WEEK 4: GENEALOGICAL PROOF AND DNA TESTING

Welcome to Week 4

This week we'll look at the issue of genealogical proof and explore
the use of DNA testing in genealogical research.

4.1

WELCOME TO WEEK 4 VIDEO (01:34)

4.2

WHAT WILL WE LEARN? ARTICLE

Principles of Genealogical Proof

Understanding the Genealogical Proof Standard and evaluating

sources.

4.3

THE PRINCIPLES OF GENEALOGICAL

PROOF VIDEO (13:16)

4.4

THE IMPORTANCE OF ESTABLISHING PROOF

AND THE GENEALOGICAL PROOF
STANDARD ARTICLE
4.5

EVALUATION OF EVIDENCE ARTICLE

4.6

GATHERING AND EVALUATING EVIDENCE FROM

LESS OBVIOUS SOURCES ARTICLE

4.7

DISCUSSION: EXPERIENCE EVALUATING

GENEALOGICAL SOURCES DISCUSSION

Genetic Genealogy

An introduction to the use of DNA testing in genealogical research

practice.

4.8

GENETICS AND GENEALOGY: PRINCIPLES OF

GENETIC INHERITANCE VIDEO (04:24)

4.9

HOW AUTOSOMAL DNA TESTING CAN HELP

GENEALOGISTS ARTICLE

4.10

GENETICS AND GENEALOGY: Y CHROMOSOME

INHERITANCE VIDEO (02:17)
4.11

GENETIC GENEALOGY: PRACTICAL

APPLICATIONS VIDEO (12:30)

4.12

FINDING OUT MORE ABOUT GENETIC

GENEALOGY ARTICLE

4.13

DISCUSSION: CASE STUDIES IN TACKLING

BRICK WALLS WITH GENETIC
GENEALOGY DISCUSSION

What's in a name?: 'The Patersons'

The fourth part of the story following Chris as she researches her
family history

4.14

WHAT'S IN A NAME?: 'THE PATERSONS' VIDEO

(05:52)

4.15

DISCUSS THE STORY DISCUSSION

End of week tasks

Activities to conclude the fourth week of the course.
4.16

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNT IN WEEK 4? QUIZ

4.17

HOW IS IT GOING SO FAR? ARTICLE

Welcome to Week 4
150 comments

4.1 In this week, we’ll be considering more fully some points

which were raised in Week 1 around the notion of
‘genealogical proof’ and proof standards.

The importance of proof and that each family and individual

relationship traced must be justified by evidence will be explored
and this will involve thinking about the evaluation of sources and
considering which sources are high quality and which are less
reliable.

The topic of genetics and genealogy and the use of DNA testing in
helping you to develop your family tree will be introduced. We’ll
cover different types of tests that can be done and how they can
help with overcoming research brick walls and with making
connections with unknown relations.

In the downloads section below, you will find the answers for the
learning activities from Week 3.

Transcript 0:08Skip to 0 minutes and 8 secondsHello, and a warm

welcome to week four of your course
0:11Skip to 0 minutes and 11 secondsGenealogy: Researching Your
Family Tree. This week we're going to be exploring, more fully, concepts around
the idea of proof, and proof standards. We'll be discussing the importance of proof,
and how each family, and individual relationship traced, must be justified by
evidence. And so this will include thinking about the evaluation of sources, and
considering which sources may be more reliable, and which you may want to put
less trust in. So we'll be asking you to comment on specific cases that we'll
present, concerning the questions about whether the proof presented is reliable, or
not. Then we're going to move on to the topic of genetic genealogy, and the use of
DNA testing in helping you develop your family tree.
1:00Skip to 1 minute and 0 secondsSo, we'll introduce this concept, and
discuss the different types of tests that can be used, and how they can help with
overcoming research brick walls, and with making connections with possibly
unknown relatives. This is a relatively new area of genealogical research, and it's
very fast-developing and moving. But it's an important tool. But we find that it's best
used in conjunction with traditional genealogical research methods, and we'll be
talking about this as well. So we hope you enjoy the week.

© University of Strathclyde

4.2 What will we learn?

77 comments

In Week 4 we’ll explore how to analyse and build upon the

information found during the research process moving on
from the searching technique discussions from week two.

Genealogists need to be sure they have found the ‘right’ person

and we will cover some of the ways genealogists decide if they’ve
found the best match in the records for an individual. It’s also
important to know when you’ve done enough research to come to
a reasonable decision on a match and the Genealogical Proof
Standard has good guidance on this. We’ll introduce this standard
in this week’s steps.

After completing this week, you should begin to be familiar with:

1. The principles of genealogical proof with an introduction to

the Genealogical Proof Standard
 2. How to narrow down possible matches
3. Thinking laterally around brick wall issues problems
4. The use of DNA testing in genealogical research
Study Groups
Choose the study group tab at the top of any step to access your
study group for this course.

Your study group is a place to get to know your fellow learners a

bit better, to support and encourage each other, and to discuss
what you’re learning in depth with the same set of people during
the course.

It’s also a place for collaboration. You can visit this group
whenever you like, but for most weeks we will ask you to complete
some research or searching tasks or to discuss an idea
specifically within your study group. This is strictly optional for this
course but doing the tasks and/or collaborating is a great way to
really solidify your learning. So why not take this opportunity to say
hello?

© University of Strathclyde

4.3 The principles of genealogical proof

193 comments

This video introduces the various elements of the

Genealogical Proof Standard and considers why basing your
research in proof is essential.

We’ll also consider whether you can safely use pre-existing

research.
The document that features in this video is available in the
‘Downloads’ section below

Transcript 0:08Skip to 0 minutes and 8 secondsSo we're going to look at

the principles of genealogical proof right now, and try to get our heads around
those. So these encompass questions about why is proof essential? And the
question of should I or can I use pre-existing research? And then we'll look at
what's called the Genealogical Proof Standard, and give an introduction to that. It's
an important standard that's being used by genealogists around the world now. So,
why is proof essential? Basically so you can be sure that you've found the right
ancestor. It's all too easy to find a name that matches and add that person on to
your family tree.
0:58Skip to 0 minutes and 58 secondsOnly to discover later that there
were five people in that area with the same name and perhaps the same dates.
And you've unfortunately chosen the wrong person, and followed the rabbit down
the wrong rabbit hole. So proof and consideration of different names, and following
those is really-- is quite essential for your confidence levels. As well as other
people being confident in your work. You don't want your family to come back and
look at your work later and go, "hmm actually they didn't get the right person". And
so that, also, that you can come back to work with confidence, as well.

