Vegetable Oil Extraction Methods Reviewed

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Extraction of Vegetable Oils from Agricultural Materials: A Review
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Proceedings of the 12th CIGR Section VI International Symposium, held at the International
Institute of Tropical Agriculture, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria, 22–25 October, 2018
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Extraction of Vegetable Oils from Agricultural Materials: A Review
Akindele Folarin Alonge1 and Nsuhoridem I. Jackson2
1
Dept of Agricultural and Food Engineering
University of Uyo, Uyo, Nigeria
2
Chemical and Biological Engineering Dept.,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Canada
ABSTRACT
Extraction is an important unit operation in crop/food processing; involving the
recovery of a material of interest from a parent material. Vegetable oil extraction has
presented a lot of challenges, which border on developing appropriate
equipment/technology, improving the efficiency of available equipment, ensuring
good quality and safety of the product, and minimizing the adverse environmental
effects of oil extraction technology. In line with this, various researches have been
carried out to understand the properties of oleaginous crops and to find solution to the
challenges associated with oil extraction. Some research works are also focused on
improvement of process conditions and development of models able to explain
observed phenomena during extraction. This paper provides a comprehensive review
of vegetable oil extraction, both from the standpoint of research advances and
industrial application. The paper reviews works on the theory as well as the methods
of vegetable oil extraction. The objective of the paper is to present the technology
situation and to provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in vegetable oil extraction
research and development as well as their application.
Keywords: Extraction, Vegetable oil, Methods, Technology, Oleaginous, Equipment
1. INTRODUCTION
The crop/food processing research sector is seeking ways to find solution to various
problems in order to ensure availability of high quality food and other products to the
ever-growing population. In the area of vegetable oil extraction, a lot of challenges
need to be overcome in order to ensure availability of the product. These challenges
are associated with the crop, the methods/technology needed to obtain the desired
product (vegetable oil), the quality of the product so obtained, as well as
environmental concerns (such as those posed by the chemicals used in solvent
extraction). Various researches have been carried out to understand the properties of
oil-bearing crops and to find solution to the challenges associated with oil extraction.
Mariana et al. (2015) noted that for centuries, various methods have been adopted for
oil extraction from oilseeds and that the purpose of those extraction methods is to
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optimize the process by collecting the maximum quantity of the existing oil in
oilseeds with the minimum costs. The tissues of plants bear varying quantities of
vegetable oils. Mariana et al. (2015) named the parts of crops in which oils are
concentrated to include the seeds, pulp, stone fruits, and in the tubers or sprouts. The
source added that oil can be obtained from different categories of plants: plants with
oil concentrated in seeds (sunflower, soybean, rapeseed etc.), plants producing
oleaginous fruits (olive, coconut and palm), plants producing oleaginous tubers
(peanuts) and plants producing oleaginous germ (corn). Major oil crops include Oil
Palm (palm fruit and palm kernel), Soybean, Canola, Sunflower, Linseed, Coconut,
Palm kernel (Dyer et al., 2008).
Extraction is an important unit operation in crop/food processing involving the

recovery of a material of interest from a parent material. Techniques to extract oil
from crops have existed for decades; and was majorly based on the Traditional Hot
Water Floatation (TWF) Method. This method have been used for low-scale oil
extraction as it is tedious and time-consuming. (Alenyorege et al., 2015).
However, due to high demand of vegetable oils, there was need to develop other
techniques such as solvent extraction, mechanical extraction and other advanced oil
extraction methods such as supercritical fluid extraction. Avram et al. (2014)
predicted that the worldwide oil seed production will face an increasing demand in the
next thirty years. This necessitates increased interest in vegetable oil extraction
research and development.
Oil extraction from crops present some problems that warrant continuous research and
development. For instance, the challenge that goes with variations in oil content is
that the oil content in some crops is too little, making extraction uneconomical, while
crops with abundant oil content may present structures that make oil extraction
extremely difficult (Mariana et al., 2015). Alonge and Olaniyan (2007) presented the
various problems of shea butter extraction and recommended that engineers should
intensify efforts at developing more efficient systems for shea butter processing.
Generally, agricultural materials present the problem of enormous variability.
Consequently, an extraction method/equipment developed for a particular crop may
not be amenable for oil extraction from another crop.
The above and other situations have prompted research and development of
technologies for extraction of oil from specific crops. In recent years there has been
widespread studies and researches aimed at developing improved technologies for oil
extraction from agricultural materials (Avram et al., 2014). In this paper, a
comprehensive review of the recent studies and works on vegetable oil extraction is
presented. The paper reviews works on the theory as well as researches on vegetable
oil extraction. The objective of the paper is to present the technology situation and to
provide an overview of the state-of-the-art in vegetable oil extraction research and
development.
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2. VEGETABLE OIL AND ITS USES
Vegetable oils are biological mixtures derived from plants. They are triglycerides,
consisting of ester mixtures of fatty acids and glycerol. They also contain traces of
monoacylglycerols and diacylglycerols, as well as variable amounts of other
components such as phospholipids, free and esterified sterols, triterpene alcohols,
tocopherols and tocotrienols, carotenes, chlorophylls and other coloring matters, and
hydrocarbons as well as traces of metals, oxidation products, undesirable flavors, and
so on (Anna et al., 2012).
Vegetable oils are useful both for the food and non-food industries. The food uses of
vegetable oils include direct consumption, production of margarine, canned foods,
bakery, confectionery, fried foods, etc. The non-food uses include production of
detergents, paints, special varnishes, fatty acids, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics
products, biodiesel production, lubricants and painting (Mariana et al., 2015; Dyer et
al., 2008). In food products, vegetable oils play important functional and sensory
roles, acting as carriers of fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, and K). They also provide an
essential linoleic and linolenic acid, responsible for growth (Kostik et al., 2005).
2.1 Oil Extraction Parameters
Parameters used to test the performance of an oil extraction system include Extraction
Yield, Extraction Efficiency and Extraction Loss (Alenyorege et al., 2015).
Extraction Yield is the amount of oil derived from a certain quantity of oleaginous
material in a certain extraction process, expressed as a percentage.
Extraction Efficiency is the ratio of the amount of oil extracted to the amount of oil
present in the oleaginous material, expressed as a percentage
.
Extraction Loss is the weight of material that cannot be accounted for at the end of
the extraction operation, either as oil recovered or the residual cake, expressed as a
percentage of the total weight of material before extraction.
3. VEGETABLE OIL EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGIES

