Professional Documents
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Operation and Maintenance of Boilers
Operation and Maintenance of Boilers
Chapter
7
Operation and Maintenance
of Boilers
419
used in the most effective manner. Note and memorize the draft-gauge
reading (wind box, furnace, boiler outlet, etc.) when the combustion is
satisfactory. These values should be used as a means of quickly estab-
lishing normal conditions, detecting trouble, and changing capacity. The
draft gauge indicates the airflow to and the products of combustion
from the furnace. (See Chap. 4 for an explanation of draft as applied
to combustion.)
What type of feedwater regulator is used, and where are the bypass
valves located? Is there an auxiliary feedwater piping system?
Water is a very unique substance because it exists in three forms at
normal temperatures: ice, water, and steam. It absorbs more heat for a
given temperature rise than any other common substance. A pound of
water increases its volume by over 1600 times as it evaporates at
atmospheric pressure to form steam. Steam has the capability of carry-
ing large quantities of heat. It is these unique properties of water that
make it an ideal substance for the heating and power-generating
processes.
However, all water is not the same because it contains varying
amounts of dissolved and suspended matter and dissolved gases.
Seawater and freshwater vary significantly, and the amount of impu-
rities in freshwater varies with the source, such as a river, lake, or
well. These impurities are important considerations when the water
is used for steam generation. Because of this, boiler water treatment is
a key factor for a power plant to operate successfully.
The operator’s job is to supply water to the boilers in the quantity
required to replace what is being evaporated. Usually the boilers are
equipped with regulators that control the flow to maintain the right
level, thus relieving the operator of the tedious task of making repeti-
tive adjustments. These automatic devices do not, however, relieve the
operator of the responsibility of maintaining the water level. Frequent
monitoring of the system must include water levels in the heaters and
softeners and water temperature and pressure at the boiler feed pump
discharge. In many cases these important quantities are recorded for
the operator ’s convenience and to provide a permanent record.
Improperly set water columns as well as leaking or stopped-up connec-
tions will cause water columns to show false levels. The water column
must be blown down periodically, and the high- and low-water alarm
must be checked. The feedwater regulator should be blown down and
checked according to the manufacturer’s instructions. The recorders
and other devices are convenient but must be checked frequently with
the water level in the gauge glass. It is desirable to use hot feedwater,
and the temperature should be maintained as high as feasible with
the equipment available and within design limits.
The task of maintaining the water level is difficult because during
operation the boiler is filled with a mixture of water and steam bubbles.
When the water level in the drum drops, there is an obvious tendency
to add water. This tendency occurs with both hand and automatic
control. The addition of water, at a temperature lower than the water
in the boiler, causes the steam in the bubbles to condense. This action
decreases the volume of the steam and water mixture in the boiler
and results in a further drop in level and a tendency to add more
water. Then when the normal ratio of water to steam bubbles is
restored, the level in the drum will be too high. The result is a cyclic
condition in which the water level in the drum is alternately high and
low. This condition is avoided by the use of two- or three-element
feedwater regulators. Two-element feedwater regulators sense both
the drum level and steam flow rates. This combined signal is used to
actuate the feedwater flow control valve. The three-element feedwater
regulator senses the drum level and the steam and feedwater flow rates
and uses the combined signal to actuate the feedwater flow control
valve. The object of these controls is to keep the feedwater flow equal to
the steam flow. If because of blowing down or other irregularities the
drum level fails to remain within the desired range, the signal from
the drum level corrects the rate of flow of feedwater until the unbal-
anced situation is corrected. (See Sec. 6.4.)
Power producers are well aware of the economic penalties that
occur when a component failure causes a plant shutdown. One of the
heaviest financial burdens is attributable to steam-cycle corrosion,
which accounts for about half the plant forced outages. Attractive
financial returns are possible for improving water chemistry.
Proper water treatment and chemistry control result in the follow-
ing benefits:
1
The name zeolite refers to a group of water-softening chemicals that are capable of
exchanging ions with which they come in contact. Hard water is passed downward
through a bed of sodium-regenerated zeolite that is contained in a steel pressure vessel.