1:46Skip to 1 minute and 46 secondsSay you take a break and come

back to your work later, and are thinking, well where did I actually find that fact?
What proof do I have that that person lived in that area, and had that occupation?
How do I know that? So, proof is about the sources that you used, but it's also
about writing down where you found things as well. And there's a question of--
should you use pre-existing research? And I would say yes, but use it with caution.
And also acknowledge that work of other people.

2:25Skip to 2 minutes and 25 secondsSo, if you've talked to someone

and found some information on your family line that someone else has come up
with, make sure that you acknowledge that source in your family tree, and give that
person credit for that. But, as we were saying earlier in some of these lectures,
family trees that have been created by other people can have information in them
that's not correct. But also published family histories as well. Things that have been
published in books, you know-- articles, can be wrong. So you need to double
check what other people have done, and don't just take it-- "It's in black and white
so it must be true." Not the truth.

3:08Skip to 3 minutes and 8 secondsSo some things to look for in other

people's work is-- have they used primary sources? Have they told you what
sources that they-- have they used? And are those sources good ones, in your
opinion? So those are some of the ways to consider the validity of what other
people have done. So I would suggest to use them as a place that get ideas for
where to go with your family research, but not as an end point in and of
themselves. You must question and veri-- verify research that other people have
done. So the Genealogical Proof Standard, what is it?

3:47Skip to 3 minutes and 47 secondsWell, it grew out of the idea that

the preponderance of evidence, or the balance of probabilities used in civil legal
cases. And the American Society of Genealogists back in the 1960s published
some work around this idea, and were promoting this idea of a preponderance of
evidence being used to-- to solve genealogical cases. And since that time period
more work has been done on what a standard of proof should be. And in 2000 the
American Board of Certification of Genealogists published a manual, called the
"Genealogical Standards Manual", that laid out, in great detail, a number of these
standards, which has now been reworked by several other authors, and there are
five main points.

4:43Skip to 4 minutes and 43 secondsBut really it's a set of logical,

procedural steps that good genealogists have followed for many, many years and
will continue to follow as well. But just to go through the specific points of what the
standard is. There-- yeah, I was saying there's five main points, and we'll go
through each one in detail here. First one is-- has the research been what's called
reasonably exhaustive? And that asks you to examine a wide range of a high
quality sources in an organised way. And it gets you to look at what name
variations there might be, and we know that there are many name variations, and
also consider possible confusion with other matches.

5:36Skip to 5 minutes and 36 secondsThis goes back to-- do you have

five possible matches, and making sure that you choose the highest probable one.
And it's not always possible to know 100%-- sometimes you might have two strong
contenders-- but as long as you've considered the issues around those that's a
good way to going-- to knowing that your research has been reasonably
exhaustive. So the sources that you use for these will vary by the question that
you're trying to answer, and the place that you're looking at.

6:09Skip to 6 minutes and 9 secondsSo what I would perhaps suggest

doing is making a list of the most important sources that are regularly used in your
area of study-- your country of interest-- and just ticking them off as you use them
to make sure that you haven't forgotten something. Then also think about adding to
that list and dropping it off-- dropping things off as well. So, has the research been
reasonably exhaustive? Secondly, have you-- have you looked at the information?
Have you analysed and correlated the information that you found? And that means
have you interpreted what the documents are telling you, correctly? Have you
found someone in a census household, and perhaps not found them at the census
household and assumed that they've died?

7:01Skip to 7 minutes and 1 secondBut because the census only is

showing who actually slept somewhere on a particular night doesn't mean that
they've died at all. So think about what the document's truly telling you, and get the
most out of them. Do the documents mean what you think they mean? And does--
perhaps more importantly, does the information agree with other things that you
know about the person? If you found a birth document that has a wildly incorrect
date from what you know about the person but everything else is correct, maybe
that document's not about your person. Or maybe the other information is wrong.
So that's a case where you need to go off and find more-- more documentation.

7:48Skip to 7 minutes and 48 secondsSo thirdly, has conflicting

evidence been resolved? This really follows on from that second point. If you have
more than one possible birth date or birth place. Say you've got varying information
from census records and marriage records. How can you resolve that and find
what you think is the true place? Which is more likely to be correct? And that may
come down to the quality of the source. But you may have to resign yourself to a
probable piece of information-- a birth date for example, or place-- until you find
further information. Until, perhaps, you actually can get the birth certificate, that
kind of thing. So here's an example of a document.

8:40Skip to 8 minutes and 40 secondsIf you were just to take this single
document as proof of a birth date, you would go-- you would have totally the wrong
information in your family tree. So this gentleman, who happens to be my
grandfather, filled in his World War I draft registration form, and he gave his year of
birth-- sorry, his date of birth as June 13, 1887. And that gave them an age of 30 in
1917 when this was taken. Which-- that birth year doesn't agree with any other
source that I have for him. His death certificate tells me that the June 13 is correct,
but his date-- sorry, his year of birth is 1893.

9:30Skip to 9 minutes and 30 secondsWhich-- and that 1893 year

matches up with the other ages on the census records, and a variety of other
sources. So it's far more likely to be 1893 instead of 1887. So my question is, why
did he give the wrong year of birth on the World War I draft registration form, and
thus make himself older? Was it to make himself less likely to have-- to be called
up? So I don't have the answers to these questions, but it's certainly something
that makes me think. But, as I say, if I was just to take that bit of information alone
for his birth information, I would be off on the wrong track. So find other things to
correlate.

10:20Skip to 10 minutes and 20 secondsOK, have your sources been

cited or referenced? Have you written down-- have you noted down what source
you've used to create your family tree? So every statement of fact that you make
has to be referenced, i.e. you have to note down where you got the information
from. And there's a variety of different ways to reference-- to create references.
We'll talk about that elsewhere in the course. But this really shows the sources that
you've used, and it allows other researchers to check your work. But also, if you
come back to the work that you've done in six months time, in a couple of years
time, you'll know where you found that information.
11:06Skip to 11 minutes and 6 secondsAnd you won't be going, "How
on Earth did I know that he was born in Illinois?" You'll know because you'll have
written that down. So, very important. Everything has to be cited or referenced,
however you want to call that. And finally, have you created a reasoned
conclusion? Have you stated your case for the information, and the family line or
the answer to the questions that you wanted to set out to answer? So, you need to
explain how the evidence that you found leads to your conclusions. If you have five
possible people, and you've chosen one of them, tell us why you've discounted
those other people and why you think this one person is the right person.