Certain extraction methods are applied as a unit operations in the oil extraction
process, which basically involves seed/material preparation, actual extraction and
postextraction operations/treatment. For example, Venkitasamy et al. (2014)
presented the flowchart they employed in extraction of oil from grape-seed (Fig. 1a).
The simplified flowchart for three routes of mechanical extraction of palm kernel oil
is shown in Fig. 1b. Route (A) is for direct screw-pressing without kernel pre-
treatment; Route (B) is for partial kernel pre-treatment followed by screw-pressing;
and Route C is for complete pre-treatment followed by screw-pressing (FAO, 2015).
1187
Technologies for extraction of oils from agricultural produce have been developed
over the years. The goal of a particular technology for oil extraction is to obtain high
quality oils optimally (achieve the highest possible extraction yields with the lowest
possible costs).
The oldest method of vegetable oil extraction is the traditional hot water floatation
(THW) method. Another common traditional method is manual kneading. Mariana et
al. (2015) stated that there are currently four vegetable oil extraction technologies,
which include mechanical extraction, chemical extraction, supercritical fluid
extraction and steam distillation.
Fig. 1a: Flowchart for Oil Extraction from

Grape-seed
Fig. 1b: Mechanical Extraction of
Palm Kernel Oil
3.1 Traditional Hot Water Floatation (HWF) Method

This method of vegetable oil extraction is also called aqueous extraction or wet
extraction method. It involves the use of a large amount of water such that the
extracted oil floats on the water surface. The hot water floatation method is
traditionally applied for small scale extraction of oil from oil seeds. The extraction
process comprises five fundamental steps: thermal conditioning of the seeds; milling;
extraction by boiling; oil recovery; and drying. The method is reportedly applicable to
most oilseeds with varying degrees of oil yield (Alenyorege et al., 2015).
Head et al. (1995) explains that the process involves heating and then grinding the oil
seed kernels, followed by suspending in boiling water for at least 30 minutes. This
causes mass transfer of oil from the solid phase (ground seeds) to the liquid phase
1188
(water). The oil then floats to the surface of the water. According to the source, water
may be further added after boiling to replenish evaporated water, and to enhance
displacement of oil to the surface. A shallow dish is used to scoop out the oil and
residual moisture is separated by evaporation.
The hot water floatation method is cheaper to carry out, compared to solvent
extraction as it does not involve the use of chemicals. It is also considered
environmentally safe (Mariana et al., 2015). The method however proves to be
tedious and time consuming, and often offers low oil yields.
Alenyorege et al. (2015) conducted a research to determine the Extraction Yield,

Extraction Efficiency and Extraction Loss associated with the traditional Hot Water
Floatation method of oil extraction from Allanblackia floribunda seeds. The quantity of
seed used was 50 Kg. The method reportedly yielded 21.1 kg of oil (42.2% Extraction
yield), a residual cake of 26.2 Kg and a process loss of 2.7 Kg at a moisture content of
13.1%. Thus, the Extraction efficiency was 58.6% while 5.4% Extraction loss was
recorded. They concluded that the yield exceeded the minimum oil yield for commercial,
domestic and industrial consideration.
3.2 Manual Kneading

According to Head et al. (1995), manual kneading is a water-assisted oil extraction
method. The method is used for traditional groundnut oil extraction in West African
villages. It involves adding water to groundnut paste to form a mixture, which is
stirred and kneaded by hand until the oil separates.
3.3 Technological Advances in Mechanical Oil Extraction