As the water passes through the ion-exchange material, the calcium and magnesium
ions are exchanged for sodium in the zeolite. Regeneration of a zeolite bed is accom-
plished by passing a salt solution through the softener.
Some of the more common additives for drum boilers are hydroxide,
phosphate, and chelant. Hydroxide (NaOH) is used on very low pres-
sure industrial-type boilers. The use of phosphate is common for
industrial boilers operating below 1000 psi. Phosphate salts are used
extensively to react with the hardness in the water and thus prevent
scale deposits. However, the phosphate reacts with the hardness in
the water to form a sludge, which in some cases may result in objection-
able deposits. Organic compounds are then used to keep the sludge in
circulation until it can be removed through the blowdown. The
amount of sludge formed depends on the amount of hardness intro-
duced to the boiler in the feedwater. Therefore, it is desirable to have
the hardness of the feedwater as low as possible. The phosphate
treatment should be supplied directly to the boiler drum with a chem-
ical pump. If introduced into the suction of the boiler feed pump, most
phosphates will react with the impurities in the water and cause
deposits in the pumps, piping, feedwater regulators, and valves.
Therefore, the phosphate should be dissolved in the condensate to
prevent deposit in the chemical feed pump and lines. The amount of
treatment is controlled by analysis of the boiler water for excess phos-
phate. This analysis consists of a color comparison of a treated sample
with standards. Generally less than 40 ppm is satisfactory to ensure
removal of the hardness. Since this phosphate treatment removes the
hardness, it is not necessary to run a soap hardness test on boiler
water if the specified amount is maintained.
Care must be exercised in introducing phosphate into a boiler that
contains scale. For example, on a fire-tube boiler, the old scale may be
loosened from the tubes by the action of the phosphate and collected in
a mass on the heating surface, causing bags, overheating, and ultimate
failure. When phosphate is supplied to a boiler that already contains
scale, the boiler should be inspected frequently and the amount of excess
maintained at about 20 ppm. In time the phosphate will remove the
old scale, but it is better to start the treatment with a clean boiler.
For industrial boilers, another approach to internal boiler water
conditioning is the use of chemicals that prevent the precipitation of
scale-forming materials. These chemicals have chelating power in that
calcium, magnesium, and other common metals are tied up in the water
and are eventually removed by continuous blowdown. This action pre-
vents the formation of scale and sludge in boilers, heat exchangers,
and piping and is effective over the normal range of alkalinity
encountered in boiler plant operation. Chelant chemicals are sold
under a variety of trade names.
The treatment is introduced into the boiler feed line by means of a
standard chemical feed pump. The pump and piping should be of
corrosion-resistant stainless steel for high pressure and of either
Figure 7.2 Typical furnace waterwall tube overheat failure. (Babcock & Wilcox, a
McDermott company.)
exact feedwater flow rate is not known precisely, and this flow rate
varies as the load conditions of the boiler changes. These unknowns
prevent exact treatment from being determined by using flow rates.
Another method used by water treatment chemical companies is a wet
chemistry method for the analysis of the treatment concentration.
Such a method requires a significant amount of time for plant opera-
tion to complete the analysis. Both methods are time-dependent, and
because of this, the actual treatment requirements lag the boiler
operating parameters.
Boiler water treatment companies and power plant operators strive
continuously to improve plant performance. One such concept is the use
of a fluorescent tracer in the boiler water treatment chemicals. Since the
success of any water treatment program depends on the correct dosage
of chemicals being applied to the boiler, the use of a tracer is an alter-
native method for maintaining the boiler water concentration.
The application of a tracer to a boiler is shown schematically in Fig.
7.3. The feedwater flow, blowdown, and steam flow are shown, as well
as the added chemicals which include the tracer. Since the tracer is an
integral part of the treatment chemicals added to the feedwater, the
exact concentration ratio of the chemical treatment to the tracer is
known. Therefore, by analyzing the tracer concentration in the feed-
water, the exact concentration of the added boiler treatment is also
known. Boiler cycles can be determined easily by measuring the concen-
tration of a tracer in the feedwater and in the blowdown. The fluores-
cent tracer can be monitored by continuously sampling the feedwater
and blowdown, and controls adjust the chemical feed rate based on
the input signal.
these wide variations occur in daily cycles. Keeping the boilers oper-
ating near their most efficient load results in a fuel savings.