11:54Skip to 11 minutes and 54 secondsIt really helps if you set out

your arguments in a logical fashion. In doing this, when you have questions of
proof, of say those five potential people may create new avenues of research for
you to go down and try. And a reasoned conclusion can be created through notes
that you take in, say, a family tree software programme. It doesn't have to be you
sitting down with a piece of paper or typing things into a Word document-- word
processing document. It can be done through notes that you've used in software.
But it is often very nice to create a written explanation of the conclusions that
you've come to, because that's often easier for people to read and follow.

12:42Skip to 12 minutes and 42 secondsSo that's the final wrap up for

the Genealogical Proof Standards. So, all things coming together, it allows people
to have confidence in your work. That you've come up with the right conclusion,
and-- or the probably right conclusion. Because as we've been talking about there's
never perhaps 100% in anything. There's always a slight area of inconclusion. But
it really helps set your case out, and make people confident that you've found the
right person.

4.4 The importance of establishing proof and the

Genealogical Proof Standard
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It is a sad fact of family history research that there are usually

no absolute truths when establishing family relationships
(though DNA testing comes close) or discovering what
happened to an ancestor.

Genealogists have to come to terms with the notion of ‘probability’,

i.e. that usually you can only be say 90-95% certain that someone
is your ggggrandfather due to inaccuracies in the records,
common surnames giving a number of possible matches ,
possible illegitimacy and so on.

At some point, we all have to accept the most probable answer

and move on; that means we have to come to terms with a level of
uncertainty that many people are uncomfortable with. However, to
get to the point of accepting the most probable answer to a
research question, there needs to be a preponderance of
evidence supporting that answer. One of the best ways to
establish that you have established proof and reached this level of
evidence is to use the Genealogical Proof Standard (GPS) which
was touched on in the previous video.

The history of the Genealogical Proof Standard

In the 1960s The American Society of Genealogists published

the book Genealogical research: methods and sources which
supported the concept that a preponderance of evidence requires
that ‘the greater weight of the evidence supports your
conclusion’. The British Society of Genealogists also has a list
of principles essential in the conduct of genealogical research
which includes statements such as ‘evidence becoming proof
through a reasoned and logical analysis’ and ‘argument capable of
convincing others that the conclusion is valid’. The Board for
Certification of Genealogists then codified the various
standards of proof into the Genealogical Proof Standard.

The Genealogical Proof Standard

As we saw in the previous video, there are a number of

interdependent points to the Standard. These are that:

 Research has been reasonably exhaustive

 Information has been analysed and correlated
 Conflicting evidence has been resolved
 Sources have been cited or referenced
  A reasoned conclusion has been created

Now some of these points are more difficult to get your head
around than others so we’ll explore a couple more deeply here.

Research has been reasonably exhaustive

This does not mean you have to access and explore every
possible genealogical record that might be of use in answering
your question. This would be pretty impossible given the vast
number of sources available. Thomas W. Jones in his
book Mastering Genealogical Proof offers the following six criteria
to assure you that your research has been ‘reasonably
exhaustive’:

1. that at least two independently-created sources are in

agreement
2. that you have looked at all sources competent genealogists
would examine for that particular question
3. that you have included some primary information
4. that you have included some original records (ie. you have
looked an image of a birth certificate instead of just viewing
the transcription of that certificate)
5. that you have used the primary and original documents
where these are findable instead of relying on transcriptions
or secondary sources which refer to these sources.
6. that you use all findable sources listed in an index or
mentioned in a related source.
A reasoned conclusion has been created

To fully establish proof you must communicate it by writing up your

conclusions. In its most simple format, writing up could consist of a
sentence within a genealogical report, chart or family story. In
situations where you have difficult conflicting evidence to resolve,
you will need to create a more extensive argument which fully
explains the rationale behind your proof and outcomes.

There are three options for presenting a conclusion and which one
you choose will depend on the complexity of the question and
answer.

1. A proof statement: this could be a sentence contained within

a larger report on a family or a piece of data.
2. A proof summary: this could be one or more written pages
containing lists or narratives stating facts that support or lead
to your conclusion
3. A proof argument: this is a documented narrative that
contains an explanation of why the answer given to a
problem should be considered to be proven.

In all cases you must provide references for the data used.

Thomas W. Jones’ excellent guide to the GPS is titled Mastering

Genealogical Proof published in 2013 by the National
Genealogical Society (USA). There is a paperback and an ebook
version available.

The resources in the ‘See Also’ section below can be consulted for
more information on the topic.

© University of Strathclyde

4.5 Evaluation of evidence

77 comments

Some sources can be considered as more reliable than

others; these include records where there was a real personal
incentive to get the information correct or a penalty for
reporting wrong information.

These can include many government created documents such as

birth certificates, military registration records, naturalisation
records and so on. As we’ve heard in previous steps, these
incentives do not mean that everything on the records can be
considered 100% accurate.

In this step and the next, we present three sources and evaluate
them for reliability and for the amount and type of information that
can be gleaned. These were created either by or in relation to two
individuals; George R. HUNT and Alma L. BLOUNT who married
in the 1920s, lived in Shanghai, China and immigrated to
Australia.

The questions to consider for each source are:

1) What information can be gained from this source?

2) How reliable is that information? Can we trust that the source is
telling the truth?
3) After looking at the source what research could we undertake
next?

The source presented here is a document created by officialdom

and thus could be considered more reliable than a source created
by an individual for their own purposes. However, as we’ll see, this
does not mean mistakes are not made.

Source One
1) This is a digital image of a passenger list of alien passengers
bound for the USA created in 1930. Information contained is
extensive and includes names, nationality, ports bound from and
to, last permanent residence, who the individual is joining (if a
friend or relation), condition of health and so on.

