CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

This chapter is designed in order to present some points as the introductory

of this research. And those points can be noticed as: Research Background,

Research Question, Research Objectives, and Research Significance

1.1 Research Background

In a development of education system, there is one aspect which must be

focused first as the fundamental idea of creating good teaching and learning

process in classroom and that aspect is named as curriculum. In specific,

according to BSNP (Badan Standar Nasional Pendidikan) in 2006 curriculum is

defined as the source of plans and management in which learning objective,

learning content and learning material are involved in order to be used as the

fundamental aspect of conducting teaching and learning process and able to meet

the goal of learning. Further, by noticing the definition of curriculum, it can be

stated based on BSNP that curriculum can be a system of forming and deciding a

design of teaching and learning process in a country. As it is a system, there are

some points which build the system as a unity in which the points are related to

one another. Those points are decided as objective, content and material. In

details, objective in curriculum is determined as the direction of a teaching and

learning process. As it is a direction, there must be a controller in order to make

sure that teaching and learning process is on the right trek to the objective.

Moreover, learning objective is the final destination in which every student is able

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to have knowledge and concept about the ideas of topics and materials that

student learns through doing all activities in classroom. Those knowledge and

concept which exist in students’ mind are categorized as a process of memorizing

as it is stated by Lutz and Huitt in 2003. Further in students’ mind during the

learning there are a lot of information which students decode from teacher’s

introduction, explanation, illustration and also demonstration, then those

information is transferred to students’ memory which can be remembered for

certain times by students. By noticing the terms of times of students’ ability to

remember the information from topics of learning, it is then insisted by Lutz and

Huitt that there are two types of memorizing process in students’ mind; Long

Term Memory (LTM) in which students’ can remember the concept of topics

taught in long time, and Short Term Memory (STM) in which students are issued

only able to remember the information from the concept of the topic in short time.

Furthermore, continue to the points in curriculum, the next point is learning

content. It is determined by BNSP that learning content in curriculum must be

related to the standard competency and standard and basic competency. In more

specific, it can be explained that standard competency is the minimum

competency which need to be achieved by the students in learning. This standard

competency decides the minimum number of final score and also skills in every

learning subject, particularly English subject in order to make students are aware

in their own English skill development which must reach the standard or even

higher than the standard. Moreover, it is issued that when student is not able to

reach the standard of competency based on the curriculum, the students are

categorized as fail in learning in which the students need to do remedial in order

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to re-evaluate their skill to be better and can get the standard. Further, for the

basic competency, it is stated based on BSNP that basic competency involves the

basic indicators which must be exist in students’ mind and physic as a

competency and skill. This basic competency is determined as the fundamental

aspect which students need to be mastered in order to complete their way to

learning objective. As it is called as basic, it leads into an understanding that every

indicators in basic competency need to be included in learning topic in order to

introduce to students what they will study, and to explain to the students what

they are studying with, and also to practice the students to do apply and

implement the ideas and concept of the topic into the real life through

presentation, demonstration and illustration.

Moreover, it is continued to the last point of curriculum based on BNSP

which is called as learning material. This learning material is designed based on

basic competency in order to make a good correlation between standard

competency, basic competency and learning material. It needs to be stated firstly

that those three aspect (standard competency, basic competency, and learning

material) needs to be set as one unity since basic competency needs to concern all

aspect or point in standard competency because as basic competency is the

fundamental competency which need to be mastered by students, therefore the

standard competency is becoming the center as it sets the minimum standard

which need to be achieved by students where basic competency needs to be

designed from. Further, for the learning material is the indicators in which the

points of indicator are coming from the standard competency and basic

competency in order to create good and appropriate learning material for students

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which can support, motivate, facilitate and help students to achieve the goal of

learning. Then, it can be stated that this learning material is the implementation of

the ideas and grand concept of standard and basic competency in classroom which

are presented to students through innovative and attractive teaching styles and

strategies in order to make ideas and grand concept are easier to be understood

and applied in real life by the students.

Moreover, by considering specific term in curriculum, the all points of

curriculum then depend on how a learning activity is created and considered based

on the curriculum, because it is very crucial that learning activity is the reflection

of a curriculum, how the learning objective, learning content and learning material

are involved into one appropriate, innovative, and effective learning. Moreover, it

can be stated based on curriculum that learning is designed as well-planned

activity in which there is clear purpose as learning target to be achieved and create

students who have competence in all aspects of learning (BSNP, 2006). By

considering the all aspects mentioned, it can be specified to English as one of the

subject to be taught in classroom based on curriculum that there are four aspects

which are focused as important aspects in learning English as foreign language,

those aspects are name as; reading, writing, listening and speaking. Moreover, as

some aspects of learning activities are focused as target to be achieved, then it can

be stated that speaking aspects which is noticed as one of important aspects in

learning activity in which students are expected to have good knowledge in order

to produce utterance which are correct and appropriate to the contextual situation

and can create good communication and interaction. Further, emphasizing on the

speaking as one aspect of curriculum, particularly curriculum of 2006 or also

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called as Kurikulum Tingkat Satuan Pendidikan (KTSP) tahun 2006 (BNSP,

2006), speaking is defined as competency which includes seven main principles

that basically involve the process of students’ learning in every grade of

education. Those seven principles can be mentioned as: (1) potential, progress and

needs. The KTSP is designed and developed based on a principle that every

student has potential to improve her/ his self into good progress of learning which

basically also consider the needs of students. On the other words, it can be stated

that KTSP is curriculum of contextual application, where students who have

developed their potential and show good improvement of learning process are

prepared to face the real life to survive and able to apply what they have learned

in social interaction and communication and also can be successful in life. (2)

Varieties. Second aspect of principles of KTSP is varieties in which this KTSP is

considering, noticing and concerning the varieties of social background and

characteristics of students which also influence by the varieties of areas, districts,

religion, educational grade, cultures and religions. Therefore this KTSP involve

the local material competency as the element in learning content and material in

which every local rules, local culture and local wisdom are considered as a

material to be taught to students in order to support and develop their skill in

mastering deeper about the local aspects in which the students are living with. (3)

Up to date. It is expected that every curriculum which is designed to be applied in

a country must be sensitive with the development of any educational and

technology issues in order to upgrade the quality and quantity of teaching and

learning process in which basically influence by the education and technology

development and that is applied in KTSP in which this curriculum is designed to

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be dynamic and sensitive to the any current development in education in order to

give the students up to date learning experience and knowledge in order to help

them to be ready in facing the real world. (4) Relevant to real life. As it is

mentioned before that this KTSP is kind of curriculum which focus on how

students are ready to face the real life and apply what they have learned in the

classroom. Therefore, it can be stated that this KTSP is doing an effort to make

students’ mind concept to be relevant as possible to the real world where students

will apply and implement a lot the abstract concepts into real skills.

Furthermore, (5) Continuity. This fifth principle shows that KTSP is a

curriculum which designs connectivity and relativity of learning materials in

every grade of education. It is insisted here that every grade must have connection

and continuity topics to be learned by students in order to show students how the

topics that they learn are getting complex and specific based on their grade. (6)

Long life study. KTSP is designed in order to present an effort to make students

are able to study in long life and able to keep continuing their grade of study until

the highest grade. Further this principles also leads into an understanding that

every element in education always develop in certain period of times which means

that there are always something new to be learned by students and that is why

students need to keep studying in their whole life. (7) Contextual based. Being

contextual is one of the main focus of KTSP in order to present learning material

which is relevant with the real life so that students are having good concept and

readiness to face the real life, and also it is expected that students can develop

their social skill through their preparation in learning in order to get more

knowledge and information through interaction and communication in social

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context. Based on those seven principles, it can be stated that speaking

competency is kind of skill which needs to be mastered by students in order to

survive in life, it because speaking is used in every activity of learning and also

social context. Moreover, based on KTSP 2006, speaking are used in order to

have correlation between students’ knowledge, concepts and perceptions to the

real life of contextual situation through producing correct and appropriate

utterance. Basically, speaking is about connecting one person to other by doing

interaction and communication in which people, especially students are having

chance to evaluate their speaking skill progress, and also to gain important

information from other students.

Further, by considering those explanation above about curriculum and KTSP

2006 as the curriculum today in Indonesia, it can be specified into the one aspect

in KTSP curriculum 2006 in which this skill is also considered as important skill

in English subject. Basically, in KTSP learning process, it is claimed that there are

few aspects of students which are involved in order to get maximum learning and

reach the target of learning. As it is mentioned in general that there exactly four

aspects of students which mainly influence the daily learning from the students,

namely: listening speaking, reading and writing. Particularly in speaking, it is

strongly claimed that speaking in English in second language classroom is

becoming something that hard to the students since there are many aspects which

students need to focus with, such as vocabulary, tense, pronunciation, situational

context and meaning (Holmes, 2004). In vocabulary, it is indicated that students

need to deal with words in English which need to be understood in term of their

meaning and their function, when students choose to speak with inappropriate

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words during conversation, it tends to bring any misunderstanding and can affect

the duration of conversation, therefore students are expected to learn the words

which include the meaning and also their function in social situation conversation.

Moreover, when students also needs to consider the use of tense in second

language leaning classroom since English is not their first language, therefore

tense is kind a rule of words use in conversation. When it is emphasized on rule, it

means that students are expected to follow every points of tense in term of their

pattern of use and also their change of verbs or any related adverb. It can be stated

that if students take a risk to ignore tense when they do conversation with

teachers, friends or even with native, the only thing that is claimed to happen is

that confusing and malfunction. Confusing in term of the meaning of the

sentences which has no indication whether they are expected to be stated in

present, past or future, moreover the malfunction can happen as the sentences

have no consideration to the tense which means that the sentences are having no

pattern and good arrangement when they are used in conversation.

Further, another aspect based on Holmes (2004) which generally influences

students in speaking class is named as pronunciation. It is claimed that to

pronounce means to say the correct as it should be, and that statement leads into

an understanding that an English word can be heard and understand properly

when it is pronounced orally in correct manner. Moreover, it can be assumed that

when students are missing this aspect of pronunciation, the words that they will

tend to be unidentified words as the words do not pronounced properly by the

students. It also means that leak in pronouncing is losing the words’ meaning,

function and use in conversation. Furthermore, it is issued that pronunciation is

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becoming one of important aspects in second language class as pronunciation is

strongly claimed as the basic in leaning process particularly in speaking class. The

basic of pronunciation in speaking class is indicated as the process of pronouncing

is done orally and as it is done orally students need to consider how every letter in

a word is pronounced and how they are pronounced as a whole unity.

Moreover, as some important aspects in speaking class are presented above,

then it can be stated that those aspects are still involved into another aspect which

is also paramount in speaking class of second language (Holmes, 2004). That

aspect is called as contextual situation. Every vocabulary chosen, every tense

which is considered and every pronunciation which is practiced, then all of those

aspects must be fit with situation when the students do speaking to other people. it

is claimed that contextual situation is kind a limit of the use of those aspects,

because when those aspect come into a limit of contextual situation, they need to

be reduced in term of the only appropriate and correct ones which will be used in

a situation of speaking class. Further, this contextual situation is also claimed to

be defined as the practice field of students where they can apply every knowledge

of vocabulary, tense and pronunciation in speaking class into the real situation,

moreover contextual situation is also indicate as the place where students are

exploring other new vocabulary which they can learn from other speakers or

students during conversation in speaking class, particularly in contextual situation.

Further, it can be underlined that every important aspect of speaking is started

from speaking class where the students who is identified as good prospective

speaker can achieve all knowledge and concepts which are basic in speaking and

also they are allowed to practice their confident and braveness to speak without

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any worry about the aspects since through the practice students can be aware with

research on any mistakes to be corrected.