Mechanical extraction, as the name implies, involves the application of pressure on
milled/digested agricultural material to dislodge the oil from the material. The method
is also known as pressing. The process involves separation of oil from the oleaginous
material under the action of compressive forces produced by special machines called
presses (Mariana et al., 2015).
The major advantage of this method is that the cost is relatively low and the extracted
oil is non-contaminated. Mechanical extraction is also attractive because it does not
present the environmental and health concerns associated with the use of hazardous
solvents such as n-hexane.
The energy consumption and waste production is also relatively lower. Also, this
method produces high-value vegetable oils, particularly for the food and cosmetics
industry (Evelien and Philippe, 2017). The disadvantage is that the mechanical
presses do not have high extraction efficiencies as about 8-14% of the available oil
remain in the press cake (Mariana et al., 2015).
1189
Mechanical extraction is also referred to as “Expression” and involves placing the

material between permeable barriers (barriers with perforations) and increasing
mechanical pressure by reducing the volume available for the material. This way the
oil is squeezed from the material. Generally mechanical expression is only used for
smaller capacity plants, specialty products or as a prepress operation in a large scale
solvent extraction plant (Arișanu, 2013; Mariana et al., 2015).
There are two major methods of mechanical expression: screw press and hydraulic
press. However, Adetola (2012) states that over the years, oil extraction presses
developed (for palm oil extraction) include manual vertical screw-press, motor-jack
press, motor-jack/cantilever, and combined screw/hydraulic hand press. Other
methods include the wedge press, the plank press, cage presses, the bridge press,
scissor press, ram press and ghani (Head et al., 1995).
3.3.1 Screw Press

Screw presses are also called extruders or expellers. In a screw press, the pressure
force is exerted by a helical body/worm which rotates in a closed space called press
chamber. A screw press basically has a feed inlet, a horizontal barrel, which carries
the horizontal screw, perforations for oil collection and exit for the cake/digested
material. The screw is designed with an increasing body diameter, such that the
highest pressure is attained at the exudation zone, which expels the oil. In a screw
press the seeds are continuously fed; and the screw grinds, crushes and presses out the
oil. This operation requires high friction co-efficient and it generates a high amount of
heat (Khan et al., 2016). When compared with a hydraulic press a screw press is more
advantageous in that it has slightly higher oil extraction efficiency and allows for
continuous oil extraction.
Single-screw Press
In a single-screw press, the material movement along the screw axis is achieved only
through friction with the barrel wall. The pressure responsible for oil extraction is due
to the flow restriction at the extruder outlet, which causes a pressure gradient that
induces a pressure flow opposite to the material flow. The combination of both flows
determines the feed rate, thus, the extruder throughput is dependent on the screw
speed (Evelien and Philippe, 2017).
Also, since friction is the main factor, single-screw extrusion can consume enormous
amounts of energy. It also has poor mixing capacity. It is noteworthy that these
factors can lead to overheating and subsequent cake and oil quality deterioration
(Evelien and Philippe, 2017). Fig. 2a illustrates the screw pressing process. Fig. 2b is
a vertical section of a single-screw extruder.
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Fig. 2: Screw Pressing Process Fig. 2b: Single-Screw Press (Khan and Hanna, 1983 in
Anna et al., 2012) (Savoire et al., 2013).
Some researchers have worked on developing improved screw oil extractors. Some of
the screw presses are developed for specific purposes. Alonge et al. (2004) developed
a manually operated screw press for village level groundnut oil expression. The
materials for construction were sourced locally. The press was tested for efficiency,
throughput and durability. Test results indicated that a maximum oil yield of 24.93%
was obtained at 80 and pressure of 42.28kPa. the oil expression efficiency was
found to be 54.7%.
Adetola et al. (2012) developed a palm oil single-screw press for small and medium
scale palm fruit processors, with the following components: standing frame, feed hopper,
threaded shaft, cylindrical barrel, speed reduction gear motor, electric motor, pulley,
cake and oil discharge outlets.
The principle of operation of the machine was presented by Adetola et al. (2012).
According to them, the digested palm fruit is introduced into the machine through the
hopper and is conveyed inside the cylindrical barrel with the aid of the worm shaft.
The pressure buildup between the worm and the cylinder causes the crude oil to be
pressed out of the mash. The crude oil extracted is drained through the oil channel
into the oil tray where it is collected, while the residual cake is discharged at the cake
outlet. The machine is powered by a 5hp three – phase electric motor with the
construction materials being sourced locally at affordable costs. Plate 1 is a side view
of the screw press.
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Plate 1: Side View of the Oil Palm Screw Press (Adetola et al., 2012)
Results of performance test showed that the highest oil extraction ratio (OER) of
17.90% and oil extraction efficiency (OEE) of 79.56% were obtained at the
sterilization time of 60 min, digestion time of 10 min and screw speed of 10 rpm
(Adetola et al., 2012).
Khan et al. (2016) worked on design, simulation, construction and performance