2) This is an official source with the information taken by the

purser of the ship and provided to the U.S. immigration officer
upon arrival in the United States. From the 1st of July 1924,
everyone arriving in the USA needed an entry document so a
passenger could not just report whatever they liked to the purser;
the information provided would have to match that of the entry
document. These could be birth certificates for natural born US
citizens, naturalisation papers for naturalised US citizens, or a visa
which would have to be applied for from a U.S. embassy. All of
this means that while mistakes could be made on the lists and
people could have provided false information to the embassy staff,
it is not highly likely.
From knowledge of the family, it can be seen that a small mistake
has been made by the purser who has indicated in line 23 that
George HUNT is to join ‘Sister. Miss Marie Blount, Tempe,
Arizona’ when Marie Blount is his wife’s sister. In Alma HUNT’s
line 23 it is noted that she is to join, ‘Sister-in-law’. It is clear that
this information has been transposed but it is a good reminder not
to take any information at face value.

3) Research to consider next would be tracing the nearest relative

of George HUNT listed in line 17, finding the outgoing passenger
information from the UK for this voyage, finding any trace of visas
created in Shanghai and then any information on their voyage to
Shanghai from the West coast of the United States.

In the next step, we’ll consider two documentary sources which

were not created by government officials and can be thought of as
less obvious genealogical sources.

Additional PDF versions of the documents featured in this article

are available in the ‘Downloads’ section below.

Inline images: U.S. Department of Labor, Immigration

Service. Passenger list for S.S. Majestic departing Southampton,
England 22 October 1930; arriving New York City, USA 28
October 1930. HUNT, Alma and HUNT, George Richardson.
Collection: New York City Passenger Lists, 1820-1957.
http://www.findmypast.com : accessed 26 January 2016.

© University of Strathclyde
4.6 Gathering and evaluating evidence from less obvious
sources
157 comments

Sources that are created by individuals for their own personal

use or reasons could be considered to be less reliable
overall; consider diaries with exaggerated accounts of valour
in battle or meeting one’s husband for the first time.

On the other hand, in many personal records, there would be no

external reason for a person to bend the truth, so you could get
someone reporting their correct age in a diary where they might
subtract five years on a census record.

In this step, we present two sources created by private individuals

and evaluate them for reliability and for the amount and type of
information that can be gleaned. These were created either by or
in relation to two individuals; George R. HUNT and Alma L.
BLOUNT who married in the 1920s, lived in Shanghai, China and
immigrated to Australia.

The questions to consider for each source are:

1. What information can be gained from this source?

2. How reliable is that information? Can we trust that the source
is telling the truth?
3. After looking at the source what research could we
undertake next?
Source One
 1. This is an image of a young couple dressed in fine clothes.
Given the images are placed together in a folder, their
surnames are matching and that there is a date given, it is
possible that this is a photo taken on the occasion of their
marriage.

2. This is a non-official source but there would be no likely

reason for the couple to misrepresent themselves. We don’t
know for sure this is a wedding photograph but the names,
date and place given should be considered as reliable in and
of themselves.

3. Research to consider next would be finding a marriage

certificate and a passenger list to and from Hawaii for both of
the individuals. We could also consider whether the clothing
worn is of the time period, was the photographer listed on
the other side of the document holder active in Honolulu at
the time?

Source Two
 1. This is an image of a page from an eight page letter written
by Alma Blount HUNT to her brother and sisters. (This page
and the following two pages are available in the ‘Downloads’
section below) She describes the aftermath of fighting
between the Japanese and the Chinese in the local area and
details of an upcoming move.

2. This is a non-official source and while there would be no

apparent reason for her to lie, any letter, diary, memoir or
piece of personal writing is subject to the viewpoint and
‘truth’ of the author. Thus the reporting of the historical
events would need to be verified. Also, a letter is a snapshot
of a particular point in time and plans described may not
have ended up happening. More would need to be known
about the relationship between the siblings to know whether
the author is likely to be putting a positive gloss on her news.

3. Research to consider next would be verifying the plans

described in the pages. Can we find Alma in passenger lists
from Shanghai on or around the date outlined? Do other
letters exist which can be used to follow up on any of these
plans. Can she and George be found in Byford, Western
Australia as noted in the letter? Was there fighting in
Shanghai at this time period? [The partial answer to this last
question is that there seemed to be a number of military
actions in this area from the late 1920s. However, further
research is required to pin down the exact timing of the
events Alma describes.]

Summary

As you can see by the above examples and those in the previous
step, much direct and indirect information can be taken from
official and less obvious (un-official) sources and they can pose
many questions for further research. Try looking at the resources
you currently have to see if they have further details to tell you in
regards to your family tree.
Images:
Photograph. Alma Blount HUNT and George R. HUNT 11 January
1925. Honolulu, Hawaii Territory, USA. H. Schultheis
Photography. Private collection of Tahitia McCabe, Glasgow.
Letter[HUNT], Alma (1899-1958). Letter from Alma HUNT at
Shanghai, China to Anna, Paul and Marie BLOUNT at Arizona,
USA. [ca. 1928-1930, letter is undated] Private collection of Tahitia
McCabe, Glasgow, Scotland.

© University of Strathclyde

4.7 Discussion: Experience evaluating genealogical

sources
232 comments

To help gain experience in evaluating sources, we’ve

presented a number of images of American WWII ration
books for you to view and consider for their value and
potential use as genealogical resources.

These documents were donated to the Alaska State Historical

Library by a cruiseship passenger who rescued them from a skip
when his recently deceased neighbour’s house was being cleared.
There were a number of photographs of Alaska in the collection
but the other items (including these books) were outside the
Library’s collecting policy and so were not kept.

The questions to consider for each source are:

1. What information can be gained from this source?

2. How reliable is that information? Can we trust that the source
is telling the truth?
3. After looking at the source what research could we
undertake next?
Document
1 
Document
2 
Document
3 
Document
4 
D 

You may find it helpful to review the material in the previous steps
on the evaluation of evidence and to look at information on WWII
rationing and ration cards at the following webpages:

The National WWII Museum: Rationing for the War Effort

World War II Rationing on the U.S. Homefront

Briefly post in the discussion below or in your study group

discussion forum your thoughts on one or all of these documents
based on the questions posed above. Thoughts on these
documents from the educators will be shared in the Welcome to
Week 5 email.

