler and corsion pro- fection. Ressonable threshold velues. for water loss or gain must be assessed srhieh, when exceeded) sietate the need {or waterarooting. In practice, tes been ‘generally accepted that cement i not su ble for the treatment of fesures, which 40 lose than 280 microns wide although facent expermental studies suggest thet the lower limit closer to 160 microns for Ordinary and Rapid. Hardening Port land Cements “The authors believe that 2 logical ap. proach is to esteblsh the minimum wigty [Sf fesute which will permit How of coment 1 low pressure. The water flow per a= ‘mosphere which ie caused by 2 single fis Ure of this wigth may then be specified 25 2 threshold value whieh dictates the need for waterproofing. ‘may be estimated that » single 160 micron fissure under an excess. Need of fone atmosphere glves vise toa fow rate 32) tres/min (Littejcha, 1995). Ie is therefore suggested that this Order of ow should ‘be considered. ax a. reasonabla threshold for water loss. when Ordinary Portiand Cements are employed. In. theneat coment grout. A lower fissure width of 100 microns. gives a flow rate of 06 Wies/min/atin, and this may boa more fealiste threshold for minimal penetration ‘hen fine-grained coments are employed, ‘With regerd to rock anchor practice, the ‘magnitudes of water fow which ha Permitted in varous countries to date Fsted in Tabi VL Cleary, great care must be taken in the interpretation of limiting flow rates, with partteular regard to the length of section Being testes. To avoid serious misinter: rotation tis recommended that permissi- Bie fow rates should be quoted simply in terms of Iitres/min/atm, no reference. be: ing made to flow per unit length of hol oratape. In general, it i¢ considered that water tosts ‘carred out over sections e.g, the fined anchor, with the aid of packers sre preferable to rate-offal tests carried out Under stmasphere.prassure from the sur: face, since more detalled information can be btained aver specific locations. Packer testing” is not essential however ‘snd on many oceasions rate-of-ail tests can be Carried. out more cheaply end quickly. In these situstions packer testing may only bbe warranted if he seceptable water flows sre exceeded. ‘On the procticl side the hole must be thoroughly’ flushed with clean water from the bottom before testing, and during the test it may be of value to reduce the level of water in any adjacont holes so that any intarhole connections may be more anily detected From a review of current world practice, itis cloar that watertesting ie not a rou tine procedure and even when waterproat Ing‘ cerreg ‘out, generally acceptable water Hows have not been established for foek anchor grouting. As s.rosult, the fellowing recommendations are presented for eonsiderston, (2) Waterproofing is required i leskage for water loss in an anchor borehole exceeds 30 ltres/min/atm. The dute tion of the test should not be lees than 10 minutes and in torms of the Logeon coctient the above How is equivalent o 10L. (b) Where there is» measured outfow ‘or ‘water gain’ (Under artesion con: ditions) care. should always be taken to counteract this flow by the appli. ation ofa "backpressure" during the ‘outing stage. If the flow cannot be Steblised inthis way waterprootng is Fequied,lrespectve of the magnitude of the water gan (6) Permissible fow is related to “exce heed”. Theretore the positon of the water teblo in relation to the section being investigated must be establish e390 thet the deving or excess head Inducing flow at the section may be caleulated accurately. In tne fissures high epplied pressures” may induce turbulent flow, ereate high pressure gradients and’ open up the, natural Fesures. As) 2 principle, changes, in the local environment should be mint. mised and theralora the soplieg press lute inducing flow should be es smell 2 possible (a) The flow ates in (0) are minimum values sinca they all pertain a single fissures. Cleary, larger limiting, Row fates are aecepiable it 2 number of fissures (thickness <<. 