Further, theoretically, speaking class has some problems which need to be

concerned with. As it is stated by Richards in 2013 through his research on

speaking theories and methodologies, it is stated that there are some problems

which students face during their learning at speaking class, those problems are:

hard to start conversation, misunderstanding in communication, mastering less

vocabulary, and no communication strategies. Actually, those problems are

claimed as the effect of ignoring the essential function of communication in

speaking class. The essential function of communication means that students are

expected to focus on some aspects which have been stated above in order to

minimize the tendency of having the problem in speaking and also to develop and

improve their speaking skill which is good and appropriate. Furthermore,

regarding to the speaking problems which is found by Richard in 2013, it is then

stated that those problems found as they appear when there is no understanding to

the key of communication in speaking, particularly in EFL (English as Foreign

Language) students must have a problem in speaking in which that is a part of

their learning process. Moreover, it is found in NYSESLAT (New York State

English as a Second Language Achievement Test) in 2013 that speaking problems

exist when eight aspects of speaking skills cannot be interpreted or ignored. It is

stated in NYSESLAT (2013) that there are eight points in speaking which need to

be considered and mastered by students because it is emphasized that the eight

points are fundamental aspects in order to produce good speaking in EFL class.

The eight points can be noticed as: grammar, vocabulary, pronunciation, fluency,

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conversational skill, sociolinguistics skill, non-verbal, and content. Actually, those

eight aspects of speaking are supporting the concept of Holmes (2004) who also

presents some aspects of speaking (vocabulary, tense, pronunciation, situational

context and meaning) which needs to be focused by students, particularly EFL

students, and the ones that is presented by NYSESLAT is more complex and

specific in which some social aspects are also included such as conversational

skill and sociolinguistics skill. In details, it can be stated that those social aspects

are included in order to prepare students to be ready to communicate and interact

socially in situational context and can build good bound to other speakers in social

in order to be able to do exchange information and knowledge. Further, those

aspects of speaking are designed and presented in order to specify the EFL

students into what basic crucial aspects to be concerned in speaking class, and

also it can be stated that those aspects can make the speaking learning process to

be easier because the scopes of objectives are clear to be learned and achieved so

EFL students no need to be confuse in concerning what is important to be learned

in speaking.

Moreover, by regarding to the explanation above, it can be emphasized that

problems and aspects in speaking class are part of speaking essential, how

speaking is noticed in some point of view in order to understand the whole aspects

of speaking, therefore as a part of speaking essential, there is one essential term

which has function paramount function in speaking since it can delivery

meaningful word, instruction, and word’s function at the same time, that essential

terms of speaking is called speech acts.

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 Speech acts is essential function in communicating which involves intention

of speaker (Clark, 2004). Further, EFL teacher and students are the ones who use

speech acts for certain purposes. Generally, speech acts is used in order to enrich

words of speaker and make speaker gets more prestige, moreover in specific way,

this speech acts is used to cover the intention of the speaker, and the hearer needs

to understand the words from speaker. It is emphasizes by Clark that speech acts

is essentially having significant function for EFL communication, because for

some people to state what they want or mean in different spoken words will be

more polite rather than state it in direct way. Further, Clark believes that the

essential of speech acts is information for all hearers. Shortly, when a speaker

states a statement which includes intention as speech acts to first hearer, second

hearer and other hearer who are involved in communication needs to get the

intention of the speaker. It can be stated that this theory by Clark has developed a

new concept of speech acts which is claimed can complete the missing point from

the old concept in speech acts. As the old concept of speech acts only concerns on

speech acts as command from speaker to hearer, it is claimed that the

communication and interaction happens is not in a group of people or community,

it is then better to be called as conversation because this old concept give no

concern how others hearer are included. Therefore, Clark is carrying out a mission

of involving every person who is exist during the communication, it is because

Clark commit that a communication can happen in a group of people who giving,

accepting and responding any utterances occur.

From philosophy above, it is then stated through theory that speech acts also

includes politeness to ask someone or hearer to do something (Larsson, 2013).

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This concept by Larsson is claimed as the supporting concept to Clark’s which

reveal another aspect of the use of speech acts in communication. As it is

considered as new concept from Larsson who believes that mostly people choose

speech acts to be used in order to make their utterance more polite and do not

offend the hearer. Further, what have developed in people mind today is that more

indirect, it will be more polite, therefore in EFL teaching and learning, it is

believed by Larsson that both teacher and students, particularly students use

speech acts to state their opinion or statement, not only to enrich their words, but

also to make their utterance more polite as they speak to teacher as their parents at

EFL classroom. Meanwhile, for the teacher, speech acts is also used to make any

utterances more polite, and also to practice students’ awareness of any words

which might be not really intended as their meaning. In short, Larsson states that

in EFL teaching and learning speech acts have been used as functions of language

and means of practice for both students and teacher. Furthermore, in term of

communication and interaction in EFL teaching and learning, when it is

concerned that a teacher is giving an instruction to a student, the other students are

hearing too which means that the students are involving in a situation which is

called community communication. It is claimed by Larsson that in community

interaction and communication the use of politeness at the time of using speech

acts is aimed on transferring a positive issues to the other students who are

listening. This positive issue by Larsson is claimed as one factor that influence

how good and polite communication can happen in EFL classroom.

Further, the theory of speech acts by Larsson in 2013 is supported by Murphy

(2013). It is believed by Murphy that speech acts has relationship with people

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logical. When intention is covered by another different word, there is a process of

logical positivism from hearer to analyze whether the utterance from speaker is

true or false. This logical positivism is the name of concept from Murphy which is

declared in 2013 and this concept believes that every hearer will have process of

thinking by considering logics of contextual situation and physical acts from

speaker. Both of these contextual situation and physical acts are the points which

will be correlated by hearer with the utterance of the speaker. If there is any

correlation, it means the utterance of speaker is true or having no intention, but if

there is no correlation, hearer needs to catch the intention by considering both

points as logic. Further, when the main concept of this concept by Murphy is

specifically related to the speech acts concept by Larsson, it can be found that

being logical will influence the politeness of speech acts and the way it will be

responded by hearer and others. As it is mentioned that being logic means

consider both context situation and physical acts, those two aspects will also give

an awareness to the speakers and hearers in producing and responding speech

acts, specifically, for speakers being logic will affect the ability of choosing any

appropriate words to be used in speech acts and how the words can be responded

positively by hearer and give any positive information to other hearers, so in here

the speaker is claimed to choose to be polite in term of using the words in speech

acts. Meanwhile, for the hearer, being logical affect the way the respond the

speech acts. It is indicated that when the speech acts is covered in polite words,

the way of hearer to respond will be positive and giving a quick respond.

Moreover, there is a research of speech acts done by Ariff and Mugableh

in 2013. The research entitled “Speech Act of Promising among Jordanians”, this

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research intended to analyzed the used of speech acts, particularly speech acts of

promising which is used by Jordanians. It is stated in this research that Jordanians

use speech acts in order to set their utterance becomes more polite to the hearer,

moreover in term of speech acts of promising, it is found in this research that

Jordanians tend to promise to do something in future instead of feeling doubt if

they can do it now. It means that Jordanians do not use any direct words to say

that they cannot do something or attend something now, but the will promise that

they will do it in next time. For Ariff and Mugableh, this way of communication

is belonging to the use of speech acts to make utterance more polite and avoid any

offends from hearer.

Furthermore, by combining all ideas presented above, it can be stated that

speech acts based on gender in EFL teaching and learning can impact any

communication and different respond as it is belonged into politeness. Therefore,

this thesis is designed in order to analyze the use of speech acts in EFL teaching

and learning at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal.

1.2 Research Problem Identification

In applying teaching activity at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1

Abiansemal, particularly at language class, it is indicated that there must some

specific skills to be taught to the students in order to be competent and skilful in

using any specific terms in language especially in EFL. Further, it is indicated that

there are some problems influences EFL teaching and learning process at Sekolah

Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal as they can be identified as follow.

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1) The competency of the teachers are indicated to be improved more

as it is noticed that the teaching and learning activities is not totally

based on the contextual practiced in which students are expected to

be contextual and social competence to use language to

communicate and interact. Further, the teaching and learning

material needs to be developed further in order to create innovative

and impressive learning to students and students are able to be

critical in terms of giving their ideas and opinion toward any issues

happen in the world particularly language development.

2) The specification of language learning material is only based on

the task book. The impact of this issue is that the development of

students’ competency cannot be maximized since the students are

focused on answering the task which generally in writing and just

lay on the knowledge and memorization of the students. It is

indicated that the learning is becoming passive and students will

tend to get bored and less- attractive to the learning.

3) The teaching and learning activity needs to be focused on the

design of lesson plan which has been prepared by the teacher

before conducting the teaching and learning. Every step on lesson

plan must be applied systematically as the lesson plan is coming

from the syllabus which is fundamental aspect of teaching and

learning activity at school.

4) The assessment system needs to be clarified and set as appropriate

as possible depend on the skill which is taught to the students. It is

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 expected that the assessment must carry out the content of the real

worlds into the assessing process in order to correlate the students’

knowledge and concept into the contextual situation which they

will face a lot in real world. Moreover, the assessment must be

designed based on the topic which is taught to the students and the

assessment must include rubric in order to make the evaluating

process can be applied as clear as possible and can be noticed the

indicator which is scored in students performance or work.

Furthermore, it can be stated that from those four of problems which

are identified as big issues at teaching and learning process, this

research will focus on the use of speech acts which is performing at

eleventh grade class. The use of the speech acts is also involving the

types of the speech acts used, politeness, and also errors during the use

of speech acts as it is focused on pronunciation, grammar, and content.

1.3 Research Question

The explanations which have been presented above, now lead to the

formula of the problem of this study. The problem statement can be formulated

as bellow:

1. What are speech acts used by the eleventh grade students at

Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal ?

2. What are locutionary style used in terms of politeness by the

eleventh grade students at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1

Abiansemal ?

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 3. What errors are committed in terms of speaking indicators by the

eleventh grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal ?

1.4 Research Objectives

Start from the problem statement above, it can be mentioned certain

purposes of the study as follow:

1.4.1 General objectives

a) Mapping out the students’ speaking competency, particularly

when they use types of speech acts which also involve

politeness and also the error commits during EFL teaching and

learning process.

1.4.2 Specific objectives

a) Mapping speech acts categories used by eleventh grade

students when they are expected to show their knowledge

and understanding in creating oral sentence of any

expressions related to speech acts categories.

b) Mapping the intention of politeness which is committed to

be used by the students when they state the expression in

sentences of speech acts categories.

c) To understand the reasons for committing such errors in

terms of speaking indicators (pronunciation, grammar, and

content)

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1.5 Research Significance

1) Curriculum designer and implementers would have significant

benefit in terms of getting new findings about the development of

students’ speaking competency particularly in using speech acts

and politeness. Moreover, the findings about error in students’

speaking would give references to develop any new further items

in speaking skill at syllabus.

2) Teachers would have important references about the students’

speaking skill in order to give consideration to the teacher in

designing the speaking material and also in choosing any relevant

and appropriate strategies to improve the skill of students to speak

and minimize the errors committed.

3) Students would have earn some references and correction related

to the findings of their speaking ability particularly in terms of

speech acts used, politeness and errors committed, and those

things are believed can be a consideration and reflection to

students to improve and be better in speaking class.

1.6 Research Scope

This Research is focused on the following terms:

1) The subject of study is those who are at eleventh grade of language

class at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal.

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 2) The main object of this research is focused on the types of speech

acts and types of politeness which are used by during speaking

class.

3) The locutionary acts of every speech acts types which are included

in theory of speech acts by Searle are not available all in EFL

teaching and learning at eleventh grade of language class at

Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal. Therefore, based on

information from the English teachers there are only five

locutionary acts of each speech acts types (5 types) which are

focused to be observed and recorded to be analyzed in this

research.

4) The other object of this research is focused on the errors which are

committed by students in speaking class.