© University of Strathclyde

4.8 Genetics and genealogy: principles of genetic

inheritance
225 comments

In this video Graham Holton introduces the scientific

principles of genetics that are particularly important for use
in genealogy.

Transcript 0:06Skip to 0 minutes and 6 secondsDNA

testing for genealogy depends on the process of inheritance.
Every human being inherits different parts of their DNA in varying
ways from their parents. Understanding the principles of how this
inheritance takes place is helpful if you're wondering which type of
DNA test you should take to answer specific research questions.
This short video aims to help you understand these important
principles. Human DNA is contained in 23 pairs of chromosomes.
22 of these pairs are called autosomal chromosomes. And the
23rd pair are the sex chromosomes. This video shows how the
inheritance of the autosomal chromosomes is different from the
inheritance of the sex chromosomes.
0:57Skip to 0 minutes and 57 secondsYou can see here
that around 50% of your autosomal DNA is inherited from your
father shown in blue. And 50% from your mother shown in red.
The sex chromosomes work differently. These are named X and Y
with men carrying one X and one Y chromosome and women
carrying two chromosomes. Men inherit the X from their mother
and the Y from their father, as you can see in the case of the son
on the left hand side of the screen. Women inherit the X from their
mother along with a second X chromosome from their father, and
this is shown for the daughter on the right hand side of the screen.
1:42Skip to 1 minute and 42 secondsAlmost all of the Y
chromosome is passed from father to son, but the X chromosome
which is passed on by the mother is a recombination of the X
DNA, which she has inherited from her two parents. This is shown
in the next video, which focuses on the inheritance of the X
chromosome from the mother. You can see that the X
chromosomes from the mother's parents recombine, and this
mixture of X chromosome segments is passed on to the daughter.

2:17Skip to 2 minutes and 17 secondsThe significant

points to draw from these principles are that autosomal DNA is
inherited from all of our recent ancestors, X DNA is inherited from
some, but not all of our ancestors, and Y DNA is inherited only by
an unbroken line of male ancestors. For the moment, we will focus
on autosomal inheritance. The amount of autosomal DNA
inherited from a specific ancestor reduces by around half at each
successive generation. In the video, you can see that children
inherit around 50% of that autosomal DNA from each parent. In
later generations, 25% is inherited from each grandparent, and
12.5% from each great-grandparent. You also need to know that
the segments of DNA inherited by siblings are different.

3:16Skip to 3 minutes and 16 secondsSo the 50%

inherited by one sibling from their mother will be different from the
50% inherited by another sibling. This can be displayed in a utility
called a chromosome browser. Using an example for a male, first
you can see the chromosomes showing the segments of
autosomal DNA inherited from each parent, yellow for the
mother's DNA and blue for the father's DNA. The next image
shows the segments for the same male with those shared with the
father coloured yellow, those shared with the mother coloured
blue, and those shared with a sibling coloured green.

4:02Skip to 4 minutes and 2 secondsNow that you have

some understanding of the scientific principles behind autosomal
inheritance, you're ready to look at how autosomal test results are
interpreted and how they can be used to answer some
genealogical questions.
© University of Strathclyde

4.9 How autosomal DNA testing can help genealogists

179 comments

The most popular type of DNA test for genealogy is now the
autosomal test.

The attraction of an atDNA test is that it can be taken by males

and females, it tests all ancestral lines and can reveal
relationships within a fairly recent timespan of around the last two
hundred years, rather than the much longer timespans often
involved in Y-DNA testing. At present, this test seeks to report
results back to around 5 generations with confidence. Matches are
usually reported in ranges such as 2nd to 3rd cousins, 4th to 5th
cousins, greater than 5th cousins. These results may help you to
investigate unknown cousins and reveal information about
branches of your family which you have been unable to trace
using documentary sources.

An atDNA test does not necessarily disprove a connection which

is thought to have occurred 5 generations or beyond in the past.
Beyond 5 generations, due to the random manner in which atDNA
recombines, you may not have inherited sufficient DNA in long
enough segments from one of your ancestors to be identified with
confidence by the algorithm used in the matching process. On the
other hand, it appears that large segments of DNA can
occasionally be inherited from generations earlier than 5
generations ago, making the predicted relationship closer than it
actually is.

Another issue to be aware of is when cousins marry cousins.

Since they share common grandparents, the amount of shared
DNA can be double the normal expected amount and will make
the predicted relationship appear much closer than it really is.

If a sufficient number of close relatives take this test, it is even

possible to identify which segments of DNA have been inherited
from particular ancestral lines. Identifying which segments of DNA
you have inherited from which parent is called phasing, while the
more advanced process of chromosome mapping aims to link
specific segments of DNA to specific ancestors.

Two other types of data can be reported in this type of test. Firstly,
there is an indication of the percentages of your ancestry which
come from various geographical origins. So, for example, you
might be 75% European, 20% Middle Eastern and 5% East Asian.
Because this data is deduced by comparing your test result with a
database of a world reference population, the reliability of this is
dependent on how representative the reference population is. At
present, this aspect of the results should be viewed with caution.

Finally, information is also given on the X chromosome. Although

this is one of the sex chromosomes and not one of the autosomal
chromosomes, results for the X chromosome are currently
included as part of atDNA test results. X-DNA is inherited from
some, but not all of our ancestors. So far, this component of the
results has not been widely exploited, but may become more
significant as the body of test results and our understanding of
these increases.

It is worth noting that a number of those participating in DNA

testing are finding ways of integrating atDNA test results with Y-
DNA results to tackle unresolved issues and maximise the value
of the two types of tests.

The resources in the ‘See Also’ section below can be consulted for
more information on the topic.

© University of Strathclyde
4.10 Genetics and genealogy: Y chromosome inheritance
118 comments

In this video we take a look at aspects of Y-chromosome

inheritance, DNA testing on this chromosome and its
practical applications for genealogists.

The resources in the ‘See Also’ section below can be consulted for
more information on the topic.