The addition of economizers and air preheaters and improvement in
combustion equipment have resulted in boiler units that have a wide
range of output at nearly maximum efficiency. This is referred to as
having a flat efficiency curve and is essential to large plants when one
boiler supplies all the steam for a turbine generator. For peak
demands, boilers can be operated beyond their most efficient output
as the design allows. Consideration of boiler loading improves plant
economy and decreases outages and maintenance.
The operators should reduce the air leakage into the boiler setting
to a minimum. The air that enters through leaks must be handled by
the stack or induced-draft fan and frequently limits the maximum
output of the boiler. The heat required to raise the air to the exit gas
temperature is lost. A check for air leaks should be made while the
boiler is operating by placing an open flame near points where leaks
are suspected. The flame will be drawn into the setting by the draft. A
torch made with a pipe fitting and wicking, and burning kerosene, is
useful in testing for leaks.
Another method of testing a boiler setting for air leaks is to analyze
both the gases leaving the furnace and those at the induced-draft fan
inlet. The increase in excess air as indicated by these two analyses
represents the air leakage in the setting. However, caution must be
exercised in making these analyses because of the flue gas temperature.
A series of samples must be taken at each location to ensure that the
results represent average values.
Air leaks in boiler settings should be sealed by the application of a
commercial compound manufactured for this purpose. The material
selected should remain pliable to compensate for the movement
resulting from expansion and contraction of the boiler.
The use of the correct amount of excess air is an important consid-
eration for the best overall results. Too much air wastes heat to the
stack, while too little causes overheating of the furnace, unburned
carbon in the ash, smoke, and unburned gases. (See Chaps. 4 and 5
for a discussion of excess air.) Study the conditions in the plant and
regulate the excess air by observing furnace temperature, smoke,
clinker formation, and combustible in the ash to give the best overall
results. After the correct amount of air has been determined by expe-
rience, use draft gauges, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, or oxygen
recorders, and steam-flow–airflow meters as guides in regulating the
supply. In general, the excess air should be lowered until trouble begins
to develop. This may be in the form of smoke, clinkers, high furnace
temperature or stoker maintenance, slagging of the boiler tubes, or high
combustibles in the ash. The combustible material dumped from the
furnace with the ash represents heat in the original fuel that the fur-
nace failed to develop. It represents a direct loss and must be considered
by the operator. The designers of combustion equipment are continually
striving to design units that will reduce this loss. In the cases of hand
firing and with stokers, the amount of unburned carbon in the ash
depends, to a large extent, on the skill of the operator. Dump the ash or
clean fires as often as required for best overall results. Maintain an
even distribution of fuel on the grates so that the combustible matter
will be burned nearly completely before dumping. Learn to operate so
that the formation of clinkers will be at a minimum. Avoid excessively
high rates of combustion. It is difficult to determine the amount of
unburned carbon in the ash by observation; the only sure way is to
collect a representative sample and send it to a laboratory for analysis.
A deficiency of air or failure to obtain mixing of air and combustible
gases will result in burning the carbon to carbon monoxide rather than
to carbon dioxide. When this occurs, approximately 10,185 Btu of heat
per pound of carbon passes out of the stack unburned (see Sec. 4.2). A
flue gas analysis provides the only sure means of detecting and evalu-
ating the amount of carbon monoxide. High percentages of carbon
monoxide gas are usually accompanied by unburned hydrocarbons,
which produce smoke. Because of particulate control equipment,
smoke may not be readily observed. However, instrumentation such
as continuous-emissions-monitoring (CEM) equipment will identify
the situation for the operator.
