1,5, Complete Spaces u Exercise 1.5.3. Show that completeness is not a topological property; i.e., there exist homeomorphic metric spaces X and Y such that X is complete but ¥ is not. Exercise 1.5.4. The diameter of a set S in a metric space is defined by diam(S) = sup,yes [7y|. Prove that a metric space X is complete if and only if it possesses the following property. If {X,} is a sequence of closed subsets of X such that X41 C Xq for all n, and diam(X,) + 0 asn — 0, then the sets X, have a common point. Show that the assumption diam(X,) — 0 is essential. Proposition 1.5.5. Let X be a metric space and Y C X. Then (1) FY as complete, then Y is closed in X. (2) If X is complete and Y is closed in X, then Y is complete. The following two exercises provide useful tools for proving completeness of some spaces. Exercise 1.5.6. Let {zn} be a Cauchy sequence in a metric space. Prove that (a) If {an} has a converging subsequence, then it converges itself. (b) For any sequence {én} of positive numbers there exists a subsequence {yn} of {2p} such that |ynyn+i] < €n for all n. Exercise 1.5.7. Let {z,}92. be a sequence in a metric space such that the series 2% |zm2qi1| has a finite sum. Prove that {rn} is a Cauchy sequence. Exercise 1.5.8 (fixed-point theorem). Let X be a complete space, 0 << Land let f : X — X be a map such that |f(z)f(y)| < Aryl for all z,y € X. Prove that there exists a unique-point zy € X such that f(x) = x9. Hint: Obtain zo as the limit of a sequence {aq} where a1 is an arbitrary point and tn; = f(tn) for all n> 1 The following simple proposition is used many times in this book. Proposition 1.5.9. Let X be a metric space and X' a dense subset of X. Let ¥ be a complete space and f : X’ + Y a Lipschitz map. Then there exists a unique continuous map f : X > Y such that f\x. = f. Moreover f is Lipschitz and dil f = dil f. Proof. Let C be a Lipschita constant for f. For every z € X define f(z) € ¥ as follows. Choose a sequence {tn}22, such that 2, € X! for all n, and 2, — x as n — 00. Observe that {f(2,)} is a Cauchy sequence in Y. Indeed, we have |f(#i)f(zj)| < Claix;| for all i,j, and |aiz;| + 012 1. Metric Spaces as i,j — 00 because the sequence {zn} converges. Therefore the sequence {f(an)} converges; then define f(z) =limn—oo f(tn)- Thus we have defined a map f : X — Y. Then the inequality (F(x)F(e')| < C|xa'| for 2,2’ € X follows as a limit of similar inequalities for f. Indeed, if 2 = limzp, 2! = lima), f(x) = lim f(tn), f(z’) = lim f(z},), then Vile) A(c')| = him, [f en) F(@)| SC Jim lanay| = Cleyl. Therefore f is Lipschitz, (and hence continuous) and dil f < C. The uniqueness of f is trivial: if two continuous maps coincide on a dense set, then they coincide everywhere. o Completion. Inside a metric space there is an operation of taking closure that makes a closed subset out of an arbitrary subset. The following theorem defines a similar operation that makes a complete metric space out of a noncomplete one. Theorem 1.5.10. Let X be a metric space. Then there exists a complete metric space X such that X is a dense subspace of X. It is essentially unique in the following sense: if X' is another space with these properties, then there exists a unique isometry f : X = X’ such that fly = Definition 1.5.11. The space X from the above theorem is called the completion of X. Proof of Theorem 1.5.10. Let X denote the set of all Cauchy sequences in X. Introduce the distance in ¥ by the formula {an}, {Yn}) = lim, endin|- It is easy to check that, if {x} and {yn} are Cauchy sequences, then {|rn¥nl} is either a Cauchy sequence of real numbers or |tntn| = 00 for all large enough n. Therefore the above limit always exists. Clearly d is a semi- metric on ¥. Define X = X/d (see Proposition 1.1.5 and a remark after it). ‘There is a natural map from X to X, namely let a point c € X be mapped to a point of X represented by the constant sequence {x}, Since this map is distance-preserving, we can identify X with its image in X (formally, change the definition of X so that points of X replace their images). This way X becomes a subset of X. It is dense because a point of X represented by a sequence {rq} is the limit of this sequence (thought of as the sequence in X c X). The uniqueness part of the