Transcript 0:07Skip to 0 minutes and 7 secondsThe following video

illustrates how the Y chromosome is inherited. John, since he is a male, carries an
X and Y chromosome. He has three sons, James, Jordan, and William, who all
inherit the Y chromosome from their father. John Senior also has a daughter, Ann,
who does not carry the Y chromosome, because females have two X
chromosomes. Each of the three sons also have a son who inherit the Y
chromosome from their father. These three grandsons of John Senior also each
have a son. The Y chromosome has now been passed down three generations
from John Senior to his great grandsons, John, David, and Hugh. It may or may not
have changed in that time. And we will consider this later.
1:09Skip to 1 minute and 9 secondsFinally, going back to John Senior's
daughter, Ann, we see that she married . George. He carries a completely different
Y chromosome to Ann's brothers, and it is this Y chromosome which is inherited by
his son. You can see that because the Y chromosome can only be inherited from
the father, there is an unbroken line of inheritance through which the Y
chromosome passes from father to son, very similar to the way in which surnames
are passed on. This principle of the inheritance of the Y chromosome is very
important to genealogists, as we will see later. The other important feature
connected with the inheritance of the Y chromosome is that it does change or
mutate over a period of time.

2:02Skip to 2 minutes and 2 secondsThis makes it particularly useful for

genealogists. There are two major types of mutation which can take place, and
these will be considered later.

4.11 Genetic genealogy: practical applications

143 comments
In this video we take a look at aspects of autosomal,
mitochondrial and Y-DNA testing and explore their practical
applications for genealogists.

Selected slides from the video are available in the ‘Downloads’

section below. The resources in the ‘See Also’ section below can
be consulted for more information on the topic.

Transcript 0:08Skip to 0 minutes and 8 secondsIn this lecture, we will

look in a little more detail, at the practical use of test results from Autosomal DNA
tests and Y-DNA tests. And briefly explain Mitochondrial testing. Perhaps the first
thing you will notice when you receive results from an Autosomal test, is that you
have a very large number of matches. Probably more than 2000. You may begin to
question whether these are really all relatives, and wonder how you can use your
results to answer your genealogical questions. The answer to the first question is
that probably the vast majority of these individuals are related to you, but in many
cases, fairly distantly.
0:54Skip to 0 minutes and 54 secondsThe testing companies use a
number of criteria to filter out matches which are not true genealogical matches,
which ensures, with a fair degree of confidence, that the matches displayed are
genuine relatives. Each match is given a predicted relationship, such as second to
third cousin, second to fourth cousin, fifth to remote cousin. User experiences are
showing that for more distant relationships, these predictions tend to overestimate
the closeness of the relationship. In other words, a prediction of a second to fourth
cousin is more likely, in reality, to be a third to fifth cousin. Those taking Autosomal
DNA tests may have different questions they wish to answer.

1:44Skip to 1 minute and 44 secondsBut probably, the most common

aims are to discover new relatives and to trace family origins further back in time.
The second aim can become more of a possibility, if you can make contact with
unknown relatives, who may have documentary evidence, or clues, to elderly or
geographical origins, both of which could assist your research. So let's consider
how you can go about identifying new relatives from the very large number of
matches you are faced with. You would be likely to have great difficulty in proving
links with those predicted as third to fifth cousins. So focus in on any individuals
you don't already know, who are predicted as first to second, second to third, or
second to fourth cousins.

2:36Skip to 2 minutes and 36 secondsTaking my own results as an

example, this leaves me with 30 matches to investigate. There is an option to add
a list of ancestral surnames you are interested in, to a test result, along with a
family tree. So the most obvious approach is to look at any ancestral surnames
your matches have listed. If these are the same as any of your own ancestral lines,
it would be worth emailing the individual who is tested to compare research, and
see whether documentary evidence can prove a genealogical link. This is just a
very basic initial strategy. To get more out of your results, you can move on to
getting more of your known relatives tested, beginning, if possible, with parents.

3:25Skip to 3 minutes and 25 secondsIf both your parents have been

tested, it is possible to phase your results, which means, identifying which
segments of DNA you have inherited from which parent. By testing other relatives,
you may be able to attempt chromosome mapping. That is trying to work out which
segments of DNA have come from which ancestors. One particularly useful tool
worth knowing about is GEDmatch.

3:55Skip to 3 minutes and 55 secondsThis makes it possible to compare

results with those who have not tested with the same company as yourself, and
find further matches, perhaps closer than those you already have. GEDmatch
allows the uploading of 80 DNA results from three of the major testing companies
and also offers some additional features to analyse your data. Success in finding
more matches depends on who else has upload their data to GEDmatch, but the
site does merit investigation. An example of how Autosomal testing can be used, is
the case of Alexander Izatt Jones. It was only late in his life that Alexander
discovered that the Mr.

4:40Skip to 4 minutes and 40 secondsJones whom he thought of as his

father, was not his biological father, and he was keen to find out who his biological
father was. Through some initial Y-DNA testing, he had discovered that he was
genetically a Stewart, but the first Autosomal test he took did not provide any
matches close enough to help answer the question of his paternity. However,
testing with another company revealed a close match with Barbara, coloured blue
on the chart, whose paternal grandmother was a Stewart. When Barbara's father
tested, coloured green on the chart, he matched closely enough to be a first cousin
of Alexander Izatt Jones. Research now focused on Barbara's Great Uncle, Willy
Stewart, coloured purple.

5:33Skip to 5 minutes and 33 secondsOne of Willie's daughters, Grace,

coloured red, was located and agreed to test. Her test results revealed enough
matching DNA to confirm that Grace was a half-sister of Alexander. Alexander's
biological father had been identified at last as Willy Stewart. Let's now turn our
attention to Y-DNA tests. These are limited by the fact that they can only be taken
by males, and only refer to an unbroken line of male ancestors. On the other hand,
they have the advantage that they can provide information about this single
ancestral line, going back many generations.

6:15Skip to 6 minutes and 15 secondsAs you saw in the example given

in the short video, the Y chromosome was passed down the male line from John
Senior, to his three great grandsons, John, David, and Hugh. Although the Y
chromosome does occasionally mutate, this only results in small changes. So in
our example, the great grandsons will carry a Y chromosome very similar to their
great grandfather, and for that matter, to their direct male line ancestor several
hundred of years ago. The most commonly used type of Y-DNA test is the STR
test, which aims to find similarities between results.