After the heat has been developed in the furnace, the largest possible
amount must be absorbed by the water and steam in the boiler. Scale
formation on the water side of the heating surface and soot and ash on
the gas side act as insulators and cause high flue gas temperature. It
has been noted how water treatment can eliminate scale from the
water side of the heating surface. Failure on the part of the water-
treating system to function, due either to an inadequate system or to
unskillful application, will result in the formation of scale. This scale
must be removed either by mechanical methods or by acid cleaning.
Soot and ash are removed by means of sootblowers.
To operate mechanical sootblowers, open the drain of the sootblower
header to remove the accumulation of water. Then open the steam
supply valve. Slowly turn each sootblower through its entire arc of
travel by means of the chain or handwheel. It is advisable to start
with the element nearest the furnace and progress toward the boiler
outlet. Sometimes it is found desirable to increase the draft during
sootblowing to prevent a pressure from developing in the furnace and
to carry away the soot and ash removed from the tubes. Care should
be exercised in draining the steam lines to the sootblowers, since
water will cause warping and breakage of the elements.
There are two distinct sections in the bed, the dense bed and the
dilute bed. The term bed density is a measure of the weight of the parti-
cle material per volume of flue gas. In the primary zone of the furnace,
there is a higher density and inventory of particles, and in the upper
zone of the furnace, there is a lower density and inventory of particles.
Between these two zones there is a transition area, called freeboard,
where there is a distinct change in particle density.
In order to operate properly, the CFB design must include additional
instrumentation that provides information to the operator for manage-
ment of the bed. This information provides the following:
2
When quick-closing valves are installed on water lines, severe waterhammer or
shock may result when the valve is closed quickly. The resulting surge of pressure
causes excessive shock and vibration in the line. As a method to absorb this surge, a
vertical standpipe is located before the valve.
detector, as all modern boilers are, the fuel feed will be shut off auto-
matically. When this safety device was not provided, the fuel supply had
to be shut off by the operator. After the flame is out, regulate the air-
flow to about 10 percent of the maximum and allow 5 min for the pul-
verized coal, oil, or gas to be purged from the furnace. Then proceed
to relight as in normal starting.
Power failures or other emergencies make it impossible to remove
all the coal from the pulverizing mill before shutting down. When this
occurs and a mill is to be returned to service within 3 h, the partly
pulverized coal may be allowed to remain. However, if the outage is
to be longer than 3 h, the coal should be cleaned out to avoid the pos-
sibility of fire. If a fire should develop while the pulverizer is out of
service, close all the outlets and, one at a time, open the cleanout or
access doors and drench the interior with water, chemical fire extin-
guisher, or steam. Do not stand in front of the doors or inhale these
gases because they may be poisonous. Guard against possible explo-
sion of the gases formed in the mill. After the fire is out, the material
in the mill has been reduced to a temperature below the ignition
point, and the pulverizer room has been ventilated, remove all the
coal from the mill. Never use an air hose or a vacuum system in
cleaning the pulverizer mill.
Fires in pulverizers during operation are very infrequent, but they
sometimes occur as a result of fire originating in the raw-coal bunker,
failure to clean up after welding, or using inlet air to the pulverizer
that is too high a temperature. The general procedure in this emer-
gency is to reduce the supply of air so that the mixture in the mill
will be too rich to support combustion. Fire in a pulverizer may be
detected by the rapid rise in outlet temperature of the coal-and-air
mixture. When this occurs, increase the fuel feed to maximum and
supply the pulverizer with cold air. Do not increase the air supply or
reduce the fuel feed. If the temperature does not begin to return to
normal within 15 min, shut down the pulverizer and close off the air
supply; then follow the procedure explained above for a fire in a
pulverizer out of service.
When a safety valve will not close but continues to leak at a pres-
sure lower than that for which it is set, try to free it by operating the
lift levers. If this fails to stop the leak, the valve must be repaired or
replaced. Never attempt to stop a leaking safety valve by blocking or
tightening the spring.
When a gauge glass breaks, shut off the flow of steam and water.
While the gauge glass is out of service, check the water level by using
the try cock. Before inserting the new gauge glass, blow out the con-
nections to make sure that no broken pieces remain in the fitting, and
check the glass and the gasket for the correct length and size. Pull up
the packing slowly and not too tightly to avoid breaking the glass.