theorem follows from Proposition 1.5.9 applied to the inclusion maps from X to X and X’. Oo1.6. Compact Spaces 1B Baire’s theorem. Definition 1.5.12. A set Y in a topological space X is nowhere dense if the closure of Y has empty interior. Equivalently, Y is nowhere dense in X if the interior of X\Y is dense. By plugging in the definitions of closure and interior, one obtains the following description: Y is nowhere dense if and only if any open set U contains a ball which does not intersect Y, Theorem 1.5.13 (Baire’s theorem). A complete metric space cannot be covered by countably many nowhere dense subsets. Moreover, a union of countably many nowhere dense subsets has a dense complement. Remark 1.5.14. An equivalent formulation is: in a complete space, an intersection of countably many sets whose interiors are dense (in particular, an intersection of countably many open dense sets) is dense. Remark 1.5.15. A union of countably many nowhere dense sets may not be nowhere dense. For example, consider QC R as a union of single points. Proof of the theorem. Let X be a complete metric space and {¥;}72, be a countable family of nowhere dense sets. We have to show that any open set U C X contains a point which does not belong to U2, %i. Since ¥; is nowhere dense, there is a (closed) ball B; C U which does not intersect Y1. Since Y» is nowhere dense, there is a closed ball Bz C By which does not intersect Y2. And so on. This way we obtain a sequence B; > Bz D>... of closed balls where each ball B; has no common points with the respective set Y;. We may choose the radii of the balls Bj so that they converge to zero. Then the centers of the balls form a Cauchy sequence. The limit of this sequence belongs to all balls and therefore does not belong to any of the sets ¥;. o 1.6. Compact Spaces Recall that a topological space X is called compact if any open covering of X (that is, a collection of open sets that cover X) has a finite sub-collection that still covers X. The term “compact sct” refers to a subset of a topological space that is compact with respect to its induced topology. Definition 1.6.1. Let X be a metric space and ¢ > 0. A set SC X is called an e-net if dist(x, S) < ¢ for every 2 € X. X is called totally bounded if for any € there is a finite e-net in X. Exercise 1.6.2. Let X be a metric space, Y C X ande>0. A set SEX is called an e-net for Y if dist(y, S) < for all y € Y. Prove that, if there is an e-net for Y, then there exists a (2e)-net for Y contained in Y.“4 L. Metric Spaces Exercise 1.6.3. Prove that (a) Any subset of a totally bounded set is totally bounded. (b) In R", any bounded set (that is, a set whose diameter is finite) is totally bounded. Exercise 1.6.4. A set S in a metric space is called ¢-separated, for an € > 0, if |zy| > € for any two different points z,y € S. Prove that 1 If there exists an (¢/3)-net of cardinality n, then an é-separated set cannot contain more than n points. 2 A maximal ¢-separated set is an e-net. ‘The following theorem gives a list of equivalent definitions of compact- ness for metric spaces. The last one is the most important for us. Theorem 1.6.5. Let X be a metric space, Then the following statements are equivalent: (1) X is compact. (2) Any sequence in X has a converging subsequence. (3) Any infinite subset of X has an accumulation point. (4) X is complete and totally bounded. The following properties are known from general topology. Proposition 1.6.6. Let X and Y be Hausdorff topological spaces. Then (1) If S CX is a compact set, then S is closed in X (2) If X is compact and SC X is closed in X, then S is compact. (3) If {Xn}921 is a sequence of compact sets such that Xn4i C Xn for all n, then the (\2, Xn #0. (A) A subset of R" is compact if and only if it is closed and bounded. (5) If X is compact and f : X + Y is a continuous map, then f(X) is a compact set. (6) If X is compact and f : X + Y is bijective continuous map, then f is @ homeomorphism. (7) If X is compact and f : X —-R is a continuous function, then f attains its maximum and minimum. The property of R" expressed in the fourth statement is known as boundedly compactness. Definition 1.6.7. A metric space is said to be boundedly compact if all closed bounded sets in it are compact.