6:57Skip to 6 minutes and 57 secondsSince closely matching results

indicate descent from a common male line ancestor, STRs, or short tandem
repeats, are repeated patterns of chemical bases, which can be measured in the Y
chromosome. A motif pattern could be repeated perhaps 12 times in sequence at a
specific location on the chromosome. Y-DNA STR tests used for genealogy
measure the number of repeats at selected locations. The most popular tests now
use 37 or 67 locations. A comparison of the 37 marker test results for John, David,
and Hugh show that John and David match exactly, while Hugh has a difference of
one at one of the markers.

7:48Skip to 7 minutes and 48 secondsThis level of matching is what

would be expected and confirms the documentary evidence that they are closely
related, since they are second cousins. You should note, however, that these test
results can only confirm that the relationship is a close one and they are not
precise enough to show that the relationship is that of a second cousin. If test
results, when compared, show major differences, this indicates that the individuals
are either very distantly related or not related. Tables can be consulted, which
indicate what the level of probability is that they shared a common ancestor a
certain number of generations ago.

8:33Skip to 8 minutes and 33 secondsOne other point to be aware of is

that matching of STR results can be very useful for the period from around 1500,
but before that, care is required in interpretation. For the early period, SNP tests
are more important, although it should still be used along with STR results. SNPs,
which is short for single nucleotide polymorphisms, are mutations which occur
when a single chemical base in the DNA changes at a specific location.

9:08Skip to 9 minutes and 8 secondsIn the slide, you can see that the
base has changed from an A, which is carried by Males 2, 3, and 4, to a T, carried
by Male 1. Once this mutation has taken place, it is usually extremely stable, unlike
STRs, which are prone to further changes. Because of the stable nature of SNPs,
they can be used to identify a specific branch of descendants and have become
much more important to genealogists, as technological advances have enabled the
discovery of many more of these. Now using advanced testing techniques, it is
possible to discover SNPs which occurred hundreds of years ago, rather than
thousands of years ago.

9:53Skip to 9 minutes and 53 secondsThis brings us into the era of

recorded history, and can introduce an element of precision into test results.
Whereas previously, using STR testing, the time to the most recent common
ancestor could only be calculated as a percentage probability, SNPs can and have
been pinpointed as occurring in a known historical figure. One example of this is
the SNP CLD51, which indicates descent from the MacDonalds of Kinlochmoidart,
who are descended from John MacDonald, the fifth son of Alan McDonald, ninth of
Clan Ranald, who died in 1593. In addition to Autosomal and Y-DNA tests, there is
another type of test which can be taken by males or females, called a
Mitochondrial test.

10:46Skip to 10 minutes and 46 secondsMitochondrial DNA testing is

the opposite of Y-DNA testing, in that while Y-DNA is passed down from father to
son, Mitochondrial DNA is passed down from mother to children. Although,
Mitochondrial DNA is passed from mother to sons and daughters, it can only be
passed on by daughters. This chart shows how Mitochondrial DNA is inherited.

11:14Skip to 11 minutes and 14 secondsBlue indicates those carrying

the Mitochondrial DNA, but only the females, indicated by the blue circles, can
pass this on. Another difference, and a very important one, from the point of view
of genealogists, is that there are fewer recent mutations reported in Mitochondrial
DNA than with Y-DNA. This means that even an exact match between two
individuals may only show that they probably shared a common female line
ancestor about 400 or 500 years ago.

11:49Skip to 11 minutes and 49 secondsFor this reason, Mitochondrial

DNA is good for telling us which part of the world a female line ancestor lived in
several thousand years ago, but not so good at telling us if we are related to an
individual with a close genetic match, and if so, when the common ancestor lived.
Here's a summary of the tests I have been describing.

© University of Strathclyde

4.12 Finding out more about genetic genealogy

93 comments

Genetic genealogy is certainly the fastest developing area of

genealogy and family history and one of the most challenging
to understand and apply in practice.

Although the foundations of the field have been laid with the basic
types of tests firmly established, there is no doubt that technology
will move on apace. We will soon see more extensive tests,
looking at more of our DNA strand and also more specific tests,
focussing in on closely defined markers.

If you are interested in gaining a greater understanding of this

topic and how test results can be interpreted, there are several
ways of doing this. Because of the rate of change in this area,
books tend to become outdated very soon, but here is a short list
of some useful recent titles:

Aulicino, Emily D. (2014) Genetic genealogy: the basics and

beyond. Bloomington, IN: AuthorHouse.

Bettinger, Blaine. (2019) The Family Tree Guide to DNA

Testing and Genetic Genealogy, 2nd edition. Cincinnati,
Ohio: Family Tree Books.

Holton, Graham S., ed. (2019) Tracing your ancestors using

DNA: a guide for family historians. Barnsley: Pen and Sword
Books.

Kennett, Debbie. (2012) DNA and social networking: a guide

to genealogy in the twenty-first century. Stroud: The History
Press.

There is, however, plenty of reading on the subject to be found

online, as well as websites and videos. Try to be selective about
what you read, because so much is appearing online, of varying
quality. Blogs and Forums can contain the writings of those with
little real understanding of this complex subject and also
contributions from experts which may be very difficult to
understand. The following suggestions should guide you to some
of the better material.

One of the most reliable websites is the ISOGG site

(International Society of Genetic Genealogy) which includes
the important ISOGG Wiki. Blogs are another useful source to
gain greater understanding, if used with care and some worthwhile
ones are listed below.

Should you feel drawn to more formal study, a number of courses

are available and can be found be searching the Internet. The
University of Strathclyde runs its own short online
courses which each last for eight weeks and provide an
introduction to the principles of the subject and the interpretation
of basic test results.

As your understanding grows, you will find that the interpretation

of results can be greatly assisted by the use of various online
utilities. These can automate a number of the otherwise tedious
and time consuming calculations you will probably want to carry
out as you examine and compare results from various individuals.
Links to one of these, as well as to a selection of online blogs,
articles and websites can be found in the ‘See Also’ section below.

© University of Strathclyde

4.13 Discussion: Case studies in tackling brick walls with

genetic genealogy
187 comments

In the previous steps, we’ve introduced the concept of

genetic genealogy and looked at how DNA testing can be
used to further your family research.

To help you consider how testing might be useful, we’ve

presented three case studies below and want to ask you to
consider the answers to the questions posed.