testing of a single-screw oil expeller press for small scale oil extraction. ASME shaft
design code was used in designing the screw shaft of the press. The screw was
analyzed with simulation software (ANSYS). The pressure on screw was determined
& applied in the created meshed design in Ansys. A 20 HP 3-phase electric motor was
used for running the machine at 140 rpm. Plate 2 shows the constructed expeller while
Fig. 3 shows the ANSYS simulation of the screw.
Plate 2: Screw Press (Khan et al., 2016) Fig. 3: Maximum Shear Stress of Screw
(Khan et al., 2016)
The expeller was tested using coconut, rape seed, sesame, and sunflower seed.
Structural analysis of the screw was also carried out. From the achieved stress
analysis they concluded that the screw is within safety limit of stress. Also, the
expeller efficiency was 68.2% and the capacity ranged between 85.22 gm/min to
98.52 gm/min (Khan et al., 2016).
1192
Twin-screw Press
Twin-screw presses/extruders consist of two intermeshing screws mounted on splined
shafts and enclosed in a modular barrel. The screws may be rotating in the same
direction (co-rotating screws) or in opposite direction (counter-rotation screws). Like
the single-screw extruder, there is filtration module (perforations) that allow the
collection of the liquid expelled from the material by compression.
When designed in the co-rotating configuration (the best design), a twin-screw

extruder functions as a positive displacement pump, resulting in a throughput that is
independent on the screw speed and pressure and ensuring efficient mixing and heat
transfer – and higher process flexibility (unlike in single-screw extruders). Twin-
screw oil expression (compared to single-screw method) could result in energy saving
of 40% to 80% (Evelien and Philippe, 2017).
Further, the high flexibility and productivity inherent to twin-screw extrusion further
exerts a positive impact on the economic feasibility of the process. Unlike single-
screw presses (which are often dedicated to a particular crop species), twin-screw
presses are amenable for universal application. Also, the non-interdependence of
twin-screw extruder parameters such as throughput, oil flow rate and extraction
efficiency allows for their simultaneous augmentation, and process optimization. This
is not obtainable in single-screw extruders because a higher pressing efficiency and
oil flow rate would result in low throughput (Evelien and Philippe, 2017).
of twin-screw presses for vegetable oil extraction.
Fig. 4: Schematic representation of the twin-screw extruder design comprising two

different pressing sections (Bouvier and Guyomard, 1996). A. Schematic Sectional
front view; B. Schematic Sectional Plan
Evelien and Philippe (2017) stated that twin-screw extrusion has not yet found
application in the oil extraction industry. However, due to its innovative and
promising features, the technology has received significant research interests, which
are concerned with development and improvement
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Many researchers have worked on twin-screw extraction of oil from agricultural

materials. They include: Amruthraj et al. (2014) who designed, constructed and tested
a twin-screw expeller for extraction of inedible oil (for biodiesel) from Pongamia
pinnata seeds; Dufaure et al. (1999) who reported the use of the twin-screw extruder
for direct expression of oleic sunflower seeds; Evon et al. (2007) who evaluated the
feasibility of an aqueous process to extract sunflower seed oil using co-rotating
twinscrew extruder; Uitterhaegen et al. (2015) who presented an assessment of the
vegetable oil extraction from coriander fruits through twin-screw extrusion, among
many others.
Parameters Influencing the Screw Pressing Process
According to Mariana et al. (2014) the most important parameters which have to be
taken into account for optimization of the oil production in screw presses include:
screw speed, restriction size, hull content, moisture content, cooking process,
temperature, pressure. The source gives detailed explanation of the influence of each
of these parameters on the performance of screw presses, with cogent examples in
published literature.
Ojomo et al. (2011) carried out economic analysis and effect of machine speed on the
performance parameters of a locally fabricated screw press. The test results revealed
that increase in machine speed resulted in increase in the feed rate, output capacity
and the mass of cake produced. The extraction efficiency rose sharply and reached a
maximum of 68% at 650rpm, and then decreased with higher speeds. The mass of oil
yield also reached a maximum of 1.9kg and then decreased with increasing speed.
Kartika et al. (2010) carried out a study to evaluate the effects of screw configuration
and operating parameters on oil extraction of sunflower seeds using a twin-screw
extruder. Results showed that increased spacing between two screw elements and
smaller pitch elements resulted in an increase in oil yield. Also, Oil yield was
increased when pressing temperature, screw rotation speed and seed input flow rate
were decreased. They also reported that the effect of the operating parameters on oil
quality was low (mainly on acid and iodine values).
3.3.2 Hydraulic Press
Hydraulic presses are uni-axial presses which are driven by fluid pressure. According
to Mariana et al. (2015), hydraulic expression of oil involves application of pressure
through a ram to digested oleaginous material mash in a cylindrical cage. This results
in axial compaction and radial oil flow through a lateral perforation. Fig. 5 shows the
hydraulic pressing process.
The disadvantages of a hydraulic press compared to a screw press is that it has slightly
lower oil yield and does not allow for continuous oil extraction (only batch extraction).
1194
Fig. 5: Schematic Representation of