When the new glass is in position, open the top or steam valve first
and allow the drain valve to remain open. This permits steam to circu-
late through the glass, gradually heating the entire surface to a uniform
temperature. Then partly open the lower valve. After the water has
reached the normal level, open both valves all the way, and the glass
is in service. When the lower valve is first opened, the glass is subjected
to a variation in temperature that may result in breakage. Always
keep a supply of gauge glasses and gaskets available as part of the
spare-part inventory. Replace gauge glasses that become discolored
and difficult to read.
using the induced-draft fan to circulate cold air through the unit
should be resorted to only after the pressure has been reduced by
normal cooling. When there is no pressure in the boiler, open the
drum vent to prevent the formation of a vacuum. Allow the boiler to
cool as much as possible before draining. If the boiler is drained when
too hot, sludge may be baked on the surfaces or the unequal contrac-
tion may cause tubes to leak. When there are multiple boilers, check
carefully to see if the proper blowoff valves are opened and closed.
In the case of a water-tube boiler, proceed to wash the drums and
tubes. Use the highest water pressure available to remove any sludge
and soft scale. On a bent-tube boiler, the tubes may be washed by
working from inside the drum. To wash straight-tube boilers effectively,
the handhole covers must be removed. This is seldom advisable
because of the labor required to remove and replace the handhole
covers. If, however, these covers are taken off, the deposits should be
removed by passing a mechanical cleaner through the tubes. Wash the
tubes of the return tubular boiler from both the top and the bottom
openings. Allow the wash water to drain through the blowoff lines to
the wastewater-treating system. Exercise care to prevent the water
from getting on the brickwork. If this is unavoidable, dry out the
brickwork slowly before putting the boiler back into service.
There are two ways to proceed in laying up a boiler: One is to keep
the interior dry, and the other is to fill the interior with water. The
choice of methods depends on how long a boiler is to remain out of
service. If for a long period of time, the dry method is recommended.
If for a short or rather indefinite period, it is better to fill the drums
with water.
To take a boiler out of service for an extended period of time, remove
the ashes from the interior, especially where they are in contact with
metal parts. Ashes contain sulfur and tend to collect moisture and
form acid, which is corrosive. Make sure that all connections, including
the steam outlet, feedwater, and blowoff valves, are closed and hold-
ing tightly. Repair or blank off leaking valves. After washing, allow
the interior to dry. Then place hydrated lime, silica gel, or other mois-
ture absorbent in the drum in suitable open boxes or containers to
draw off the trapped moisture. Notify the insurance company that the
boiler is not in service, and ask the company to adjust the insurance
coverage accordingly. The insurance company must again be notified
when the boiler is returned to service. The interior should be inspected
every few months, and the moisture absorbent should be replaced
when required after its effectiveness has been reduced by the absorp-
tion of moisture.
An alternative method of storing a boiler in readiness for almost
immediate use is to condition the water as recommended by the boiler
1. For the wet method of lay-up, vent the nitrogen, if used. Reduce
the chemical concentrations in the lay-up water to normal operating
levels. This can be accomplished by partially draining the boiler
with moisture. This corrosion causes thinning of the tubes and even-
tual tube failure. One method of reducing this problem is to reduce the
deposition on the tubes by operating sootblowers just prior to shut-
down. The tubes most distant from the stack should be blown first,
followed sequentially by tubes closer to the stack.
As with normal and abnormal power plant operation, all these pro-
cedures should be part of the plant’s operating and maintenance
(O&M) manual. Water-management companies should be consulted for
recommendations on proper water treatment and chemistry control.
7.6 Maintenance
It has been stated that when a boiler is clean and tight, it is properly
maintained. At first this may appear simple, but “clean and tight”
applies to the entire field of boiler maintenance. Clean applies to both
the interior and the exterior of the tubes, shell, and drums, as well as
to the walls, baffles, and combustion chamber. Tight refers to the
entire pressure section, setting, baffles, etc. When the heating surface
of a boiler is free from scale on the water side and from soot and ash
deposits on the gas side, it will readily absorb heat. When the boiler is
free from steam and water leaks, air leaks, air leakage into the setting,
and gases leaking through baffles, it is in excellent condition. However,
in the overall operation, the combustion equipment, accessories, and
auxiliaries also must be considered.