160 microns) ‘exist This situation however must be Confirmed by close examination of the borenole interface using 8 camera or close creut television and/or ‘multipacker injection teste, In order to. wateroroot the hole egeinst water loss, grout should be tremied into the hole from the base upwards, After = period of time (usualy from 8 to 24 hours) the ole is redriled and tho water test ‘epeated, ‘The anchor ‘construction pro: ture may only continue whan the water: prootiag efiteia. ae satiheg. the Drogrouting is not successful an the fist ne or two occasions, then pressure Grouting may be required to farce. the Grout ino the fissured. rock mass. and theroby stabilise the borehole wall egeinst ‘subsequent reriling, TENDON Storage and handling Longbottom and Mallett [1978] make @ numberof sound recommendations rogers Ing’ this. topic, on the basie.sssumption that anchor tendons must be protected against mechanical damage and. severe Corosion on site TTendons must not be cragged across sbrasive surfaces ar be accessible to weld Splash. Bare should Tengtns, ond wie diameter at least 200 cimes. that of the tendon diameter, Kinked ‘or twisted wire should. bo rejected, since ‘experience hes shown that bond and Toad/aieplacement ‘characteristics can bo adversely afected. To avoid damage to protective shesth- Ing,'the- ends. of the tendon’ should. be trested, after cutting to size. to remove very sharp ‘edges. With respect to bers, fare should Be takon to" protect. the thraaes. Supercial damage to\the threaes cen often be repaired by means of 2 fl, ‘but it is usually impracticable to recut of extend 2 bar thread on site because. of the hardness ofthe steel. Ideally, steal for anchor tendons should be stored indoors in clean, ty conditions IF this ts impossibia, te steel may be Taft ‘outdoors for several monthe without ser us corrosion, provided itis stacked off the ground and’ complately covered. by Wwaterproat ‘tarpaulin Although the. or eulin should completely cover the steel Feeshould be fastoned so a6 t0 permit c= culation of ai tough the stack, Tho humicity ofthe sie, liad to possible atmospheric pollution (industrial and Marine) ‘is the major cause af corrosion uring storage. Thore would appesr to be litle problem if the relative humidity 1b ste ways less than 70 per cont, but severe Corrosion oceurs at levels in excess of 85 ber cent: The worst conditions sre exper fenced in marina topical sress, where the verage rate of corrosion is about three times. that in‘a heavy industrial area in the UK.'In such srese, wrappings should be impregnated with vapeur phase. in: hibitor powder, and inthis ease air through flow moat be pavented ‘Although it Is known now that nomel rusting actually improves. the bond to grout, fakey, loose rust must be complete- Fy removed, and tendons which are sev. erely pitted, pariculsry. in the case of mall dismeter malticwira strands, oF at threaded sections of bare, should’ be re: anchor, sll threads must be thoroughly” cleaned and ighty ciled, and it ig important to ensure that bars ‘ate properly screwed into couplers, and that full thread engagement re obtal fd in nuts and tapped plates, To minimise corrosion, the tendon should not be left Ungrouted for fang alter cleaning, especi- ally if psrafin haa been used ‘Anchors with mult-strand or mult-vire tendons usually require more time for fab: Fieaton, Ifthe’ strand is suppl aready {coated in PVC, than great care should be {ken to degroase the intended fixed an chor length effectively, using solvents such a5. acetone, richlorosthylene. or parain Some contractors specily. unraveling. of the strand to facilitate affective cleaning: the wites are afterwards returned to ¥ correct lay. Thi Basie method is recom mended ‘and an_effcient, somewhat time-consuming refinement 10 the aystory has been developed by UAC. Lid who introduce smell ferrules on to the cents} Wire prior to raleying the strand. This pro ‘duces nodes in each strand and undoubt. baly increases the resistence to the strand (rout flue. altentively, to siminate the laborious and inherently risky job of at empting 10 completely remove @ graphited bituminous grease which hae been designe fd (0 resist vasy removals machine hos Fecently been developed (Littlejohn. and ‘Truman-Davies, 1974) to grease each indie Viduel swand and apply # protective plas. tie sheath only ‘over the fre length whe itis required ‘The fixing and location of spacers and centralisers must be done with care and Precision, especially in the fixed. anchor Fenath where the tendon is usualy formed into 8 roughly circular configuration ith steel or polythene spacers and wire bind: Ings, Attention should atz0 be given to the bottom of the tendan and use of 3 sleeve or nose cone which will minimise the sk of tendon’ or borehole. demage during homing recommended, Homing ‘Any method can be used provided that it wil ensure that the tendon ‘lowered ft 8 steady controlled rate. It is recom: mended that for heavy Mexiblo tendons of {oral weight in excess of 200kg, mechan leally “operated “pulleys or large drums (Lilejohn’ and Truman-Davies, 1974) Be Used to gradually Unres! the tendon into the hole fe has