1. Margaret Williamson had used documentary evidence to

trace one line of her family back to an ancestor named
 William Sutherland who immigrated to the United States in
the 1880s. Could atDNA (autosomal) testing help to discover
anything about his earlier ancestry?

2. Two families with the same surname are keen to discover if

they are related and if so, when their most recent common
ancestor lived and who he was. Documentary evidence
exists tracing each family back to the middle of the 18th
century, but with no obvious connection. How could Y DNA
testing help to answer these questions?

3. Elizabeth Forman was interested to learn more about her

Stewart ancestry, her maternal grandfather being a Stewart.
Unfortunately she could not carry out any Y-DNA testing
since she did not know of any male Stewart relatives. Could
atDNA (autosomal) testing help?

Briefly post in the discussion below, or in your study group

discussion forum, your thoughts on one or all of these case study
questions. You may find it helpful to review the material in the
previous steps on genetic genealogy and to review the
International Society of Genetic Genealogy’s Beginners’ guides
to genetic genealogy. We will share our thoughts on these in
the welcome to Week 5 email and you will have a chance to ask
us questions on genetic genealogy during the final LiveStream
event in Week 6.

© University of Strathclyde

4.14 What's in a name?: 'The Patersons'

172 comments

Watch the fourth part of the story ‘The Patersons’ where

Chris visits a grave yard, learns more about another line of
her family and her brother takes a DNA test.
The next step will be a discussion where you will be asked to
share your thoughts on the story.

Images in this video: Shop in Greenock: with permission McLean

Museum and Art Gallery, Greenock; Princes Pier postcard image:
courtesy of R. Nicholson;

Transcript 0:13Skip to 0 minutes and 13 secondsLast week we

learned more about the Riepenhausens through using census records. This week
Chris discovers more about a connected family line. The Patersons.
0:30Skip to 0 minutes and 30 secondsAs generations of genealogists
will attest, prowling around graveyards and looking at gravestones can provide
much valuable information regarding dates of birth and death but also occupations,
military service, names of extended family members, religious belief, and
occasionally glimpses of an ancestor's sense of humour. However, it is important to
realise that memorial inscriptions can be incorrect either through mistakes on the
part of the carver or the person providing the information. Stones wear away over
time and become very difficult to read and sadly may be broken up, pushed over,
or just removed altogether. Many inscriptions have been transcribed by family
history societies and other interested individuals and there are a number of online
sources for memorial inscriptions and images of gravestones.

1:20Skip to 1 minute and 20 secondsLizzie Riepenhausen met her

husband Gavin Paterson in Prestwick on the west coast of Scotland.

1:30Skip to 1 minute and 30 secondsI was delighted to find Gavin's

grave. It was very moving. I am surprised by the size of it. I am beginning to realise
more and more how well known my great-grandfather was. He owned a draper's
shop or, as my Father described it, an emporium in Greenock. I have since found a
newspaper cutting telling of his death and burial. It describes how his body was
taken from Princes Pier by carriage to the cemetery. Another newspaper article
tells of how he went to Manchester to buy stock, funded by friends. Was this the
beginning of his success? He was able to retire to Prestwick at age 44. This is just
after the death of his first wife.

2:16Skip to 2 minutes and 16 secondsHe was buried with his first wife
and a daughter aged 10 months. I hadn't known of this daughter. I'm going to the
university to meet with Graham Holton. He teaches a class on how to use DNA
testing to enhance family history research. I want to ask Graham whether DNA
testing might help me find out more about the Patersons. There are various types
of tests but, in this case, we're going to test on the Y-DNA. And that's because the
Y chromosome is passed down the male line from father to son. The test is done
with a swab to the inside of the cheek. All right. So there's no blood or anything like
that involved. Quite simple.

3:03Skip to 3 minutes and 3 secondsSo what we're hoping to find from

this is to see whether there are any close matches on the company's database.
Now that would mean, if there are close matches, this would mean that your
brother and the individuals he matches closely with have a common ancestor at
some particular point in the past. If it's a very close match, it could be 200, 250
years ago... ..that type of thing. Okay? Well, that's interesting. Yes. Excellent. So
it'll take a number of weeks to come back and hopefully we'll get some good
results. So here's the kit here. That includes all your instructions, what you need to
do. Super. Thanks Graham. That's grand. My brother has agreed to take the DNA
test.

4:05Skip to 4 minutes and 5 secondsThe test results are back. We're on

our way to the university where Graham is going to explain them to us.

4:15Skip to 4 minutes and 15 secondsSo, the results have come back

then. And here I've got up on screen your certificate. So you did a Y-DNA 37 STR
marker test. You'll see here there are 37 results. These are counted. These are
multiple results here. There are three very close same surname matches. So you'll
see here. Paterson, genetic distance is zero. What does that mean? That tells you
that you're fairly closely related. There two others. Only one distance here. How
many generations back would that be then? Right. Well that is likely to be-- at the
level of test you've done, which is 37 marker, it's likely to be probably six to eight
generations. Right. So it's really quite far back?

5:06Skip to 5 minutes and 6 secondsWell in genetic genealogy terms

that's not all that far, really. We're talking about maybe 200 to 250 years. So, it
would certainly be worth making contact. It's possible to make contact with these
people. See if they have any documentary evidence and possibly they may have
traced farther back than you. They may have information that would take you back
to the origins of the family before they appeared in Ayrshire perhaps or another
part of Scotland. Or even from Ireland..that type of thing. Right. Next week we hear
some voices from the past as Chris tells us of sources that really brought the story
to life.

© University of Strathclyde
4.15 Discuss the story
433 comments

In this week, Chris visited the Paterson’s grave memorial.

Do you, like many of us, find yourself curiously attracted to

graveyards? Have gravestones given you insight into your family’s
history?

Chris’ brother took a DNA test to try and make connections to

other family members. Have you tried genetic testing in the course
of your research? If so, has it been helpful or revealed any
surprises? And if not, do you think it would be helpful?

Share your thoughts in the discussion below.

4.17 How is it going so far?

501 comments

This activity is entirely optional, but we’re really interested to

know how you found Week 4 of the course.

We’d be really grateful if you could leave a comment or share

some part of your experience so far in the discussion.

You may like to take a look at your Progress to see how much of

the course you have covered. Don’t forget to ‘Mark as complete’
as you continue through the course.

© University of Strathclyde