1.7 Definition of Key Terms

1) Conceptual Definition

a) Searle and Van Der Veken (1985), Speech acts is focused on

illocutionary which includes intention of speaker.

b) Clark (2004), speech acts is not only between speaker and hearer,

but also for other hearers (informant participant)

c) Oishi (2006), speech acts includes an intention to get hearer to do

something.

d) Larsson (2013), speech acts involves politeness when it is uttered

to hearer.

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 e) Murphy (2013), speech acts includes logical thinking process and

contextual situation.

f) Yules (2006), politeness is about how to be nice to other people.

g) Watts (2003), politeness affects people character and knowledge.

2) Operational Definition

a) Speech acts is language which are used among the students in EFL

teaching and learning.

b) Locutionary acts is identified as the meaning of students’

utterances which can be categorized into certain types of speech

acts.

c) Politeness is indicated involved in the use of speech acts by

students during their activity at speaking class.

d) Errors are defined as committed mistake which are systematic.

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 CHAPTER II

THEORETICAL CONCEPT

This second chapter of the thesis is aimed on presenting some theoretical

supports and researches toward the topics presented. Further, in this theoretical

concept of chapter there are five sub chapters to be discussed, namely: Theoretical

Description, The Essence of Speech Acts, Types of Speech Acts, The Essence of

Politeness, and EFL (English as Foreign Language) Learning Theory

2.1 Theoretical Description

In speaking class, as it is stated on previous explanation that in speaking

class there are few aspects which needs to be concerned with as they are noticed

as the crucial points in deciding whether speaking class is success and properly

runs or it is just becoming something which is affecting students to be fear to

speak English. Moreover, there is a theory which gives detail concept about

speaking class activities and the theory is stated by Holmes (2004). Holmes

clearly stated that there are some activities which are becoming an obligation to

be conducted in speaking class, and also it is found that the aspects which are

stated before in previous explanation which includes vocabulary, tense,

pronunciation and meaning are also mentioned by Holmes in his book called

Speaking Activities for the Classroom. Basically, it is believed by Holmes that a

speaking class will not be called as speaking class if there are activities without

speaking activities, moreover it is insisted by Holmes that there are some points

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or aspects which need to be considered and applied by the teacher during

speaking class, and those aspects can be noticed as bellow:

1. Warming up.

It is claimed by Holmes that a good speaking class is started from

very beginning of the class by doing warming up before the main

activities in the class is started. In this warming up it is better for

the teacher to do direct speaking to students by doing question and

answer which is designed in simple and relax situation in order to

support students to speak naturally without any setting of topic.

This type of warming up is claimed by Holmes will practice

students’ confident to do speaking, and also to make students be

able to choose and use the words spontaneously during speaking.

2. Words, phrases and sentence

These three points is what teacher needs to be emphasized and

explained during teaching in speaking class since they are claimed

as the starter of speaking process. Ability of students to identify

and chose the English words will be the basic step which need to

be continued into putting other word in order to make the basic

word meaningful, and also students are expected to arrange the

meaningful words into good sentence.

3. Grammar and Speaking

23
 Holmes assumes that grammar is used in speaking, and speaking is

about grammar. Basically grammar is the rules of how speaking is

conducted in speaking class. Pattern, meaning, time, verb pattern

change and contextual situation will be all included in grammar

and speaking. Specifically, grammar is the fundamental rule, and

speaking is the implementation of the rule in speaking activity.

4. Travelling and Touring

This is probably new concept from Holmes that present both new

terms called travelling and touring in speaking activity. Actually

what Holmes want to deliver here is that speaking also needs to be

conducted in outside of class particularly during journey in some

places. Travelling and touring are claimed by Holmes can be good

and exciting activity for students because during those activity

students will find various new terms and words during the journey

of travelling and touring. Moreover, students are also able to meet

any foreign in some places and they can practice their speaking by

doing conversation.

5. Finding the right words.

In speaking class, it is a must for students to use correct and

appropriate words during speaking activities, and it is claimed that

during the speaking activities there is tendency for students to

assume the words that they want to choose to speak. Further, to

assume means to get mistake, and therefore it is suggested by

24
 Holmes that students need to find the right words, and to do that

students can be supported by the teacher of speaking.

6. Tales and Stories

Speaking is not totally to speak, but it is stated by Holmes that

speaking activities can be designed as other activities which can

support speaking. As the example, students can be asked to read a

story or tale from book, and then students are expected to be able

to re-tell the story or tale that the read before according to their

understanding. It is claimed by Holmes that re-telling activities can

develop students ability in choosing their own words but still in the

line of the story or tale.

7. Talking Task

Other important point of speaking activity is the task. It is expected

by Holmes that the task of speaking class must be designed

basically in speaking, for example do presentation, story-telling,

drama, debating and also speech. Those activities are claimed to be

appropriate for students as they are focused in speaking from the

beginning until the main activity, therefore the students are needed

to be tested through speaking task too.

Regarding to the points presented by Holmes above which specifically

presents about the speaking class, further it can be continued to the

relation of speaking activity to the language use in second language

classroom. There is a concept from Richard (2008) which claims that a

success in speaking is affected by good second language use of the

25
learners who consider and emphasize the effectiveness of implementing

English as second language in speaking class and also in contextual

situation. Being effective in speaking, particularly in second language

speaking is kind of balance between speaking competence and the needs

of real situation, therefore speaking aspects which have been learned and

mastered by the students need to be practice as many as possible by

applying travelling and touring activity (Holmes, 2004) so that students

are getting used to apply proper speaking in a situation as it is considered

as effectiveness.

Further, it is also claimed by Richard that between speaking and language

use are connected by intensity which bound those two aspects to be

applied at the same time in one activity. Language is used orally by

considering certain information to be spoken to people, and speaking is

claimed to be defined as activity of correlating knowledge into contextual

situation, therefore they are connected in term of doing oral act by

considering knowledge and information in mind to be shown to other

person in real situation. Moreover, it is claimed by Richard that language

use today is more complex since people are developing to be more critical

and aware in term of developing ideas and topics to be discuss in speaking

activity, therefore in order to prepare students into that level of language

use, it is suggested by Richard that the level of speaking activity must be

improved where the activity must be able to reach about analysis such as

conversation analysis, speech analysis or presentation analysis. It is

claimed by Richard that doing analysis in speaking class will practice

26
students to reveal any further more aspects which exist in speaking

activities, and also the students are able to be ready to develop their

language use when they are involved into contextual situation.

Furthermore, it is also claimed by Richard that through speaking,

the use of the language by students, particularly in second language class

is about connect two big main aspects which are named as ideas and the

world. Specifically, in students’ mind there are claimed to exist many

concepts and knowledge about language and how it is used in speaking.

Both concept and knowledge in students’ mind are claimed as the

fundamental step which must be completed before continuing to the next

step. Then, by Richard, the process of achieving knowledge and concept to

be transferred into students’ mind is actually a process of creating ideas. In

certain specific ways, it is defined by Richard that ideas is the unity of

concept and knowledge which are related to one another to involve one

mission that is implementation. When something is called ideas, it is

assumed that that thing is meaningful concept which is ready to be change

in term of its implementation. Moreover, when the ideas are built in

students’ mind, then Richard called the next step as meet the world. The

world is this terms is the only way to know how deep and how far do the

students’ ideas can survive and can be useful to be implemented in world

as real life. Further, the ideas and the world are two connected big aspects

in term of educational view. Generally, it can be stated that the ideas is

about what is thinking or guessing to happen and it is all about prediction,

but when it comes into the world which is claimed as what is happening in

27
real, the ideas which have some differences to the world must be adapted

by applying some other new ideas in order to support the ideas to survive

in the world. Moreover, the ideas and the world are basically the way of

some experts to show how language can be used orally and it needs to be

appropriate and correct in contextual situation. Therefore, students are

expected to be aware with some strategies in using the language

particularly in speaking class of second language.

As it is considered as one of the language strategies in speaking

class, speech acts are developed from time to time and then it is found that

there are two theories which are claimed as the latest theories of speech

acts and both of theories are coming from Larsson (2013) and Murphy

(2013). Those two theories are going to be analyzed deeper in this second

chapter. The theory from Larsson basically relates the use of speech acts to

the politeness. As it is believed by Larsson, people, particularly EFL

teacher and students generally use speech acts in order to set function of

language in politely even it includes some order through words. It needs to

be realized in term of new function of speech acts presented by Larsson,

that speech acts in its very first function was an order to ask hearer to do

something, and also it was indicated that speech acts include some

intention of speaker that needs to be revealed by hearer. Further, the words

used by speaker which indicate some orders not always state in polite way,

it usually stated in different words which mainly have function to cover

the intention or the real meaning of the speaker. The different words used

are words which mainly descriptive to state situation or condition. For

28
example, speaker says “this is hot here”, speaker simply describes that

situation at that time is hot and the intention of the speaker is ordering the

hearer to turn on the air conditioner or get the speaker some cold drinks.

Furthermore, second theory is presented by Murphy (2013),

according to Murphy there is a process of logical thinking in hearer mind

when she/ he needs to respond through acts the speech from speaker. This

is the first concept of speech acts which relates process of logical thinking

in people mind as speech acts only considers on language and action. It is

believed by Murphy that for hearer who is aware of any language

functions, she/ he will not only do or respond the speech, but also consider

any action as respond. The term logic here means that hearer will notice

any contextual situations and relate it to the speech of the speaker. Logic

means contextual and real, therefore at the time when the speaker produces

any utterances to hearer, the situation or condition around speaker and

hearer will be noticed and analyzed to be related by the hearer. As for

example, at the time in the morning when speaker say “it smells good”,

what coming to mind of hearer who is aware to language function will not

only respond by saying “yes it is” or “I smell it too”, the hearer will

consider one logic that is the time when speaker says the utterance that is

in the morning, what hearer may think is that the speaker is hungry

because that is in the morning and speaker intends to get some food which

is cooking. Therefore, hearer needs to get speaker some food which is

smell good.

29
 Furthermore, when it is focused on the implementation of both

theories from Larsson (2013) and Murphy (2013), it can be stated firstly

that Larsson who found that speech acts is used in order to set a utterance

becomes more polite and still has intention to be responded by an act.

Take a look in EFL teaching and learning, in case of having

communication or interaction to the students, some teachers are claimed

use utterance which is polite and means different. Say for example: when

one student states an correct answer, teacher is claimed will not directly

state and judge that student’s answer is wrong, teacher is claimed will

prefer to use some utterances, like: “Okay, that’s your answer, what about

the other”, “good point, but needs some additions”, “alright, how about

the other students?” and “Thank you, let’s see another view from your

friends” those utterances are indicated cover the intention of teacher which

basically say that student’s answer is wrong. From this point, it can be

assumed that speech acts are saving the feeling of students, because it is

claimed that to be better to hear such of those polite utterances rather than

saying “No, your answer is not correct”. Moreover, this theory by Larsson

also leads into another thinking that speech acts can be used as the way

how to set students behavior in term of being polite in speaking at EFL.

Not only during EFL teaching and learning, but also when they need

interact with native speaker in outside of classroom and also when they

need to interact in their family, neighborhood, and social community

(using first language or EFL).

30
 Continuing to the second theory by Murphy (2013). Actually, this

theory also related to the first one by Larsson, but here Murphy analyze

deeper about the process of logical thinking from hearer when the hearer

gets utterance of speech acts. Murphy just did find how the hearer having

any correlation between their logical thinking and situation around hearer.

Further, in EFL this correlation can be applied when the hearer who is

aware about any linguistics terms used and when he gets such utterance of

speech acts, he will correlate between the meaning of the utterance and

also the situation. As for example in EFL teaching and learning, when

teacher says “we are out of board-marker”, when it is noticed as ordinary

meaning, the teacher may just inform the students that they have no board-

marker left, but when it is analyzed deeper and relate to speech acts

theories, particularly by Murphy, students as hearers will not just sit down

and listen to the utterance as information, but one of them will get the new

marker and give to the teacher. That is the specific implementation of

processing what has been found by Murphy, there is process of correlating

both meaning and situation. The meaning is: there is no board-marker,

situation: no board-marker and teacher cannot teach or explain, therefore

by correlating those two things, there will be respond as: get new board-

marker and teacher can teach.