been Tound thet 2001 cape ity enchors, weighing about 10kg/s, re the largest thet ean be handled in restic: ted “stess, e.g. dam crests, "without blaborate handing equipment Uf the borehole grout i preplaced under water, grout dilution. ean occur if the tendon is lowered too quickly. The uve of drums from which to unwind the tendon into the hola is preferable to the use of cranes,” of (Yor ‘vertical anchors) man: handing, as both these methods often cre. i sudden bending of tha tendon which ‘may damage both steel ond protection, Immedietaly prior to homing, the tendon should bo careully Inpectad, and in cor- {ein situations the offeiency of the central- lser/spacer units “may” be judged. by carefully withdrawing the tondan—pror t0 grouting—to observe damege or distor fon, or the amount of smaar, In general the choice of the best Imethous of storage, handling, fabrication, Snd installation of enchor tendons whaly fn exercise in commontonsa, Prestcssing Stoo! and fitnge ere valuable stores, ard Should be tread as such onsiteTho most common and lowest besic cost material used tor fixing and. protect- ing rock anchors is neat” cement grout, The influsnos of cerain grout paremeters fon band’ development has alrendy ‘boon Noted (Littejonn and. Bruce, 1978) "and information on grout mines and grouting procedures os used in rock anchor practice SS now reviewed, and recommended qual Grout composition Coment “The type of coment wsed will obviously very from contract to contract 9s dictated by ground conditions end the installation programme. Thus, while Ordinery Portiand Cement (Type i) may suffen in. meny ceses, a sulphate-esistng (Type Il), or a rapid ‘hardening varity (Type il) may be fequired. tn Britain Ordingy ‘and Rapid Hardoning. Cements must. Comply with BBS 12 and High Alumine Cement with the felovant clauses of 89°12 and 195. It is fecommended that high slumins cement be restricted to short erm test enchors, in View of the use of high water eament rtioe "GROUTS AND GROUTINGI= © Gai NaLSasaTy 16 SURBRET? OLD Sinco coment surface areas. (and the {ore particle sizes) are normally controled by specification, the moat likely doteror ation in cement quality may be due to fage or poor storage, when patil dehy Gration or carbonation moy lead to part la agglomeration and reduction in post Imix hyération. Although large sizes may be removed by sieving, it is lkely thet better contro! mey be exercised by in sisting on fresh ‘cement. end by earetul Storage. Ideally cement’ should’ not be stored on site for more than one, month fand must be kept below 40 deg. C, under cover. Cement should be used in order of Selvery Water Water which is eutable for drinking (ex: opt for the presence of boctera) Is gen frlly considered suitable for cement grout formulation. Water ‘contsning” sulpeetes ("04 per cant), chides (> 08 pet Cent). sugars or suspended ‘matter o'. algae must be considered technically dan fgerous. High chloride content should. be Particularly avoided: where the steel ten: on is in contact with the grout Where there is some doubt a8 to the SSRIS Sloe SP Nae rea ter watt noting tn ete’ may Seamus ee i Ta fact ie troponeh else ‘ocean a gout rhe a heal at fs Betnon ipa Geet eee fraps exes wuar eros Bans eat Benge ates teases Cet eet Surely, unt th ey fae Mee ign ents nanan St Sse OE goat ees ee Tole Phas bat propose inate a tange of wie wekeer aces weer recomended soso el or Aco a aid as ta See wh steer nay obo pamped oat Placed en inode ens acta fore aes at Admixtures ‘The use of inert “filer” such as ground ‘quartz, limestone dust. fine. sand, clay. 4nd even Sawdust, hos long been common particulary in Europe, The resutent mixes have been used primarly to waterproot ‘TABLE VII, RANGE OF W/C RATIOS RECENTLY USED OR RECOMMENDED Wienie ow xpondiogenentrguces Garena 197) omoe Facommencuton Conte cen) ot oe os Ureejnn (972) Soe SO Neoore perme futoce Sears (2 Soo See facommendebon near nyar (172) Cama oat, acorn sa 979) err econ we (979) osous panes acne = Ground Anchor (970 TABLE Vill COMMON CEMENT ADMIXTURES FOR ANCHOR GROUTS ‘Admixture Chemical Optimum dosage Remarks (th of coment by weight) Recelersior Galen 2% “Accelerates eat Chloride ‘and hardening Retarder Calcium ‘Also increases Cegnosulphonsto 208% fuidey Tartare cis 105% May affect Suger 01-08% sot strengths Fiuidifier Calcium Ugnesutohonste 02-09% Detergent Enurains Expander Aluminium powder Uw 18% expansion Rowcbleed Galulose ther Equivalent 05% of mixing Aluminium Sulphate up 0 20% enteaine air0 (COMPRESS STRENGTH We Qo ae os_ aa WATER CEMENT RATIO oy went Fig. 4. (above). fact of