a Hydraulic Pressing Fig. 6: Hydraulic Press (Head et al., 1995) Process
(Arișanu, 2013).
However, Anna et al. (2012) stated that hydraulic presses are still needed for
processing materials which require gentle handling, such as cocoa butter. Hydraulic
presses have been utilized in oil extraction researches in recent times. For example,
Sabarish et al. (2016) carried out a research which involved extraction of oil from
rubber seeds through hydraulic press and kinetic study of acid esterification process.
The hydraulic pressing method was compared with solvent extraction method, and
they claimed that mechanical oil extraction method was superior in terms of purity of
extracted oil, stages in process and cost of process. Others are Santaso et al. (2014),
Oscar and Leonart (2013), among others.
Parameters Influencing the Hydraulic Pressing Process
According to a research carried out by Kehinde (2007) on coconut oil expression by

uniaxial (hydraulic) expression, the factors which influenced coconut oil yield include
heating moisture content, applied pressure, pressure duration, heating time and
temperature which the samples were subjected to.
3.3.3 Cage Press
These are a form of manual presses used for small-scale vegetable oil extraction. They
operate on batch mode. Head et al. (1995) noted that these presses are sometimes
wrongly called screw presses and pointed out that this should be avoided as it can be
confused with the continuous screw expeller. An example of cage press is the curb
press which was manufactured in Luxembourg and which has been widely used in
Nigeria for extracting palm oil.
1195
The cage is made of two halves hinged on one side and locked together with a pin on
the other. This enables the cage to be opened easily for unloading the spent material
after pressing. The design makes cage presses particularly convenient for palm oil
extraction, but the central position of the screw inside the cage makes the press
unsuitable for pressing other oilseeds (Head et al., 1995). Fig. 7 illustrates the curb
press and its use.
Fig. 7: Curb Press.
Alonge and Olaniya (2006) performed experiments to determine the effects of

dilution volume, water temperature and pressing time on oil yield from the kernels of
thevetia nuts using a laboratory cage press. They reported that oil yield increased to a
maximum value when the dilution volume was increased from 5 to 15 ml after which
it decreased with further increases in dilution volume. They also reported no definite
pattern in the relationship between oil yield and water temperature. Also, oil yield
increased progressively when the pressing time was increased from 5 to 30 minutes at
all levels of dilution volume and water temperature. Alonge and Iyanda (2011) also
reported that dilution volume, water temperature and pressing time had significant
effect on oil yield from cashew nut (at p<0.05).
The effect of processing factors on oil yield of shea butter during extraction was also
studied by Alonge and Olaniyan (2003). They found out that the dilution volume,
water temperature and pressing time, as well as dilution volume versus water
temperature all have significant effect (at 95% significance level) on the yield of shea
butter. Research has also been carried out on optimization of groundnut oil expression
(Alonge and Olaniyan, 2006).
3.4 Technological Advances in Chemical Oil Extraction

Chemical oil extraction can be achieved through the use of solvents (solvent extraction)
or enzymes (enzymatic extraction).
3.4.1 Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction is the most commonly used chemical method for oil extraction. It is
the process of separating a liquid from a liquid-solid system with the use of a solvent.
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Some of the solvents used for oil extraction are light paraffinic petroleum fractions
which include pentane, hexane, heptane and octanes (Mariana et al., 2015). Other
solvents include ethanol, methanol, and acetones (Mani et al. 2004).
Solvent extraction of oil is a simultaneous mass transfer process, which involves