Furthermore, it is claimed that there must be some supported

researcher which support the theories used in this paper. There are three

researches found, which two of them are research which were conducted

in Indonesia, and another one was conducted in Iran. The first Indonesian

31
 research was done by Listiana in 2012 and this research was emphasizing

on type of speech acts used in script of The Help movie. This qualitative

research was aiming on describing the use of speech acts types which were

identified in the script of the movie and also mentioning the illocutionary

(intention) of the speaker based on theory of Austin (1962) who surely

stated that speech is performing action. Further, this research found that

there were 200 speech acts found and categorize as directive (82

utterances), assertive (55 utterances), expressive (36 utterances),

commissive (27 utterances), and declarative (0 utterances). For the

meaning of illocutionary of each speech acts categories were showed in

form of master table. Moreover, when it is coming into the analysis to this

research by Listiana, it can be stated that this research is having some

strengths and also weaknesses. The analysis can be followed as bellow.

Strength:

1. The research is simple research to be conducted which just needs to

analyze the script of the movie and notice every speech acts

categories used.

2. It is innovative to know that Listiana tried to get the data from script

of movie, rather than only focus on speaking lesson or conversation in

English Learning.

3. The data analysis is described clearly in form of table in order to

show every utterances category of speech acts and also the meaning.

Weaknesses:

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1. The theory used as fundamental theory is old theory which is in 1962.

And needs to be clarified by using the latest theory of speech acts in

order to get the latest development.

2. The data analysis is not explained by giving comment or analysis to

the illocutionary found.

Further, another Indonesian research is coming from Muthohar

(2012). The research of speech acts is also in investigating the speech acts

used in movie script of Challenging. The type is also the same that was

qualitative research, but this research by Muthohar was analyzing the three

aspects in speech acts, namely; locutionary, illocutionary, and

perlocutionary. In specific, they were about what speech is produced, what

is the intention of speech act, and how the hearer give respond to the

speech. It means that this research was more specific and complex than

previous research above. But unfortunately, this research also used the old

theory of speech acts that was from Austin in 1962 which means the

research was not really supported by latest and newest data of speech acts.

As the conclusion, this research by Muthohar found that representatives

have the most type speech acts used, and there were two was of people in

the movie to respond the speech acts, by using indirect speech acts and

direct speech acts.

Furthermore, for the international research, it was done by Sadeghi

in 2013 which mainly focused on investigating the use of speech acts

apology by Persian and Kurdish children. This research was qualitative

33
 research which described the way children of Persian and Kurdish said

apology in language function of speech acts. What being analyzed here by

the researchers was the result of interview to some participant from both

Persian and Kurdish. As the conclusion of the research, it can be stated

that there was totally different way of both Persian and Kurdish to say

apology.

Further, as the analysis of research by Sadeghi. The good thing

from the research is that the research tries to make investigation of two

different people of nationality which means the researcher had tried to

explore wider of the use of speech acts category, especially apology.

Unfortunately, the researcher did not give any clear explanations and

description of how both of those different people can say apology in

different way. There must be any table to show how both people say

apology in different.

2.2 The Essence of Speech acts

In very first concept of speech acts, it is found that speech acts was

found for the first time by Austin through the book which is called How to

do things with Words (Oishi, 2006). Austin has a concept that words from

speaker can include intention and that intention need to be caught by the

hearer as they both are having interaction and communication in oral. The

concept of intention by Austin is basically includes meaningful words

which are able to invite acts from the hearer. Further, it is claimed by

Austin that the words with intention is not always instruction or order to

34
the hearer, but they usually normal words which are spoken with intention

as the basic point of the purpose of stating the words to the hearer. In

Austin’s theory, it can be found that there must be difficulty for the hearer

to do such act which appropriate with the intention of the speaker, and also

the hearer must have good skill of analyzing words in which the words are

having intention and the main duty of the hearer is to do act along it. But,

along with the development from Austin, it is then assumed by Austin that

in order to be able to respond the words with intention from speaker, the

hearer are expected to relate the words from speaker with the situation

where the conversation is happening, because it is believed by Austin that

words of intention from speaker are always related to the situation of the

communication and as the acts from the intention words are expected to be

showed at the time after the intention words are spoken, it means that the

speaker must relate the words with the situation at that time. Further, this

concept of intention words is developed and then Austin released three

concepts which are expect can support the very first speech acts theory by

Austin. Those three concepts include conventionality, actuality, and

intentionality, actually this three concepts are basically about the step of

creating speech acts. First, from speaker side, these concepts are claimed

as the step of determining the speech acts in words or statement spoken by

the speaker, therefore according these concepts, there are three things

which needs to be considered by the speaker before the speaker decide to

create words with intention to the hearer, and the three aspects are can be

noticed as follow:

35
1. Conventionality.

Austin insisted that this first aspect is basically about how the

words from the speaker must be correct grammatically and

easy to be understood. Being convention means being valid and

a validity is claimed by Austin as important point to be

considered in order to avoid any miscommunication from

speaker and hearer. As it is stated that the words must be

correct based on grammar, it can be stated that the words must

meet with the rule of grammar or also called as tense, then the

words must be pronounced well. Every word in the sentence

must be correctly pronounced, and also the words which are

used must be simple words and the words must be based on

speaking level of the hearer. Moreover, it can be stated that if

this conventional is ignored by the speaker, it is believed by

Austin that there will be communication breaking down or also

called as communication failure where the words from speaker

are not totally identified and understood by the hearer which

makes the communication stops.

2. Actuality.

This second aspect is focused on appropriateness of the correct

and valid words from the speaker with the actual and real

situation where exactly the communication or conversation is

happening. Austin claimed that actuality is crucial point where

the conceptual ideas from speaker’s mind need to be fixed with

36
 the real situation, therefore the words must appropriate with the

situation around both speaker and hearer in order to support the

intention words can be transferred and understood well by the

hearer.

3. Intentionality

This intentionality involves intention which is intended to be

responded by the hearer through act. This third aspect is the

final aspect where the hearer is claimed to be able to catch the

intention from the speaker after passing through the two

previous steps before (conventionality and actuality). The result

of this third step is claimed as the goal of the intention words

spoken by the speaker where speaker can accept an action from

the hearer since the hearer is able to determine and understand

the meaning of the words of the speaker.

Furthermore, the three steps above are also used by the hearer in order to

create good responsive act to the speaker. Those three steps for the hearer

can be noticed as follow:

1. Conventionality

Through this step, the hearer is claimed need to do two main

things. First, hearer need to master a good vocabulary and also

any terms which relate to the grammar. Second, the hearer

needs to identify the words with intention from the speaker

carefully in order to catch the meaning of the words and can be

used to help the hearer for the next step of these three aspects.

37
 Further, it needs to be considered by the hearer that, in this

step, the hearer is expected to be in the same level with the

speaker in term of the language use or language knowledge in

order to avoid any gaps among speaker and hearer so that the

communication can be done properly.

2. Actuality

It is expected that when the hearer reaches this step, the hearer

is able to relate the words which is identified from the speaker

with the situation of the conversation or communication. This

relation for the hearer can be so important since the final step

depends on how the hearer can be good in this second and first

step before. Moreover, being actual for the hearer means that

hearer needs to be sensitive with the situation surround which

may include weather, something which is happening, and also

certain event surround. It is strongly claimed by Austin that the

more hearer can be sensitive the more the hearer can identify

the speaker’s intention and respond it through act.

3. Intentionality

As the final step, the hearer is indicated to be able to choose the

correct and appropriate act in order to respond the intention

from the speaker. When the hearer can reach this step, it can be

stated that the communication between speaker and hearer is

running properly since both of speaker and hearer are having

good awareness about what they are talking during the

38
 communication and how every word is counting to be

identified and understood by the hearer in order to give proper

act to the speaker.

Furthermore, in speech acts theory development there is another

new thing which is developed by Austin. It relates to the three aspects

which is claimed by Austin as the key of speech acts. Those aspects are

named as: Locutionary act, Illocutionary act and perlocutionary act.

Basically, there three aspects which are developed by Austin is aimed on

specification of speech acts concept which is more clear and

understandable than previous three aspects. For the details definition of the

three aspects by Austin can be noticed as follow:

a. Locutionary

This locutionary act includes the way of every words from

speakers is spoken during the communication with the

hearer, therefore in this locutionary act every aspect of

speaking must be involved well in order to create good and

proper words. The aspect of speaking which needs to be

considered are tenses, pronunciation, meaning, and

vocabulary. All of those aspects are claimed as the points

which will influence the quality of speech acts produced by

the speaker.

b. Illocutionary

In this second aspect, the intention from the speaker is

becoming the main focus where the intention must be

39
 considered as the meaningful words from the speaker to

hearer to be responded. As the intention is involved, it is

better for the speaker and also hearer to analyze the words

which are spoken during the communication; it because

both speaker and hearer are responsible to produce and

identify good words and then responded into acts.

c. Perlocutionary

As the last aspect, this perlocutionary is claimed as the key

of speech acts in communication since in this aspect the act

from hearer will be showed to the speaker as the hearer is

able to identify the meaningful words from the speaker and

also is able to find the intention of the words, then the

hearer is responsible to act proper respond to the speaker

regarding the intention given. Further, it is claimed by

Austin that the act as respond from the hearer can be scored

as positive or negative act by the speaker, it because hearer

is claimed not always be able to give exact act as it is

intended by the speaker. Fully correct act which is same as

the intention from the speaker is not always happen in

communication, particularly in second language

communication since both speaker and hearer are in

progress of leaning or mastering English as the second

language. But it can be stated that the act from hearer as

responds to the intention of speaker can be categorized as

40
 god and appropriate respond if the act from hearer is based

on the result of correlating meaning of words of speaker

with the situation around the communication where speaker

and hearer are conducting communication.

Furthermore, relate to the explanation above about the first speech acts

theory from Austin which is represented by Oishi in 2006. Moreover, there

is another concept of speech acts which comes from a pupil of Austin who

is well known as Searle. Actually however Searle was pupil of Austin,

there are some perspectives which shows that Searle has different concept

in viewing the speech acts, and together with Van Der Veken in 1985, they

mentions some concepts which are claimed as the revision of what Austin

stated before about speech acts; firstly it is believed by Searle that speech

acts is concerned on illocutionary where the intention of speaker is

becoming the main point for hearer to be responded through acts. It means

that the other two aspects of speech acts which are mentioned by Austin

before (locutionary and perlocutionary) are claimed as the main aspects of

speech acts. Second one, Searle insists that the essence of speech acts is

directive which is identified by Searle that speech acts is mainly about a

command with intention to get people who are identified as hearers to do

something as what has been intention as meaning of speech acts by

speaker. Furthermore, there are some important points which are included

to be specified in Searle’s speech acts concept and they can be noticed as

follow:

41
1) Speech acts carries some different types of acts. In Searle’s

theory and concept about speech acts, it is illocutionary which

becomes the key. It is indicated that there are some types of

speech acts which can be revealed from a speech of speaker

2) In Searle’s theory of speech acts, between words and the world

are noticed as different from the Austin’s perspective, in which

Searle believes that the words and world are not always related

to each other, or in the other words it can be stated that the

words are uttered in some purposes which are not related to the

world or fact but they prefer to be related to the intention of

speaker to give direction to be responded in action.

3) Illocutionary is believed to bring belief, intention and desire

from the speaker to be carried out into action, and it leads to an

understanding that psychological state is not involved deeply at

the time when the speech is uttered so that the acts as the

respond of speech acts have small intensity to be difficult to

respond since psychological state is something to do with

personal things.