water content on grout properties Fig, 5, (right). Gain in strength of see routs ‘ar consolidate boreholes prior to redriling = yole in which nest cement groute may be’ uneconomic. Such filers ara. seldom employed howover in grouts used for ten- don bonding "With expect to anchor grouts, chemical scmixtures ‘have often. been employed Pantculary those to prevent shrinkage, 10 Dermit a reduction of the w/e ratio while fencuring Mudity, to accolrate or retard Setting, and to prevent blaeding which in ttn diacourages corrosion. Table Vil lists common types of admixtures employed in ‘routs. Care should bp taken however Snaute that the basic grout materials are Compatible and except under carefully Considered and contralled conditions, aif rent types of edmixture should not be included in the same. grout. For example, {tumbxtures such as calcium chiride should fot be used with euiphate esisting, super Sulphate or high lumina ‘cement. Caleium Chloride ean azo ‘corrode steel in contact ‘withthe geout and to avoid this potential hozard the authors recommend that use Gt ths aémxture shouls be banned in ‘chor grouting. ‘Geddes and’ Soroka (1968)- conclude that aluminium-based expanding agents Improve grout workability while increasing the “confined” compressive strength (Le ‘where expansion hae been red on Setting). This latter eMfect increases the Bond capacity ‘of the grout which hat been illustrated “oxperimentally by 3 re duction in bond varamiasion langth. Lage land Pender [1861] have also favoured the tse of aluminium powder in an amount of 0.005 per cont by waight of cement sod thoy sepuate. that Bleeding. was, also im hibited, Pendor et af (1853) advocate thet 22 par cant expansion of grout volume desitabie thie Sgure ean Be attained by Using 0002-0.005 per cant slominium pow er However, a warning on the. use of aluminium powder her Been sounded by —ReSSTaNCE 10 FLOW ISHEAR STRENGTH oye?) | oe. oreurs Il ] | stones 5 Bey 4 eS Be Lax COMPRESS¥vE STRENGTH Im’ | T gE Eom oo Moy (1973). While confirming the findings of Leech and Pender, he emphosises the {reat sensitivity of grout mix properties {othe amount of sluminium pawder added and its efficiency of dispersion and mix- ing. For example, slightly lager dosages ‘of powder can give 8 markedly sponsy ‘nd crumbly grout in’ Britain, some success has been achieved with calcium lignesulphonate as ‘rout ficifer, when used at 2. concen: {ration of 003 per cont by weight of ce ‘mont. In this way a pumpable low w/e Grout—O3—een "be ‘savslectonly pro: ‘duced for anchors, installed in water Sen: ‘tive maria and shales. in tock sncnoring, rout bleed seldom recaives consideration despite. Its great Importance in corrosion protection, Anti= blood additives besea on cellulose. ethers have been successful employed (0.9. Maddox ota 1967: 02 per cont by weight of coment), elthough slightly lower grout rushing stiengths and higher inital grout Wiscosiies result. They found Trom Feld tests that the inal mix gave negligible Settlement at the top” of the tendon, and Complste grout caver free rom fissures oF ‘water filed lenses. Commercial products 9 resily avalabie 29d Celseo! M000DS land Methocel -SSHG4000 are recom: ‘ended. for consideration. Dosages. are hormally exoreaued ee a porcentage of the fixing water, rather than the coment, and ary" eceording to the viseosity grade of the, ‘material’ For" example Celacol [MB00008 and’ equivalent grades are nor- mally added at a tate of O.4-05 per cont By weight of water. in” goneral, considerable international agreement on the use of admixtures ie fanperant For instance, the use af chloride bearing compounds. is benned in Britain, Germany. Franee, ‘Switzerland, Italy and the United States, CP 110 supulates thet fadmixtures may be pormitted only when 365 DS ‘experience has shown that their use im- proves the quality of the grout". Nitrates, Sulphides, and sulphates ore also banned ‘and total expansion should ‘not exceed 10:per cent. In'Germany, the use of any additive is rare, and only those whieh Inoresse work ability” of. the grout. ‘are employed Maseardi [1973] stater that Ia fly mod. rately expending additives are used but fir entrainng of metallic expending types fre banned, a8 are rapid harcening agent, Wit {1973} considers thot sand, and. an- tibleed and expansion agents are secept: ble in the United States, wherees White [1373] ‘iscourages the use of anything ‘other than cement. grouts. Avery com prehensive survey of out admixtures has been propered by the American Concrete Ineeiute (1971), snd i recommended to the interested reader in ‘summery, it may be