movement of vegetable oil from the solid phase (flaked material) to the liquid phase
(solvent), as well as absorption of solvent by the solid phase, until equilibrium is
attained. It can be a batch (e.g. Soxhlet and fixed column extraction) or continuous
process (e.g. countercurrent extraction or continuous stage-wise extraction). Avram et
al. (2014) mentioned that the rate of oil extraction in solvent process is dependent on
the type of moisture used, the thickness and area of solid phase, temperature and
moisture content. Another factor is the residence time.
The materials are first milled, then flaked in order to increase the contact area of the
material with the solvent resulting in maximum oil yield. Some processes may
involve cooking the flaked material to denature cell tissues for easy penetration of
solvent (Mariana et al., 2015). The solvent extraction process consists of five closely
interrelated unit operations, namely: solvent extraction, meal desolventizing, meal
drying and cooling, miscella distillation, and solvent recovery (Kemper, 2000). Most
commercial vegetable oil extraction plants employ the continuous countercurrent
process in which the fresh solvent enters in one direction while the material enters in
the opposite direction. The spent cake is discharged at one end while the miscella
(solvent-oil mixture) is collected at the opposite end.
The solvent is separated from the oil through miscella distillation. Mariana et al.
(2015) explains that the process involves heating the resulting miscella in evaporators
at 80°C. Further, steam is injected on the shell side to vaporize and reduce the solvent
to about 5% of the oil. Finally, the mixture is subjected into steam-stripping in a
vacuum tower to remove the remaining solvent, at temperatures rising to a final of
110°C.
After the maximum oil has been extracted from the material in the solvent extractor,
the meal is conveyed to the desolventizer toaster (DT), in order to remove the solvent
from the meal fraction so that the solvent can be recovered. The material entering the
DT is typically at the extractor temperature of 60°C, and it contains 25–35% (w/w) of
solvent. The material leaving the DT is wet cake which is conveyed to the meal dryer
cooler (DC), where the moisture in the meal is reduced to trading rule limits and to
lower the meal temperature prior to storage (Kemper, 2000).
According to Kemper (2000), the solvent recovery processes include solvent and
water vapor condensation as well as stripping of solvent from water and air effluent
streams. The recovered solvent is usually heated prior to reuse in the extractor. The
solvent vapors from the miscella distillation process are typically condensed in a
1197
common medium-vacuum condenser while the water and solvent vapors from the oil
stripper and mineral oil stripper are typically condensed in a high vacuum condenser.
Solvent extraction is considered the most effective means of oil extraction in terms of
oil yield and oil extraction efficiency. Commercial solvent oil extraction processes
result in 99% extraction efficiency. Adepoju et al. (2014) gave the other advantages
of solvent extraction over other extraction methods to include cost effectiveness,
simplicity and short time needed for extraction. However, some limitations and
disadvantages related to solvent oil extraction include the fact that chemical solvents
are harmful to human health and the quality of recovered oil is lower than that of
pressed oil. Thus, solvent-extracted oils may not be considered suitable for certain
specialty purposes, such as food and cosmetics. Also, the highly inflammable nature
of the chemicals pose danger of fire and explosion. The process also requires
relatively high capital costs as well as high energy requirements (Mariana et al.,
2015).
Many researchers have worked on solvent extraction of oil from specific crops. One
of them is Mani et al. (2004) who carried out a study to investigate the suitability of
different solvents (hexane, petroleum ether and acetone) for oil extraction from
moringa seed and to optimize the various process parameters (particle size, extraction
temperature and residence time). Also, Adepoju et al. (2014) carried out a study
which focused on optimization of oil extraction from Soursop oilseeds using Box-
Behnken design, and also examined the physicochemical properties and fatty acid
profile of the oil. Avram et al. (2014) built up an experimental bench-scale plant
based on percolating procedure, in order to investigate the solvent extraction for oil
separation from ground rapeseed, soybean and sunflower.
The Solvent Extraction Plant
A commercial solvent extraction plant for vegetable oils is usually a highly automated
plant. In addition to the basic components described above, the plant comprises
pumps, conveyors, heavy piping, heat exchangers, and process and instrumentation
equipment, among others. Fig 8 shows a typical process flow diagram for solvent
extraction of vegetable oil.
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Fig. 8: Process Flow Diagram of a Vegetable Oil Solvent Extraction Plant (Source: Oil
Mill Machinery).
3.4.2 Enzymatic Extraction
Enzymatic extraction is an aqueous extraction process which uses specific enzymes

(depending on the type of material) to break down the tissues of oil-bearing materials,
releasing oil. Ricochon and Muniglia (2010) noted that enzymatic extraction works
using a phenomenon opposite to solvent extraction. Solvent extraction works by
dissolution of the oil by the solvent, which results in the oil extraction, while the
solids are left over as spent material. In enzymatic extraction, the non-solubility of oil
in water is utilized. Here enzymes are used to hydrolyze/facilitate dissolution of the
different constituents of cell walls (cellulose, hemicellulose, pectins, proteins, etc.)
and the oil is liberated. Thus, in enzymatic extraction, knowledge of the structure and
component of the crop cell wall is important for proper selection of enzymes, as well
as the selection of the right physico-chemical parameters required for optimum yields.
Depending on the component of the crop cell wall, enzymes that may be used include
cellulase, β-glucosidase, Xylanases, β-Mannanases, -L-Arabinofuranosidases,
Polygalacturonases (PG), Pectin ester hydrolases, Polymethylgalacturonases (PMG),
proteases etc. (Ricochon and Muniglia, 2010). The role of most carbohydrate
1199
enzymes such as cellulases and pectinases is to break the structure of cotyledon cell
walls and the action of proteases is to hydrolyze the protein in the cell membranes as
well as the inside cytoplasm (Wang et al., 2008). Different enzymes can be combined
to form an enzyme mixture suitable for a particular cell wall composition. This will
facilitate hydrolysis of the tissues, partly due to the fact that one enzyme may release
a useful substrate needed for another to function.
A number of factors influence the performance of an enzymatic process. These