4) Every type of speech acts are including the same power in

terms of the words’ strength to ask hearers to do act. That

statement is totally contrast from the Austin’s belief that every

speech acts type has different power based on their degree of

meaning.

42
 5) There are no affection which is given from different status of

the speakers and hearers. Although there is different status

between speaker and hearer it is believed by Searle that

illocutionary only different in terms of the types of speech acts

used by the speaker to the hearer.

6) It is believed by Searle that utterances which are produced by

speakers have something to do with interest of speaker and also

hearer when they need to speak to give intention in utterance,

and also to listen in order to respond the utterances.

Those points of Searle’s speech acts theory has carried out some point

of view which support the understanding of speech acts in further aspects.

As t is claimed by Larsson (2013) that basically when speech acts is

uttered there is not only an intention from speaker which is covered by

utterance, but also there is involvement of politeness when speech acts is

uttered. This concept is presented by Larsson as a consideration when

analyzing an utterance of speech acts, as for example, there is utterance

like this: “Could you pass me the pen?”, this is one type of speech acts

named directive speech acts, specifically named as embedded imperative.

Then, it is claimed by Larsson that, that utterance has more than an

intention to be responded, but also a politeness of how it should be stated

in polite way in order to maintain the relationship with the hearer.

Politeness is used as it is claimed by Larsson is that to enrich the function

of the utterance so that the utterance can be meaningful and safe for the

43
hearer to respond. Further, it can be considered when a speaker use

ordinary utterance in using directive speech acts, it is believed by Larsson

that the utterance will be lees function and will threat the hearer in form of

impoliteness. Another example from speech acts type which is claimed to

involve politeness on its utterances is Permission directive. As this

permission directive is defined as a speech to invite any acts to allow

speaker to do something, then this speech acts type also use the function of

politeness in order to make the utterance of speaker can be responded

positively by hearer. This term of positive does not means that there will

be agreement for all things that speakers desires to, but it is more about

how a utterances has a value of politeness of permission request because

the speaker here ask for something that formally not always done, such as;

going to the toilet on lecturing time, ask for question when teacher is

explaining, therefore to safe the speaker politeness is needed in order to

maintain the communication and safe both speaker and hearer.

Regarding to the theories about concepts in speech acts, in here there

an expert named Murphy (2013) which presents a supporting concept for

both previous theories above. This theory by Murphy is kind of a fact of

speakers and also hearers when they use utterance of speech acts and

respond by act the related utterance. It is emphasized by Murphy that there

is a relationship between logical thinking process and contextual situation

in a communication which applies speech acts. Then, it is believed by

Murphy that every speaker will think logically first before he produces an

utterance, and also during the process of thinking speaker also analyze the

44
contextual situation around him in order to avoid the use of any

inappropriate utterances of speech acts. Moreover, this phenomenon also

happens in hearer and participant who are claimed by Murphy will use

their logical thinking to find out the intention of the speaker when he

produces the utterance, and also the hearer and participant will do analysis

toward the situation around the group of communication in order to help

their thinking process to find out the meaning of speaker’s intention.

Further, Murphy also finds out that speech acts is a speech or utterances

which is claimed as the only utterance which can practice hearer and

participants’ logical thinking process and contextual situation analysis. But

it is the also stated by Murphy that not all speakers, hearers and participant

are able to relate their logical thinking and their contextual analysis, as the

result of this, the speech that they produce is not that responded correctly

by the hearer or participant as the hearer and participant are also finding

any difficulties in relating speaker’s intention with contextual situation.

Specifically, from those three newest theories and concepts from

Clark, Larsson and Murphy, it can be stated that today speech acts has

been developed and analyzed well as there are some new finding on it

which are never be found by previous old experts in speech acts. Those

three concept completely show that in sing speech acts there are three

aspects which need to be considered, namely: participant (other hearers),

politeness and also correlation between logical thinking and contextual

situation analysis.

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 2.3 Types of Speech acts

Types of speech acts are basically carry out from Searle’s in 1985

speech acts theories, and the specification can be noticed as follow.

a. Assertives. This category is the intention of what the speaker believes

in, or also belongs to the statement which includes facts. Simply, this

category carries out an understanding of repeated act as fact which is

done by the speaker therefore, this category called representative since

the sentence of this category is mainly about present activity which

happens in continuous. For example: “I go to Gym every weekend in

the morning”. From the sentence it can be identified that the speaker

always go to gym at weekend, and the time is in the morning.

Moreover there are some types of assertives based on Searle and can

be noticed as follow.

1. Assert, 2. Claim, 3. Affirm, 4. State, 5. Deny, 6. Disclaim, 7.

Assure, 8. Argue, 9. Rebut, 10. Inform, 11. Notify, 12. Remind,

13. Object, 14. Predict, 15. Report, 16. Retrodict, 17. Suggest,

18. Insist, 19. Conjecture, 20. Hypothesize, 21. Guess, 22.

Swear, 23. Testify, 24. Admit, 25. Confess, 26. Accuse, 27.

Blame, 28. Criticize, 29. Complain, 30. Boast, 31. Lament.

b. Directive. This directive includes the intention of speaker to get hearer

(addresses and participants) to do something, or on the other word, this

category presents sentence which has intention to invite the hearer to

do act as it is ordered or instructed in the intention of the words in the

sentence. As the example: “The board-marker is out”. The sentence

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 shows that speaker shortly informs about the marker which is out, and

actually there is an intention there which command the hearer to give

new marker.

Further, this category of directive consists of some types of directive

which are basically still focused on giving order or instruction to

hearer. The types of directive can be noticed as follow.

1. Direct, 2. Request, 3. Ask, 4. Urge, 5. Tell, 6. Require, 7.

Demand, 8. Command, 9.order, 10. Forbid, 11. Prohibit,

12.enjoin, 13. Permit, 14. Suggest, 15. Insist, 16. Warn, 17.

Advise, 18. Recommend, 19. Beg, 20. Supplicate, 21.

Entreat, 22. Beseech, 23. Implore, 24. Pray.

c. Commisive. As it is named Commisive, this category emphasizes on

what speaker is commit in or on the other hand it can be stated that

speaker shows a commitment of doing something in future. For the

example for this category is: “I will be coming back to this room in 15

minutes”. This commisive is indicated to have some types which can

be mentioned as below:

1. Commit, 2. Promise, 3. Threaten, 4. Vow, 5. Pledge, 6. Swear,

7. Accept, 8. Consent, 9. Refuse, 10. Offer, 11. Bid, 12. Assure,

13. Guarantee, 14. Warrant, 15. Contract, 16. Convenant, 17.

bet

d. Expressive. This expressive category is aimed on expressing the

feeling of the speaker with intention within. For the example; “I like

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 your presentation”. As Searle believes that there are some types of

expressive which can be mentioned as follow.

1. Apologize, 2. Thanks, 3.Condole, 4. Congratulate, 5.

Complain, 6. Lament, 7. Protest, 8. Deplore, 9. Boast, 10.

Compliment, 11. Praise, 12. Welcome, 13. Greef.

e. Declarative. In this declarative, the speaker is aimed on changing an

institutional state of affair or in simple words it can be underlined that

this category is designed in order to change the status of a person

which is different from before. For example of this category is; “You

are graduated”. Then, this category of speech acts has some other types

which can be mentioned as follow.

1. Declare, 2. Resign, 3. Adjourn, 4. Appoint, 5. Nominate, 6.

Approve, 7.confirm, 8. Disapprove, 9. Endorse, 10. Renounce,

11. Disclaim, 12. Denounce, 13. Repudiate, 14. Bless, 15.

Curse, 16. Excommunicate, 17. Consecrate, 18. Christen, 19.

Abbreviate, 20. Name, 21. Call.

2.4 The Essence of Politeness

As previous part of explanation mentions that basically the latest

theoretical concept of speech acts by Larsson in 2013 is related to the

politeness in which it is assumed that through politeness the intention of

speaker in speech acts can be delivered smoothly and responded well by

hearer and participant. Specifically, on that note, the very first concept of

politeness is delivered by Brown and Levinson in 1978, where on that time

48
they insisted that every people in communicating will tend to safe their

“face”. That tendency is called positive face by both Brown and Levinson

in which people or in this time are called as speakers or hearers, will

express their similarities and appreciation toward any expression or orders

they get. On the other hand, there is also term called negative face, where

people are trying to threat other people by doing disapproval, advice and

rejection toward any orders or expression delivered. Further, it is

underlined that both of those faces have different meaning and functions.

First, positive face or also called as positive politeness. It has two ways of

meaning and functions: agreement and appreciation. As what have been

mentioned before, this positive politeness will accept any issues or order

from speakers to be done or responded (speech acts), related to the

responds, it is claimed that hearer of positive politeness tend to directly

doing an action as the feedback of utterance said.

Furthermore, on the other side, it is believed that the negative

politeness is something that different or against the positive one. Speaker

of this side will tend to against speaker’s intention and then directly give

any declines or even threat speakers by expressing disapproval. Moreover,

it can be stated that the success of communication is exist on the way

speakers deliver their intention to the hearer to be responded, and to be

polite and use any good any smooth word as expression when speaking is

claimed will bring any approval from hearer as it is called positive

politeness. But, it really depends on the way people who are hearers can

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respond the intention of speakers, to be positive and negative politeness is

a choice.

Other concept of politeness is also stated by Yule (2006). It is

defined by Yule that politeness is basically about being nice to other

people. That short and simple definition by Yule leads into an

understanding that politeness is kind of effort which is done in order to

please and make other people feel comfortable with it. Then, in term of

language use, politeness can be identified as the language which is created

as nice as possible in order to make people feel please because of the

words. But then it is questioned about the term nice in language use

aspect. Whether it is short words or long words which can be categorized

as politeness. Further, it is answered by Yule that, more words used in

speaking language, more polite the words will be to the people. That

statement is claimed as a new simple definition of politeness where

politeness is viewed from the general side which can be understood easily

by all people or speakers. Moreover, there is another concept from Yule

which can be categorized as the supporting point to the first concept

presented about politeness. It is assumed by Yule that, being polite means

that people are trying to consider and to be aware with other peoples’

faces. Taking an analysis on that statement that term face is appearing

where face here by Yule is truly people face which is claimed by Yule

need to be noticed in order to keep it safe not threatened. Further by Yule,

when people are deciding to ignoring other people face, it means those

other peoples’ faces will not treated in polite way and the face will be

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threatened and it is also called as negative face. As it is stated in previous

concept of politeness that negative face is kind of rejecting people’s

statement of argument without any consideration of keeping them politely.

Then, on the other side, when people are doing effort to give long good

support in suggestion and also motivation toward the statement from other

people, Yule called it as safe face or also called as positive politeness.

Moreover, in order to give clear and specific details of definition about the

term face in politeness, it is claimed that there are some experts of

linguistics who try to define term face in politeness aspect, and these are

the experts:

1. Brown and Levinson (1987)

The very first concept about face is coming from Brown

and Levinson in 1978. Their concept about face is

determined by stating that face is something that totally lay

on emotion which can be lost or maintained but it just

regularly appears in every interaction and communication

of using language. Regarding to the statement of Brown

and Levinson, it can be pointed out that face according to

them is basically the movement of emotion in every people.

It is claimed that everything that people do will invite a

reaction from the emotion inside them, whether it is bad

emotion or good emotion. It is same as when it is stated that

people who are treated well, supported nicely and the

emotion which will comes out is positive emotion to be

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 showed to other people. However, when people get

distracted, defended and complained, the emotion which

will comes out as the result is negative emotion. Further, it

is strongly underlined by brown and Levinson that people

emotion are so weak. It can be broken down by stating

words which against the people, and on the other side the

emotion can be so strong as it is treated well and supported

nicely.