concluded that the’ use of admixtures for grovte is stil ory much an art. Even the manulacturers have ‘elatively Tile practical experience of thoir use Tor rock anchoring, Conse: quently, whenever s new mix ie designed Sr adopted, the folowing most be recor oe (i), water/coment 1 (i) aemixtura concentration, (ii) ow reading (through flowmeter, flow cone or viscometer) (iv) crushing strengths (two cubes esch) 513, 7, 14 and 28 days, and (¥) notes ‘on amount of free expansion or shrinkage, bleed and fina setting Evan if the design ie satissctory unless the coment and admixture ig delivered on ste voady mixed, very careol supervision ff the grout mixing personnel is essential Hence the oneral indication ie that 2 ‘mixtures should be Used only where ab: Solutely necessary.— Grout crushing strength Some grout properties have already been allused to—pumpabilty, slight ox Pension on setting, a minimum w/c, and Fesistance to bleeding. In. addition, the ‘rushing strength requirements sre of fun emental importance {CP 110 totes thet grout used for pro: strossed concrete work must nave. com. pressive strength in excess of T7N/mmn! 5-7 days. Normally higher strengths ar Specified for stressing, and Liejahn i972) ‘fnde thet 28N/mm* is favoured in Britain. A survey of world practice re Vests that this figure is in fact commen In many countries, although Mascara) (Italy) feels that 35N/mm? is necessary (w/e < 045) ‘whist PCI [1974} recommends a ‘minimum value of 238 /mm* Tele notewortny that Thompson [1970] describes now satisfactory anchors were Installed ot the Jana Holle Bankhead Dar, Alabama, with a grout of 28 day strength of 17N/mm*, However, the serves s3. 9 reminder that low strength geouts are only 2eptable I rigid, competont rocks where ‘arching’ mechanisms. of the particulate grout "zen be moblised, whereas high Strength routs "are necessary in salt, Yielding rocks. (general a major disadvantage of ce- iment grouts, even when admixtures. are Used, isthe time required for the grout 10 ‘velop Tul operational strength (see Fie 5). Other problema are associated with ‘slow tonsle strangth, brite nature, snd Inatallaton in adverse’ conditions. How- ‘over, where time ond bond length are nat festricting factors especially where large Snnuler volumes ore involved—no eco: omic. substitute to cement grout is valable ‘Mixing The outhors recommend that to ensure ‘900d practice, the following fundamental points should be observed Te the eoment (end filers whore. appl cee) must be measured by weight 2, Water should be added t0 the. mixer before the cement (and filers) and any ‘admixtures should be added with great fare usually during. the latter hall of the mixing time 3, Although the mixing time depends on the type of mixer, the total time should hot.Be less than 2 minutes secording fo cP 110. 4. Mixing by hand ig t0 be strongly dis coureges ‘The eauipment must be able to produce ‘grout of unifonn consistency. end should Rave two drums or tanks: one for mixing, the other for storage and delivery. In order to aveld heating of the grout, slow agi ‘on only le permissible in the storage tank Fate of shear during mixing le perticul- aly important and itis noteworthy that the most common type of grout mixer, Comprising an impellor in 8 tank, combines two major effects which influence the sf ciency of mixing—circulation and uid Shear These are essentally incompatible, Since a large slowly rotating impelior wil produce 6 high efulating capacity. and fow shear rete, while 9 small rapidly ro- tating impelor wil yield 8 high shear rate Sand Tow circulating capacity. For cement ‘routs of low w/e ratio shear rato Is a Ertical Tector In mising snd ideally pellor speeds of 15002000 rpm are re (ured, In tis connection on ideal type of mixer ig"the Colorete double. crum mixer bleh circulates the grout through # cen- trfugal_ pump. The grout fecieulsted {through @ zone of high shear with suicint Impact to. break down lightly bonded clusters or agglomerates, and provide maximum. interaispersion of water and ‘Where conventions! paddle. mixers are employed, fold snalya indicates thet the, bast results sre ‘obtained when the adds are cut with slots, and wher Siotted baffle plates are fited sround the Perimeter of the tank or drum. Experience suggests that the actual mix ing in tho field is. generally satsfactory but thor often the strainer between the two tonks is 100. small_of eosily clogged. In Such” ceses, unstrained ond’ lumpy. grout Overfows into the delivery tank. and hance into the borehole, In addition exit points. should be ited at the base of ks t9 avoid Tormstion