Boilers are constructed of different materials to withstand the con-
ditions encountered in service. Any refractory in a furnace has little
tensile strength, but it can withstand high temperatures and resist
the penetrating action of the ash. On the other hand, steel used in
pressure parts of a boiler has high tensile strength. However, care must
be exercised to ensure that its temperature limits are not exceeded.
The designer must select materials for the various parts of the boiler
that are suited to the specific requirements. If selection of materials
is correct and the unit is maintained and operated in accordance with
recognized good practice, the service will be satisfactory. When faulty
operation, excessive temperatures, or other abnormal conditions
cause the safe limits of the material to be exceeded, failures will occur
rapidly, and the equivalent of years of normal deterioration may take
place in a short time.
By conducting a program of routine maintenance on a boiler and
other power plant equipment, the production and life of the equip-
ment are optimized. At one time, maintenance focused on the repair
of damaged equipment; however, this operating philosophy has
evolved into a sophisticated set of programs that include assessing
the condition of the equipment, techniques for predicting the life of
There are two methods for chemically cleaning that are used more
frequently:
that the unit is clean, the solvent is removed and a neutralizing solution
introduced. After the unit has been drained and flushed with water, it
is ready for service.
Acid cleaning produces good results. Not only is the usual type of
scale readily removed, but even difficult forms of silica and plated
copper have been removed successfully. Deposits of silica compounds
in high-pressure boilers have been very difficult to remove with
mechanical cleaners, discounting the labor-intensiveness of this oper-
ation. Copper dissolved from the tubes of feedwater heaters has been
deposited in boilers, causing scale and corrosion. Unlike mechanical
cleaning, this acid cleaning removes the scale from the headers,
tubes, and drums. Chemical cleaning has gone a long way to reduce
the time and drudgery involved in scale removal and is the primary
cleaning method today.
Boilers are designed and built for a maximum output, and when
this is exceeded, maintenance is increased. High rates of steam gener-
ation may disrupt the circulation in the boiler. When this occurs, the
heat will not be carried away, and the metal may become overheated.
The high rate of steam flow may cause moisture to be carried with the
steam that leaves the boiler drum. High gas temperatures may burn
or distort baffles and flues. Slag may form in the furnace or on the
tubes, limiting combustion and obstructing the flow of gases. Higher
gas flows may increase erosion. Though a high capacity may be
obtained for a short time, it may be necessary to take the boiler out of
service because of the formation of slag or the failure of vital parts of
the combustion equipment. Equipment should be operated within
design limitations, and excessive capacities should be avoided.
The correct amount and distribution of combustion air are impor-
tant considerations in reducing maintenance (see Chaps. 4 and 5). Too
much combustion air results in serious loss of heat in the stack gases,
while insufficient air causes excessive furnace temperatures. This
may cause slagging and early failure of such areas as the furnace
walls, arches, and grates.
Although sootblowers are valuable in removing soot, ashes, and
slag from the gas side of the tubes, they also can be the cause of boiler
outages and maintenance. When sootblowers are adjusted incorrectly,
steam from the nozzles will erode the boiler tubes and cause failure.
To prevent possible damage, the sootblower elements should be
adjusted so that the nozzles do not blow directly against the tubes
and baffles.
Slag on the boiler tubes restricts the flow of gases and reduces the
amount of heat that can be absorbed. This tends to reduce the maxi-
mum output of the boiler and cause high furnace temperatures. The
formation of slag may be caused by incorrect operation of the combus-
tion equipment or by the fuel being unsuited for the furnace, such as
all baffles to see that the gases are not short-circuiting and thereby
failing to come into contact with all the heating surface. Open the fan
inlet damper to see that it opens wide and closes tightly.