include: grinding (type of crusher, speed, humid or dry); degree of inactivation of
endogenous enzymes (equipment, pH, humidity, temperature, time); water quantity
and mixture (water/solid ratio, equipment, speed rate, time); enzymatic hydrolysis
(time, agitation, enzyme/substrate ratio, pH, temperature, sort of enzyme);
inactivation of exogenous enzymes (temperature, pH, time, equipment); and oil
recovery (Centrifugation, filtering, speed rate, time, pH, temperature) (Ricochon and
Muniglia, 2010). Enzymatic extraction is considered an eco-friendly method of oil
extraction, which can better protect the health of employees and the environment –
compared to solvent extraction. It also results in better oil quality. Thus, this method
of oil extraction has been explored by many researchers. Wang et al. (2008)
developed an aqueous enzymatic extraction process to recover oil and protein
hydrolysates from blanched peanut. The enzyme type and enzyme concentration for
the most efficient extraction were selected.
Beatriz et al. (2003) investigated the effect of relevant operational parameters

including enzyme concentration, incubation time, pH and substrate/ water ratio on
coconut protein and oil extraction yield. They found out that pH was the most
meaningful parameter on oil and protein extraction yields, with a significance level
higher than 90%. The maximum extraction yields of oil and protein emulsion (83%)
was reached using Viscozyme L and subsequently Neutrase 1.5 MG at concentrations
of 0.6% (w/w) and 0.3% (w/w), respectively, total incubation time of 60 minutes,
substrate/water ratio 1:6 and pH around 7.
Other notable researchers who have worked on enzymatic oil extraction include
Zhang et al. (2007), Aparan et al. (2002), Ricochon and Muniglia (2010), Li et al.
(2014), among others.
3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)
Supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively novel method of obtaining vegetable oil

from agricultural material. It is, however, one of the most widely used methods in
recent times. The SFE is a separation technology that uses supercritical fluid as the
solvent (Xu et al., 2011). A supercritical fluid is a fluid which exists above the critical
point and thus can be continuously transformed without phase transition into both the
liquid and vapor phase.
1200
A critical point is defined in terms of the critical temperature and critical pressure. At
this temperature and pressure the phase boundaries (between liquid and vapor, for a
liquid-vapor critical point) vanishes. The critical point is the end point of a
temperaturepressure curve which designates conditions under which the liquid and
vapor phases are indistinguishable. Xu et al. (2011) stated that under these conditions
fluids cannot be liquefied above the critical temperature regardless of the pressure
applied, but may reach a density close to the liquid state.
The advantages of SFE over conventional solvent extraction processes include

excellent mass transfer properties and ease of control of solubility by operating
pressure, operating temperature or polar modifier. Also, SFE yields high quality oils
which, unlike solvent extraction, may not need any further refining (Salgin and
Salgin, 2006; Xu et al., 2011). According to Xu et al. (2011), the main supercritical
solvent used in oil extraction operations is carbon dioxide (critical conditions =
30.9°C and 7.28 MPa).
The advantages of carbon dioxide as SFE solvents include the fact that it is cheap,
environmentally friendly and generally recognized as safe. Also, supercritical CO2
has high diffusivity and its solvent strength can be adjusted to meet the extraction
needs. Another advantage is that CO2 is gaseous at room temperature and ordinary
pressure, and is easily recovered from the oil and cake. Additionally, the fact that SFE
with supercritical CO2 can be operated at low temperatures using a non-oxidant
medium, prevents thermal degradation and oxidation of vegetable oils. In a nutshell,
carbon dioxide is considered an ideal solvent for the extraction of natural products
because it is non-toxic, non-explosive, readily available and easy to remove from the
extracted product. (Xu et al., 2011).
However, using supercritical CO2 as an extraction solvent is not without drawbacks.

The main challenge is that supercritical CO2 has low polarity, and invariably a low
solvating power. However, Xu et al. (2011) stated that the problem can be overcome
by employing polar modifiers (co-solvents) to change the polarity of the supercritical
fluid and to increase its solvating power towards the oil. Other disadvantages of
supercritical fluid extraction are high investment costs for equipment acquisition and
high energy demand of the CO2 extraction unit (Cvjetko, et al., 2012).
The method has received enormous research interests and special attention in the field
of vegetable oil extraction. Honarvar1 et al. (2013), who worked on mathematical
modeling of SFE of oil from canola and sesame Seeds, described the SFE process.
The process involves feeding carbon dioxide from a gas tank equipped with a
condenser to keep CO2 liquefied. A pump is used to pressurize the liquefied carbon
dioxide to the desired pressure. The material and ethanol (modifier) along with glass
beads are loaded into a high pressure vessel in which the glass beads are used to
prevent flow channeling in the packed bed. The pressurized carbon dioxide is then
1201
passed through a surge tank before feeding to the packed bed vessel. Fig. 9 is a
schematic representation of the process.
Fig. 9: Schematic Diagram of the Extraction of Oil from Canola Seed with Supercritical
Carbon dioxide (Honarvar1 et al., 2013).
During the dynamic conditions the flow of solvent through the vessel is allowed by
opening the back pressure valve, which is heated by an electrical resistance to prevent
it from freezing. The extracted oil can then be obtained.
3.6 Extraction by Steam Distillation
Steam distillation is a technology used to extract essential oils in plant materials.