2. Watts (2003)

Face in politeness has understanding which involves

characters and qualities of something abstract. Further, the

point of Watts’s concept here is that, politeness affects two

aspects in people, first is people character. When people are

treated as polite way, they tend to show good behavior,

good mood and also good feeling because all that they say

during communication are supported, and accepted nicely

without any effort of against. But those character will

change easily when people are rejected, denied, and against

by other people, they will react as negative where every

feeling turns to bad, frustrated and hopeless. Second one,

politeness also affects quality of people knowledge. In

communication, it is expected that other people are trying

to have same opinion or knowledge as other people have in

order to create positive and safe communication, but if that

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 thing does not happen, it means that people are ready to get

disappointed by any claims and complaint toward their

opinion and it will automatically reduce what people have

on their mind as knowledge because they are not confident

to survive what they assume since other people have

different ideas or knowledge.

3. Mills (2003)

In this second concept, it is claimed that face is self-image

which represent peoples’ preference. In this concept, face is

noticed from side of people self-image in which every

person in the world is claimed by Mills have different

perception and preference of him/herself according to what

they believe in. in term of politeness, this term face by

Mills will lead to understanding that people will feel to be

appreciated when they are seen as their self-image or as

what they want to be seen. Actually, this self-image is also

defined as the general description of people which represent

their character, their desire and also their favorite things. It

means that when this concept is focused into politeness,

people who are appreciated as what they are, as what they

have on their mind and as what they want to hear from

other people, it will create positive face on that people. but,

when it turns to be opposite, when people are suggested to

be different than what they are, and when people are

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 protested as what they want to, it can be stated that the only

thing happens is negative face.

Further, when it is continued to the main topic as it has been explained

before about politeness, then it needs to be stated that there are four basic

theory which mainly discuss about politeness, and those theory are

claimed as strong theory which support one another since each theory has

strong point to be carried out (Sachiko, 2005). The details of each theory

of politeness can be noticed as follow:

1. Grice’s cooperative Principle

Grice is claimed as the person who focuses on meaning in

verbal utterances and speakers’ intention. Based on that

concept, Grice assumes that every words from the speaker

which are uttered by considering of awareness, the words

must have meaning which needs to be revealed by the

hearer, further there is also concept of speaker’s intention

which is claimed by Grice that hearer needs to find out

what is the meaning of the meaningful words uttered by the

speaker.

Further, from those concepts, then it is stated by Grice that

there are some strategies which needs to be applied by

people when they are involved in interaction and

communication in order to make them can understand one

another, therefore Grice created four conversational maxim

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 which are aimed on controlling and improving the quality

of interaction and communication among people. the four

conversational maxims are: (1) maxim of quantity: the

point of this maxim of quantity is that speaker is expected

only share information which is needed by the hearer and

not losing control of the number of information to be

shared. (2) maxim of quality. This maxim leads into the

interaction and communication which totally based on fact

which happens in the world. Or on the other words this

maxim shows that speaker needs to share the truth which is

real and not sharing something that is belonged to issues.

(3) maxim of relation. In an interaction it is expected that

people who are involved can share something that

appropriate to be shared on that interaction or share

something that relevant to the other people. (4) maxim of

manner. Basically, this maxim of manner is related to the

way of people doing an interaction and communication

which are expected that people can be fair in sharing

information, use proper expression and also give no

unnecessary words during the interaction and

communication.

2. Lakoff’s conversational-maxim approach

This expert who has complete name Robin Tomach Lakoff

is the one who presents concept of woman’s language in

55
which Lakoff is focusing on how language is influenced by

different of gender and character. Further, here Lakoff

found two main principles which include cooperative

principle and politeness principle. According to Lakoof, the

cooperative principle is same as what Grice carries out as

the four strategies of doing cooperative interaction and

communication, and then what is new here is the politeness

principle which include four rules of being polite. Those

rules are: (1) be clear. It is believed that when all words

which are uttered are aimed on one focus or one thing, it is

claimed that there will be politeness appear along with the

clearness which is given from the speaker. It is simply

defined that be clear means be understood and be satisfied.

When a communication and interaction is designed with

one focus and then the words which are used during

communication are simply understood and relevant to the

focus of the interaction, both speaker and hearer are

claimed will be satisfied as they both are treated with

politeness. (2) Quantity. Be ideal. These two aspects are

claimed as the keys of politeness in interaction and

communication in term of quantity. What speaker share

must be ideal and set in proper portion as what the hearer

want to hear. It is expected that people do not force to give

more information to be shared as the one that needed is

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 already shared. (3) Relevance. To be related or connected

with the topic of communication and interaction is claimed

can be one of the politeness which can make other people

feel good and can maintenance the friendship among the

people. Moreover, be relevance means be part of other

people ideas and mind to think as same or think to give

support to the other people. (4) Manner. In term of manner,

there is rule which set the people in their interaction and

communication do not to force personal ideas and need to

respect other people ideas as they also contain of same

topic, further it is important to do not be ambiguous I

stating a statement or words in order to make other people

can easily catch the point of understanding.

3. Leech’s politeness principle

Leech is well-known as his theory about pragmatics which

also includes politeness. Actually concept of politeness

from Leech supports the cooperative principle from Grice,

but it is different from Lakoff’s principle in which Leech

present a broader concept of cooperative principle as it is

called as maxims of politeness. There six maxims in

Leech’s maxims of politeness which mainly focus on two

basic rules namely; minimizing cost and maximizing the

benefit to the speaker or to addressee. And those maxims

can be noticed as follow: (1) Tact maxims; this maxim is

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 determined on minimize cost and maximize benefit to

other. (2) Generosity maxims; is focused on minimize

benefit to self and maximize cost to self. (3) Approbation

maxims; includes minimize dispraise of other and

maximize praise of other. (4) Modesty maxims; is defined

as minimize praise of self and maximize dispraise of other.

(5) Agreement maxims; is about minimize disagreement

between self and other and maximize agreement between

self and other. (6) Sympathy maxims; involves minimize

antipathy between self and other and maximize sympathy

between self and other.

4. Brown and Levinson’s strategies

The fourth theory of politeness comes from Brown and

Levinson which insist their theory in a concept called

model person. This model person is actually speaker who

has a model in interaction and communication and has

intention, able to use language and able to interact with the

hearer or also called as addressee. The point of Brown and

Levinson theory then continued to a statement which is

claimed that speaker will not always try to save the face of

addressee for some reason, therefore there is a new concept

from Brown and Levinson that is called as FTA (Face

Threatening Act) in which speaker does not want to

maintain the hearer or addressee’s faces. Further, it can be

58
 considered that when speaker decides to do FTA it means

that the statement from speakers will be remembered by the

hearer and also that may hurt the feeling of the hearer.

However, when speaker tries to do not do FTA, there will

be any tendencies to carry out the statement from speaker

into positive or negative politeness.

Furthermore, it is found that there are standard categories which

can be used in order to identify the politeness in utterances of speaker.

These standard categories are found by Watts in 2003. Watts is aiming on

how to signaling any terms or words in speaker’s utterance as words or

terms of politeness, therefore Watts is success to create the categories

which are claimed can be used to identify the categories during interaction

and communication. The categories are presented in form of table, and can

be noticed as follow:

Name of Category Description Examples

Politeness Markers Asking something “Please, if you don’t

mind/ if you wouldn’t

mind”

Tag question + modal “Take my pen, will

you/ would you?”

Play-Down Past tense “I wondered if…, I

thought you might …”

Past continuous tense “I was wondering

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 whether…, I was

thinking you might …”

Interrogative + modal “Would it be great

verb ideas…?, could

we… ?“

Negative interrogative “Wouldn’t it be fine if

+ modal verb …, couldn’t you …?”

Consultative Devices “Would you mind…?,

Could you mind …?,”

Hedges Kind of, sort of,

somehow, somewhat,

more or less, rather,

and what have you

Understaters A bit, a little bit, a

second, a moment, and

briefly

Downtoners Just, simply, possibly,

perhaps, and really

Commiters I think, I believe, I

guess, and in my

opinion

Forewarning “Far be it from me to

criticize, but …,”

“You may find this a

bit boring, but …,”

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 “You’re good at

solving this problem,

but…,”

Hesitator Er, uhh, ah

Scope Staters “I’m afraid you’re in

my seat”

“I’m disappointed that

you couldn’t…”

“it was shame you

didn’t…”

Agent “People don’t you …”

2.5 Theory of Error in EFL

The main point which is discussed in this part is about the theories

which support the existence of error in EFL, particularly error in speaking.

Firstly, it needs to be defined about the definition of error itself and how it

influences the EFL. The very first theory which discuss about error in EFL

comes from Corder in 1967, and it is claimed by Corder that error is kind

of process of learning foreign language which happens automatically

without any clear consideration about how it happens. Further, error is

generally viewed as a mistake which is done by EFL learners during their

learning process, but it is clarified by Corder that an error is not a mistake.

There is big distinction between error and mistake in EFL, in details

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mistake is kind of phenomena which happens by accident because of the

limited knowledge or understanding of learners about the language, and

this mistake can be corrected by themselves after they are explained about

the knowledge that they have missed. However, when it is about error, it is

mostly about system or phenomena which happens not because of missing

any knowledge and understanding but because of the system which affects

the learners, and this error is cannot be corrected by the learners

themselves because it relates to the system of language use which is

actually influenced by other language or generally mother language and

makes the language or target language has an error. Moreover, as an error

is kind of systematical-affected, it leads into an understanding that error is

repeated by the learners unconsciously. The repetition of an error happens

as an habit for the learners since they have no consideration and awareness

how that error can be included in their target language use. Furthermore, it

is stated by Gass and Selinker in 1994 that the only way to make the

learners recognize and fix the error is by a help from teachers or

researches not and it is not possible for the learners to help their selves

with their own error. What becomes the main focus for the teacher or

research who commits to help learners to fix their error is the error not the

mistake of the learners.

Furthermore, there are some types of error which are found by

Corder (1967), namely; systematic and non-systematic. Basically the

biggest different from both of those types of error is the language where

the error happens. For non-systematical error it happens in native language

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and the process of error which happens in native language is claimed by

Corder as non significant thing since native language is the very language

which is heard, learned and spoken and the grade of error significance is

not that high. Moreover, this non-systematic error is actually not an error,

but a mistake since the speaker or learners who does this non systematic

error is a person who lives with the native language everyday and can

adapt the language use in every different situation. Meanwhile, when it is

more focused on the systematic error. This systematic error happens

mostly at second and foreign language learning. This error is significant

because it happens and exist at the process of learning other language

which not basically becomes the native language of the learners, therefore

systematic error is kind of error which can show to the teacher and

research the progress of learners in learning the second or foreign

language, particularly EFL and also show how the students can learn from

the error that they make.

Moreover, as supporting theory to the theories above, here is one

theory from Finney (2005), it is stated that an error mostly happens in

Non-Native English Speaker (NNES) because they have no linguistics

background in oral and written which are basically about EFL, therefore

they have tendency to make error in EFL as often rather than the native

speaker. Further, it is indicated by Finney that error is not coming from a

system of learning foreign language, but also from the external aspect of

learner who is non-native in which they are influenced by some aspects

from outside of their psychological state of mind. Those aspects are

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discourse and task during teaching and learning process of EFL. In details,

it is claimed by Finney that discourse may carry two concepts to the

learners, namely: original understanding of English terms itself, and also

personal understanding of learners themselves. In appropriate ones, the

learners need to understand the basic concept of English terms that they

study in EFL class with same interpretation with the concept of learning

material, but because of the existence of linguistics background which is

not originally English, then learners are indicated to have their own

understanding to the learning material which tends to be different from the

original ones and that what makes the learners get error. Moreover, in

terms of task, error can exist when there is different interpretation of task’s

meaning between teacher and students. In case where the teacher is a

native, there is bigger possibility for error to happen since teacher who is

native English and learners who are non-native, they must have different

linguistics background which will affect the meaning of task when it is

interpreted by learners. But, it there is a case where the teacher is non-

English, it is claimed by Finney that the possibility of error to exist is

small since both teacher and learners are non-native and at least they have

same interpretation and understanding to the task and also learners can be

given clear explanation about the task in their native if the learners have

no understanding about some terms in the task.