Observe the condition of the exterior of the boiler, piping, and
accessories. Check the arrangement of valves, and inspect the follow-
ing piping systems: main steam line, nonreturn valve and drains,
feedwater piping, steam-gauge connections, sootblower supply lines,
main and continuous blowoff, safety valves, discharge and drains, and
chemical supply to the boiler drum. Inspect the induced-draft fan for
any excessive erosion of fly ash. Operate the combustion-control mech-
anism that moves the damper and coal-feed device. Check the stoker
for burned, plugged, or worn grates and wear or damage to the fuel-
feed mechanism.
Check the sootblowers when the boiler is being inspected. Look for
missing or defective bearings, bent or broken elements, and missing
nozzles. Operate each element and compare the blowing angle with
the specifications. Make sure that the blowing angle is adequate for
cleaning but avoids direct “blow” on the tubes, which can result in
erosion. Make the necessary repairs and adjustments.
After the necessary work has been completed, the boiler is ready to
be closed and filled with water. Make sure that all maintenance equip-
ment has been removed and that all personnel are out of the boiler.
Always put a hydrostatic test on a boiler after it has been opened for
inspection or repairs. Unless extensive repairs have been made to
the drum or shell, it is not necessary to hydrostatically test at 11⁄2 times
the design pressure. The pressure developed by the boiler feed pumps
is sufficient to check for leaking tubes and handhole and manhole gas-
kets. If there are no leaks in the pressure section of the boiler, it is
ready for service.
therefore, the drum is made of carbon steel and is not subject to sig-
nificant creep. Creep is the slow deformation of continuously stressed
metal over time, which could lead eventually to a fracture.
Damage to a drum is primarily due to internal metal loss. This
can be caused by corrosion and oxidation, which can occur during
extended outages if proper precautions are not taken. Damage also
can occur from mechanical and thermal stresses on the drum, which
concentrate at nozzle and attachment welds. These stresses occur
often in boilers that are cycled frequently in an on/off mode of
operation. The feedwater penetration area has the greatest thermal dif-
ferential because incoming feedwater can be several hundred degrees
below the drum temperature.
Steam drums with rolled tubes (e.g., a two-drum boiler) have prob-
lems with tube seat leakage, where there is a slight seeping of water
through the rolled joint. Caustic embrittlement can result if the leak
is not stopped.
In lower drums of industrial-type boilers, large thermal differen-
tial or mechanical stresses are not present; however, rolled-tube
seat leakage can occur, with similar problems resulting as with the
steam drum.
Superheater and reheater tubes are affected by both erosion and
corrosion. In addition, the high temperature results in increased
stress on the tubes. These factors lead to tube cracks and eventual
leaks.
Water-cooled tubes such as the furnace walls, boiler bank, and
economizer operate at or below saturation temperature and therefore
are not subject to significant creep. Proper water chemistry is impor-
tant in maintaining tube life, and if necessary, water-side deposits
can be cleaned by chemicals when required. Erosion and corrosion are
the primary problems of the tubes, assuming that good water chem-
istry is practiced. If not, deposits form on the inside of the tubes, and
heat transfer is affected, which can result in high metal temperatures
and eventual failure of the tube.
These and other components and auxiliaries of the boiler must be
examined and maintained properly during planned outages. This is
proper operation, which will lead to high plant availability.
A typical inspection schedule for an oil- or natural gas–fired boil-
er is shown in Table 7.1. The recommended inspection varies based
on the boiler design and the type of fuel burned. The recommended
procedures are provided by the supplier of the boiler, and they
should be incorporated into the plant’s O&M manual. Computer
software programs are available for the record keeping of all
inspections. These records provide a continuous history of boiler
operation and maintenance and also identify any unusual observa-
tions.
1. Pressure-part welding
2. Pressure-part to non-pressure-part welding
3. Non-pressure-part welding
All welds for nonpressure parts should meet the requirements of the
American Welding Society. These types of welds can include flues,
ducts, hoppers, casing, and structural steel.
The replacement of tube sections requires a minimum of 12 in of
tube to be replaced. The tube can be removed by a saw or cutoff tool.