Biorenewables Education Laboratory (2011) states that essential oils are secondary
metabolites, a collection of hydrophobic compounds that can be extracted from plants
and are used in perfumes, flavorings and alternative medicine techniques such as
aromatherapy.
Steam distillation as a method of essential oils extraction is possible due to the

volatility of essential oils (ability to evaporate) when heated with steam and their
hydrophobic nature, which allows them to separate from the condensed water into an
oil phase during condensation. A typical steam distillation system is a vertical unit
consisting of heat source, boiler section, biomass chamber, still head, condenser and
receiver.
Steam is produced in the boiler section by heating distilled water. This steam travels
upward into the biomass chamber where essential oils and water-soluble plant
compounds are removed into the vapor stream. The vapor stream travels through the
still head, condenses in the condenser, and is collected in the receiver, where the
essential oil layer phase separates. Steam distillation of biomass generally yields two
1202
products: a relatively high purity essential oil and an aqueous condensate called a
hydrosol (Biorenewables Education Laboratory, 2011).
4. CONCLUSION
This review on vegetable oil extraction research and operations has pulled together
some in-depth information from various resources. It has revealed the various
technologies developed and employed in extraction of oils from agricultural materials,
presenting both the older methods and recent ones. Researchers investigate the oil
extraction technologies used at a particular time, in terms of their strengths and
limitations. They seek ways to optimize the process in order to reduce the limitations.
Others research on development of better, more efficient technologies. This evidently
resulted in the vast array of research works reference in this paper.
However, it is important to research more into the effect of the processing methods
and parameters on the intrinsic indices of vegetable oil quality, as well as the safety of
oil produced by these methods for consumption. This presents opportunities for more
research.
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Extraction of Vegetable Oils from Agricultural Materials: A Review

Conference Paper · June 2019

Akindele Folarin Alonge Nsuhoridem I. Jackson

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Extraction of Vegetable Oils from Agricultural Materials: A Review

Akindele Folarin Alonge1 and Nsuhoridem I. Jackson2

Keywords: Extraction, Vegetable oil, Methods, Technology, Oleaginous, Equipment

Extraction is an important unit operation in crop/food processing involving the

2. VEGETABLE OIL AND ITS USES

2.1 Oil Extraction Parameters

3. VEGETABLE OIL EXTRACTION TECHNOLOGIES

Fig. 1a: Flowchart for Oil Extraction from

3.1 Traditional Hot Water Floatation (HWF) Method

Alenyorege et al. (2015) conducted a research to determine the Extraction Yield,

3.2 Manual Kneading

3.3 Technological Advances in Mechanical Oil Extraction

Mechanical extraction is also referred to as “Expression” and involves placing the

3.3.1 Screw Press

Khan et al. (2016) worked on design, simulation, construction and performance

When designed in the co-rotating configuration (the best design), a twin-screw

Fig. 4: Schematic representation of the twin-screw extruder design comprising two

Many researchers have worked on twin-screw extraction of oil from agricultural

Parameters Influencing the Screw Pressing Process

3.3.2 Hydraulic Press

Fig. 5: Schematic Representation of

Parameters Influencing the Hydraulic Pressing Process

According to a research carried out by Kehinde (2007) on coconut oil expression by

3.3.3 Cage Press

Fig. 7: Curb Press.

Alonge and Olaniya (2006) performed experiments to determine the effects of

3.4 Technological Advances in Chemical Oil Extraction

3.4.1 Solvent Extraction

Solvent extraction of oil is a simultaneous mass transfer process, which involves

The Solvent Extraction Plant

3.4.2 Enzymatic Extraction

Enzymatic extraction is an aqueous extraction process which uses specific enzymes

A number of factors influence the performance of an enzymatic process. These

Beatriz et al. (2003) investigated the effect of relevant operational parameters

3.5 Supercritical Fluid Extraction (SFE)

Supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively novel method of obtaining vegetable oil

The advantages of SFE over conventional solvent extraction processes include

However, using supercritical CO2 as an extraction solvent is not without drawbacks.

3.6 Extraction by Steam Distillation

Steam distillation is a technology used to extract essential oils in plant materials.

Steam distillation as a method of essential oils extraction is possible due to the

Adepoju T. F., Okunola A. A. and Olatunji E. M. (2014). “Solvent Extraction of Oil

Alonge, A. F. and Iyanda, R. A. (2011). “Some Processing Factors Affecting

Alonge, A. F.and Olaniyan, A. M. (2003). “Effect of Processing Factors on Oil Yield

Evelien U. and Philippe E. (2017). “Twin-screw Extrusion Technology for Vegetable

Ojomo, A. O., Ologunagba, F. O. and Alagha, S. A. (2011). “Evaluation of a Locally

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