of coment cake tithe Bottom, The use of ropid “snep-of!” couplings permite the quick removal of ebstrustions tien wend ta form in bends of flexible Pipes or at constrictions. tis noteworthy fhat right steel pipes do not allow the position of the obstruction to be quickly Bscortaine. Finally its an elementary yet important observation that @ high standerd of ee Tiness of grout mixing ang pumping equ: ment ig usuelly associated with simpler and more eficient grouting operations. Grouting methods ‘Thore are basically two distinct modes of anchor grouting, namely by twortaee single-stage inaction, Twossage gtovting involves frst inject ing ® “primary” mix 10 elfect the Bond between tendon "end rock. After final stressing, a. "secondary" phase. is into ‘duced, largely forthe corrosion protection fof the free lengtn. In the one-stage sys: tom, both functions of the grout ae sim Ultsneously performed In tworstage injactions the primary ‘grout may be preplaced 0° postplaced with fospect t0 the introduction of the tendon Postpiacing can be advantageous. when dealing with lsrge, tendons” end. poor “Stabby” rock, and ie the only cholce for very sholiow oF upwards-inclined anchors t is good practice to. anaure that the primary "grout extends. for” at least 2m fbove the designed fixed anchor length Thig Inhibite erack formation in the prox imal ond of the anchorage: during stres Ing, Where the primary grout is prepieced the. tendon should be homed within 30 ‘minutes of the injection. Even after the fendon hae been correctly homed, prob- Tome have been experienced ‘with rout) tendon bond evelopment and. opinions Currently aifer as to whether the tendon Should be let statle ‘steer homing (FP, 41993) or vibrated (Standords Avsociation, Australia, 1974), ‘Secondary grouting is ususlly accom- plished with 9 mix of the primary composi- tion although Mitchell (1978) recommends that £0 ensure complete freedom of tendon ‘movement, on American practice of back. fing’ the tee length with sand, sand. and fravel, weak grout, or stone. chippings, ‘should be adopted ‘At tho present time the two-stage eye: tom ig move common in practice, but Nas ‘certain disadvan (2) on additional interface is created ot the top of the fixed anchor and is considered. to" bea prime target for corrosive agencies, mone (0) “tho oxdet quantity and quality of the vital primary batch is aifieutt to Judge ‘without careful checking, and (c) a two-stage method is. intrinsically ‘more time-consuming end laborious. Single-stage methods. are freo from these problems. However it must bo noted that Unless tho. foe tendon length Is moticulously greased: before. sheathing all {he load applied at the head will not be franemitted to. the intended "anchorage Zone. due to frletlon in the fee. snchor fength (On the proctical side, belore grouting commences, it's advisable to check the aitightness of ll pipes involved, and the tramie pipe—fexible and usualy 12-25mm in diamoter—should be blown and flushes ‘with worer ‘Both hole and tendon should be thorough: ly watershed Irom the bottom upwerds for at least 10 minutes prior to grouting Ine. grout is to be postoloced tho treme pipe mey be convenentiy incorporsted In the. tendon, “but. terminating at leest Somes tam the foot Grout should be wremied at a steady rate. and the pipe, i not incorporsted in {the tondon, may be withdrawn slowly dur. Ing the operation. At no time must either the end of the tube be lifted above the surface of the grout or the level of grout in the pump storage tank be allowed to Crop below that of the exit pipe, otherwise Siemay be drawn into the grout placed in the single-stage method or during the secondary phase of a two-stage injaction {grouting should continue until grout of th Sse. composition ae that mixed hes bean emerging Tom the hole for Bt Toast 1 min ‘Tho Austtlian Code recommends thet In is praterable to provide 8 standpipe dur. ing grouting 0 thet grout shrinkoge will ‘cour in this pipe and ot in the hole. In ny case itis traditionally regarded as good practice, particulary in relation to cams, fov"top up" anchor holes whore necessary, 4 fow daya after the major grouting 0p: Grouting pressures ‘Tho general conclusion amongst special lst contractors is that high grout pressures re completely unnecessary for euceese- {ut smehore in intact rock ‘but useful for anchors in badly Tissuced rock Analysis of he dete received suggests thet grouting 4% Haro UmesToNe 5 = Sano ano Graver 3 = OT GRR 2270 at uTIMATE capactTY ‘00700 Woo 2700 2800 500 PRESSURE OF GROUTING (Nine Fig. 6. Anchor ietance related to, (ate Sleanhe, 1570) 9