However, generally because of limited access, the tube section is
removed with an acetylene torch. The tube ends must be prepared
properly for welding of the new tube section. The use of backing rings
is a common procedure in the welding process. Welding techniques and
procedures are generally furnished by the boiler manufacturer, and
the welding is performed by qualified welders who have passed the
required code testing. The use of postweld heat treatment is required to
relieve residual stresses that are created in the welding process.
1
Source: Babcock Power, Inc.
7.3 Identify the procedures that are necessary during startup prior to the
firing of a boiler.
7.4 In the burning of a solid fuel, what significant effect on the boiler opera-
tion does ash have? How is this corrected or managed?
7.5 What are the unique properties of water and steam that make them ideal
for heating and power generation?
7.6 What are the benefits that result from proper water treatment and chem-
istry control?
7.7 What is scale, and how can it affect the operation of a boiler? What is
corrosion?
7.8 What is meant by priming and foaming? What is the difference between
them?
7.10 How is free oxygen removed from boiler feedwater? Why is its removal
important?
7.11 Impurities are often contained in the boiler feedwater. How are these
effectively removed?
7.12 Leaks in boiler tubes occur often. Name several ways in which these can
be detected. Provide some of the major causes of these leaks and methods
for prevention.
7.13 Describe how ultrasonic testing (UT) of tubes can be an effective method
for evaluating the condition of tubes.
7.16 What are the heat losses that must be calculated in order to determine a
test for an accurate boiler efficiency?
7.17 Why does the addition of economizers and air heaters in the overall boiler
design result in higher boiler efficiencies?
7.18 Name several situations that cause high flue gas temperature. What
are the major changes in boiler operation that can change the boiler
efficiency?
7.19 List the benefits that result from a boiler that is properly insulated.
7.20 As compared with a conventional drum-type boiler, what are some of the
more important characteristics of a circulating fluidized bed (CFB) boiler?
7.22 How is the combustion air of a CFB boiler divided? Why is this split so
critical?
7.23 In a bubbling fluid bed (BFB) boiler, what operating procedures are dif-
ferent from a conventional boiler? What additional instrumentation is
required?
7.24 What should an operator do if the water drops below the minimum
required?
7.25 What procedures should be followed in the case of tube failures? What
modern technology is available to determine tube leaks?
7.26 If an induced-draft fan fails, describe the system that safely shuts the
boiler down.
7.27 For a pulverizer, what precautions must be taken for its shutdown?
7.28 If a safety valve is leaking, can the spring be tightened? Why or why not?
What are the proper procedures for repairing a leaking safety valve?
7.31 Develop a tagging procedure for a boiler that is out of service. Identify
whether this should be part of the plant’s operating procedures.
7.32 For a boiler that is temporarily out of service, describe the procedures for
wet storage.
7.33 Describe the procedures used for returning an idle boiler to normal
operation.
7.36 Why is chemical cleaning preferred over mechanical cleaning of the boiler
internals?
7.37 What are the two most frequently used chemical cleaning methods for a
boiler?
7.38 What are some of the major consequences of operating a boiler in excess
of its design capacity?
7.39 What potential problem can result from improper sootblower operation?
7.44 How should an inspection of a boiler be made? What are the most
important things to look for?
7.45 Describe the most common nondestructive tests that are used in boiler
inspections, boiler construction, and boiler repair. How are they used?
7.46 In the inspection of a water-tube boiler, what are the major areas that
require investigation?
7.47 How would you inspect a sootblower installation to make sure that it was
in good operating condition?
7.48 Describe the two types of steam drums and the common problems that
must be evaluated periodically.
7.49 What are the primary maintenance problems found in all tubes of a
boiler?
7.50 Following most welding procedures on pressure parts, what must be done
to relieve the stresses that occur during the welding process?
7.51 What are the reasons that refractory furnace wall designs have been
replaced with designs incorporating water-cooled furnace walls?
7.52 For an HRSG, what are the major areas of inspection that should be con-
ducted? What maintenance issues are unique to HRSGs?