It is continued by Finney (2005) that when an error is happening,

there are some aspects which are influenced in learners, namely; grammar,

pronunciation and content. In terms of grammar, the learners are indicated

64
to miss some grammatical aspects of EFL (English as Foreign Language)

and also the rules of tense and verb changes for certain different sentence

which uses different times. Further, sound or the way of learners to

pronounce is also affected by error in which learners are indicated to keep

making the same error for certain terms that have relation with their first

language. Moreover, the topic of learners’ conversation or the content is

also affecting by error when the learners tend to discuss about local

phenomena or their daily activities which in real daily they mostly use

their first language. In specific, those three aspects which are influenced

by error during EFL are aspects where there are mixing terms or habit

between learners’ daily terms in their first language with the EFL terms

which they learn at EFL class.

2.6 EFL Learning Theory

In correlating aspects of using a language particularly English as

second language, it is claimed that it is always connected into learning

process in which language is learned first before it is used with certain

aspects of language in interaction and communication. Moreover, process

of learning a language is claimed to happen in form of stages, it is

indicated that learn a language can happen automatically in rapid period.

When it is focused to the theories of language, it is claimed that first

theory of learning defines learning as process of exploring meaningful

thing which happens continuously. As it is a learning it is indicated that

there must be target of learning which becoming the main reason of why

65
learning is happening, moreover, as the development of learning theory is

continued to the latest learning theory, then it is claimed that there is one

theory of learning in which the theory is designed as complete as possible

therefore it is claimed as the latest theory in education aspect. That theory

of learning is called information processing theory. Further, there is one

concept of this information processing theory in which this theory is

defined as a memory system. This concept is presented by Lutz and Huitt

in 2003. They claim that information processing theory basically includes

process of memorizing in students’ mind in which the memorizing process

also involves mechanisms of brain, information processing and the

principles of operation. Simply it can be started from the process of

recording all materials which are presented or explained by the teacher to

the students during learning, then all of the concept and explanation which

are firstly introduced by the teacher are trying to be recorded and accepted

by students’ mind and this is where the brain starts working to accept all

understanding from the explanation which is understood through simple

explanation and good examples. Moreover, when all of concepts and

understanding are accepted by students’ brain, the next process is that all

of those understanding, concepts and knowledge are identified as

information in students’ brain. Those information is processed continually

during the process of teaching and learning in classroom in which teacher

gives questions to students related to the explanation of the topic or when

students are expected to give their comment or opinion toward certain

problems presented, and all of those activities are claimed can reinforce

66
the information which exist in students’ brain to keep in processing.

Further, when the information is processing for several times and certain

periods of learning, the information is claimed will exist in students’ mind

for long time since the information keeps processing through doing

practice or reminding activities during teaching and learning process.

Furthermore, there is another supporting concept toward previous

concept above which is presented by Cengage Learning in 2008, who

states that information processing theory is theory which presents steps or

stages of learning in which every stage there are a lot of information will

be achieved by language learners since this theory is basically focused on

interactive theory. Moreover, it can be stated that information processing

theory is theory of processing or developing information or also called by

knowledge in order to be understood and mastered by language learner

through several stages of progress. As it is claimed that there are some

processes included in this theory of learning, it is then presented about the

process which happens inside the information learning theory as follow:

1. Sensory register (SR)

It is started from the process of language learning which is

included in a process called sensory register. As there is

term of register, it means that during this process

information is registered or introduced to the students or

language learners through explanation, presentation,

examples and illustration. Moreover, it is claimed that the

information which is presented to students or language

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 learners are in big capacity as it is a start or first process in

learning.

2. Environmental Stimuli (input)

This process actually becomes the process which supports

SR during the introductory of language learning. This input

is claimed in form of support, motivation, creating good

learning environment, showing attractive learning media,

being friendly, being humor, and being inspiring. All of

those things are claimed come from the teacher which has

duty to make students or language learners feel comfortable

and fun to study or learn language insider the classroom.

3. Short Term Memory (STM)

It can be stated that when students or language learners are

presented by language learning material in which the

teacher can give maximum support to the students or

language learners to understand the whole points of

learning material. Further, when students or language

learners are able to understand the points of language

learning, it is claimed that students or language learners are

having short term memory in which the all knowledge or all

concept of learning language are able to be remembered

and understood just at that time. Moreover, it is claimed

that during the process of achieving the STM, students must

be given good and intensive attention and also clear

68
 recognition to the topics of language learning. Both of those

intensive attention and clear recognition to language

learning are claimed can support students to achieve the

STM faster and properly.

4. Long Term Memory (LTM)

Before achieving this long term memory, it is claimed that

students or language learners are needs to be tested or

practice about the material which they achieve in short term

memory. The practices and also tests which are conducted

to students or language learners are claimed can make

students or language learner are able to remember the

important points of language learning during their process

of achieving short term memory, and then students or

language learners will be scored or rated based on the result

of the test or practices given in order to give clear

description of students or language learners’ progress

during the language learning. Further, it needs to be stated

that the process of giving practices or testes is called as

elaborative and rehearsal in which students or language

learners are trained to face any problems or questions

related to language learners in order to explore their

problem solving ways and also critical thinking ability.

Moreover, not only focus on giving test and practices,

during the process of achieving LTM students or language

69
 learners are organized or managed in term of their

knowledge and mind concept in order to make students or

language learners achieve the meaningful aspects as the key

to remember the points of language learning in LTM.

5. Control Process

Since students or language learners are claimed to be able

to master LTM of language learning, but it needs to be

emphasized that there must be control process in which

students or language learners are given regular test or

regular practice toward the language learning topics that

they have learned or discussed. This process is aimed on

maintain the LTM of students or language learners and also

to develop students’ ability to recognize same topic or

problem but presented in different ways. Further, this

control process is implemented through regular test in every

semester, or it can be in form of daily practice and also can

be designed as question-answer activities as warming up or

cooling down before/ after the language learning class.

6. Respond (output)

The last stage is output. This output is the final destination

of language learning in which students or language learners

can be said as having learning of language through some

stages or steps. In this output, it is expected that students

are able to still keep their LTM and can face the real

70
 problem or real social life by implementing what they have

learned from language learning class and how they can

survive in social situation as it is called as the world where

every concept may be rejected or accepted and it depends

on students’ ability to adapt their concept of mind.

Furthermore, there is another definition from another expert who

claims Information processing theory As the latest learning theory,

particularly in EFL. The latest concept of information processing theory is

presented by McCrudden (2013). McCrudden believes that Learning does

not happen instantly, there is process of critical thinking which involves

learners’ brain. Further, to be critical learners in EFL depend on how the

learners, especially EFL Learners can process information that they

achieve through some processes until they really achieve the

understanding and the idea of the information given, therefore it is claimed

by McCrudden that learning is essentially cannot be extracted into one

simple aspect, but it needs to be supported through some aspects in order

to create a pure and real learning for the EFL learners. Moreover, here will

be mentioned some stages in information processing theory which carry

out the basic ideas of how information processing theory is claimed as the

latest learning theory which is still used until today in EFL teaching and

learning. The stages can e noticed as follow

Steps of information processing theory in teaching and learning

ENCODING DECODING STORING REHEARSING RETRIEVING

71
 LEARNING

1. Encoding: during encoding, learners or students are focused on the

introductory process of material in learning process. This introductory

include giving definition, illustration, explaining, describing, hints or

questions. In short, this encoding is about how the information is being

sent.

2. Decoding: after teacher introduce the material through some ways

(giving definition, illustration, explaining, describing, hints or

questions), then it is time for students to receive the information by

responding the illustration or description given by teacher or answer

the question during introductory process. Moreover, it can be said that

decoding is about how the information is received.

3. Storing: this is important to be done by the students during learning

process. This storing is assumed as the record of what being received

by the students. This record can be in form of note or code, or even

through memorizing. The key here is that how to create a record or

note, code or memorization can save the information well in students

mind.

4. Rehearsing: when some steps before are passed, now time to practice

what have been learned by the students. This practiced can be

presented as exercise, task or quiz. The aim of this practice is that in

72
 order to know how far the previous steps influence the students’

understanding to material presented.

5. Retrieving: the information will no longer become learning when it is

forgotten in next other time. All information needs to be remembered

because all of them are important for life and future. The information

can be remained to the students by asking them some key point of each

explanation to the material given. The remembering process can run

effectively when the students know what become the keyword of each

explanation of material, so when students need the information,

students just need to recall the keyword which leads them to broader

understanding.

6. Learning: students can be stated get learning when the all previous

processes or steps are applied effectively. How the information is sent,

how the information is received, how the information is saved, how the

information is practiced, and then how the information is practiced.

All of those steps then related to the use of the speech acts in learning

process. In relationship with this research, the information processing theory

cannot be abandoned because almost all of cognitive theories today adopt the

concept of information processing. Moreover, this information processing theory

has main strength to express complexity of thought into relevant learner

cognitive system, and also has good concept of though learning as long-term

memory

73
 CHAPTER III

METHODOLOGY

This chapter is basically chapter of methods. There will be some aspects

which relate to process of conducting this research and those aspects can be

named as: Research Subject, Research Design, Research Setting, Research Scope,

Research Instrument, Procedure of Data Collector, and Procedure of Data

Analysis.

It is claimed that research needs to be conducted after designing a method

of research. As it is stated as a method, it is then indicated in general that method

74
include a plan of steps and how a research can be done systematically in real

contextual situation. Further, another general concept also claims that a method as

a master plan of a research which involves what, where, when and how. In details,

what will be noticed or observed is related to the subject of a research, where and

when is mainly about the setting of research, and how is specifically about the

way of collecting the data to be analyzed in a research. Further, it needs to be

concerned that there are two different terms which are normally claimed as the

same, those are research methods and research methodology. Based on Rajasekar

in 2013, it is defined that research method and research methodology are different

in terms of their definition and function. In specific, it is defined by Rajasekar that

research methods involves various procedures, steps, schemes and algorithms in

research, or on the other words it can be stated that all methods which are

involved by researcher in doing research is belonged into research method.

However, when it is about research methodology, it is claimed by Rajasekar that

research methodology is a systematic ways which are used by researcher in order

to solve problem, or in simple words it can be defined that research methodology

is the way researcher do their research, the way of researcher to explain and

predict any phenomena during the research.

Furthermore, It needs to be stated that a research method is claimed to be

designed based on the objective of research, therefore in designing this

methodology there must be a correlation between research objective, research

purpose and also the underlying concept of theories in a research in order to make

a research is built as one unity. Moreover, in this research methodology, there will

be some points of step which are arranged in systematical order, basically those

75
points are related to; a research approach, population and sample, unit of

analysis, method of collecting the data, method of analyzing the data and method

of presenting the data.

3.1. Research Subject

In term of research subject, it is claimed to be defined that research

subject is something of phenomena which can be observed and identified

in order to get data to be investigated or analyzed based on the objectives

of research. Further, it can be mentioned that the subject of this study is XI

grade students of Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal.

Considering that there are three categories of class in XI grade, those are

social class, science class, and language class, then it is decided that the

language class will be chosen as it is claimed that the use of English is

better and more focused on linguistics learning rather than other classes,

moreover according to the information from one of English teacher who

teaches the language class at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1

Abiansemal, it is indicated that the language class are claimed to have

more confident in doing speaking in English subject, and also the progress

of their English skills which includes writing, listening and reading are

developed well since they are practiced to be able to understand language

in linguistics deeper and also can communicate by using good, simple and

appropriate language. Therefore, it is believed that in language class the

activity of speaking particularly the one which uses speech acts and

politeness have high frequency to happen during English class. Moreover,

76
as there is one class which exist in language class at Sekolah Menengah

Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal it is decided to set that class as the class to

gather and collect the data of the research. Further, it is also needed to do

prior observation to the language class in order to prove through

observation that the class has good intensity of speaking which also

includes activity of interacting and communicating during English class.

3.2. Research Design

Generally, this research designed is claimed to be defined as prove

that the data or evidence which are found during the research can be

optimized in order to provide answer in real, clear and no ambiguity

toward the questions which exist in a research. Further, related to the

function of research design is claimed to be used in order to test the theory

which is used as fundamental aspect in the research in which the theory is

claimed as new and gives influence in certain aspects of education. Other

function of research design is indicated as evaluation to the program which

is designed before or during the research in which this program is claimed

as specific important steps which can support the researcher to find out

and explore the research field in order to find appropriate and valid data or

evidence. Moreover, it is also claimed that a research design is able to

clarify some phenomenon which are claimed related to the research in

order to be more accurate and specific to be identified, observed and

explored by the researcher.

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 Furthermore, in theoretical aspect, it is claimed by Labaree in 2013

that research design is aimed on providing answers to the questions of a

research which related to who, what, when, where and how. It is also

claimed by Labaree that every aspects of those questions are answered as

different in research design, particularly term why which is indicated has

more scope of explanation in which every evidences or data gained in the

research must be correlated and analyzed in order to answer that term.

Further, it is indicated that by programming this research design, it is

strongly claimed that a research will be well organized in term of the

clarity of answering the questions of research in which what are going to

be find out in a research, and also by applying a clear and understandable

research design, it is claimed that the research has been doing 70% of a

good research and just need to complete the rest which is gained from data

analysis and answering research questions.

Further, regarding to those explanations above, this research can be

categorized into qualitative research which concern on survey method.

Further, related the research design it can be defined that qualitative

research is type of research in which describing and analyzing are

becoming the main activities to be conducted by the researcher toward the

social science phenomena, particularly in EFL (English ad Foreign

Language) teaching and learning process which becomes main focus in a

research (Golafshani, 2003). Moreover, it is emphasized by Golafshani

that the phenomena in qualitative research involves social phenomena

which related to the people behavior, attitude, character or even people

78
development toward the time, and also related to this research, the

qualitative research can analyze educational phenomena which happen in

teaching and learning process in certain levels of education. Moreover as it

is stated that this qualitative is type of survey method, it leads into an

understanding that this research will be focused on doing information

collection in samples of large population in research subject. Further, this

survey method is laid on describing information which is collected from

the subject which can be in form of social facts, beliefs and also attitudes.

In term of describing data, in survey method, the data is gathered

systematically from sample of population, and before the data is described

and analyzed, the data is collected based on verbal and written

communications which are done by every individual of research subject

(Mathiyazhagan and Nandan, 2010).

Furthermore, it can be stated in detail that this qualitative research

is aimed on finding out through survey about any types of speech acts and

politeness used and also the error committed by XI grade students in

language class at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal.

3.3. Research Setting

In defining term of research setting, it can be stated that research

setting refers to the place where a research is fully conducted since the

researcher believes that a phenomena are happening in continuing period.

It can be stated that this setting is not randomly chosen by the researcher,

but there must be some scientific reason why a setting is chosen in order to

79
conduct a research. Regarding to the research setting of this research, it

can be stated that the setting is at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1

Abiansemal, which specifically located at Abiansemal district. This school

is chosen as the setting because there are some information which are

given from the teachers of English subject at the school and also from

other researcher who conducted research at the school, it is claimed that

this school is having good achievement in English particularly the students

are claimed can communication in English as fluent and appropriate.

Therefore, this school is chosen as the setting, it is indicated that prior-

observation is needed in order to notice specifically how every student

communicate in English during English subject. Further, by having good

intensity and quality of communication and speaking, it is claimed that

there are some terms of speech acts and politeness which are used in order

to support the communication and interaction among the students.

Furthermore, in more detail, it can be stated that the setting of

Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal can be more specified in

order to focus the data gathering process, therefore the language class of

eleventh grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal which is

chosen as the main observational areas in order to explore and find out the

use of speech acts and politeness by the students.

3.4. Research Scope

The research is conducted in academic year of 2015/ 2016. In

details about the way the research is conducted is that, the students of the

80
language class of Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal are

observed in speaking class of English subject that they have. The

observation is focused on recording the speaking activity of students when

they need to say in good and simple English some sentences of locutionary

acts that they made based on their understanding. Moreover, related to the

locutionary acts that they need to make sentences from, the locutionary

acts are terms which already taught to the students and it is believed by the

English teacher of language class that the students are able to make

sentences from that locutionary acts.

Furthermore, the sentences which are spoken orally by students are

recorded and become the data of the research to be analyzed in some ways

of analysis which can be noticed at the next chapter. As the analysis

conducted, they are designed to show the data and description based on the

research problem of this research which aimed on mapping the speech acts

categories used, locutionary acts in terms of politeness and also the error

committed.

3.5. Research Instrument

In term of definition, instrument is claimed as media in which data

are gathered from and also this media is indicated as the starter where data

is firstly gained through as research. Further, as it is called as instrument, it

means that there is shape or real form of instrument which can be applied

by the researcher in order to record the data in oral or written form.

Related to this research, it needs to be mentioned that the instrument is

81
used in order to assess (1) The use of speech acts by the students of

eleventh grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal (2) the

locutionary acts styles in terms of politeness used by students of eleventh

grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal, (3) errors are

committed by the students of eleventh grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas

Negeri 1 Abiansemal in terms of pronunciation, grammar, and content.

The instrument which is aimed for collecting the data is validated

using two experts in order to insure the reliability between two judges.

Further, for the instrument can be noticed as below.

1. Performance Assessment

N Standard Basic Speaking Speech Act Performanc

o Competency Comepetency Competency Category e
Indicators Assessment

82
9. Mengungkapka Mengungkapka Pronunciatio Assertives Say in one
n makna dalam n makna dalam n good and
teks percakapan Content 1. State simple
percakapan transaksional Grammar 2. Inform sentence
transaksional (to get things 3. Remind each of the
dan done) dan 4. Suggest following:
interpersonal interpersonal 5. Complain
resmi dan (bersosialisasi) 1. How to
berlanjut resmi dan state
(sustained) berlanjut something
dalam konteks (sustained) to
kehidupan dengan someone.
sehari-hari menggunakan 2. How to
ragam bahasa inform
lisan secara somethin
akurat, lancar g to
dan berterima someone
dalam konteks 3. How to
kehidupan remind
sehari-hari dan someone
melibatkan about
tindak tutur: somethin
menyatakan g
sikap terhadap 4. How to
sesuatu, suggest
menyatakan someone
perasaan cinta, to do
dan somethin
menyatakan g
perasaan sedih 5. How to
complain
somethin
g to
someone

Directive Say in one

good and
1. Request simple
2. Ask sentence
3. Tell each of the
4. Advise following:
5. Pray
1. How to
request
something
to
someone.
2. How to
ask
somethin
g to
someone
3. How to
tell

83
 someone
about
somethin
g
4. How to
advise
someone
to do
somethin
g
5. How to
pray to
someone
Commisive Say in one
good and
1. Promise simple
2. Accept sentence
3. Offer each of the
4. Swear following:
5. Refuse
1. How to
promise
something
to
someone.
2. How to
accept
somethin
g from
someone
3. How to
offer
somethin
g to
someone
4. How to
swear
about
somethin
g to
someone
5. How to
refuse
somethin
g
Expressive Say in one
good and
1. Apologize simple
2. Thanks sentence
3. Congratulat each of the
e following:
4. Welcome
5. Protest 1. How to
apologiz
e to
someone.
2. How to
thank to

84
 someone
3. How to
congratul
ate
someone
4. How to
welcome
someone
5. How to
protest
about
somethin
g to
someone
Declarative Say in one
good and
1. Approve simple
2. Disapprove sentence
3. Bless each of the
4. Name following:
5. Call
1. How to
approve
or agree
about
somethin
g
2. How to
disapprov
e or
disagree
about
somethin
g
3. How to
bless
somethin
g or
someone
4. How to
name
someone
or
somethin
g
5. How to
call
somethin
g or
someone

2. Recorders.

85
 It is defines generally that recorder is a media which technology-

based in which this media is used to record oral data in form of

voices of the students when they speak orally the locutionary acts

which have been included into sentences. In specific, the recording

process is conducted to every student in order to get clear

pronunciation of students when their voice are recorded.

3. Field note.

In term definition, this field note is a note which is taken related to

any important terms, definition, or phenomena during the process

of conducting the research at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1

Abiansemal. This filed note is claimed to be important in order to

record any additional aspects which happen during the observation,

and also field record is indicated as one of the way in order to make

a research becomes more valid and reliable.

3.6. Procedure of Data Collection

Related to procedure of collecting data in a research, it is specified

by Satori and Komariah (2012) that data which is collected during a

research is data which is related to the research and support the way of

answering the questions of the research. Further, it is mentioned that in

qualitative research the data can be collected in any setting of sources and

ways since it is claimed that qualitative research is focused on analyzing

phenomena which can happen in any aspects of social, education or any

certain important aspect. Moreover, it is also stated by Satori and

86
Komariah that there are two types of sources in which a data can be

collected in a research. There are primer and seconder sources, in which

the different between both of them is the way of source gives the data. In

primer source, it is claimed that the data is given directly to the researcher,

however in seconder source the data is not directly gathered by the

research in which there is other process to be done.

Further, related to this research, the source is primer source in

which the data of speech acts and politeness used by the students.

Moreover, there are some points will be mentioned related to the

arrangement of conducting a research in term of collecting the data at

science class of XI grade at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal

and for the detail steps can be noticed as follow:

1. Observing

As it is stated by Trochim in 2006 that in qualitative

research there are two types of observation, namely; direct

observation and participant observation. Shortly, direct observation

is observing as outsider who focuses on research object, meanwhile

participant observation is an observation which is done as

participant and being involved contextually. Further, this research

will be conducted as direct research which focusing on research

objective by using the form of observation which is designed in

speech acts types table form and also politeness categories table

form.

2. Recording

87
 As mentioned before, that recording will be conducted by

using video recorder in order to gather any authentic data which

can be proved through video record related to the use of speech

acts at Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal, specifically

XI grade of language class.

3. Field Noting

Any notes of important terms happen during data collecting

are needed in order to get other data collector and it is claimed can

support the validity of research, because more than one instrument

is used to collect the data and the data collected are related to one

another.

4. Transcribing

Related to the data from recorder, further there will be

process of transcribing the content of the record in order to notice

the real data of recorder in real form.

5. Coding.

As the final step of data collection is coding. This coding is

aimed on categorizing the utterances which have been transcribed

into some types of speech acts and also categorized into the types

of politeness by using the table form which is specially designed

for the coding.

3.7. Procedure of Data Analysis

As it is mentioned by Padmadewi (2010) that process of analyzing

data in this qualitative research is Miles and Huberman types where the

88
data is analyzed at the same time when it is collected. Further, in order to

get the real data which is really needed, in Miles and Huberman type there

are some steps which need to be followed, namely; data reduction, data

display, and conclusion drawing/ verification. Related to those steps, then

it can be matched to this research of speech acts:

a. Data reduction.

Data reduction leads into understanding that transcription from the

recorder will be analyzed by coding them into speech acts categories in

order to limit the amount of data gathered into the data which is really

needed and related to this research.

b. Data Display

The data which have been coded, then the data will be displayed into

some tables which based on the objective of research, and also there can

be added a diagram in order to give further information to support the

data in table.

c. Conclusion or Verification.

As the final step in this data analysis there will be any explanation and

descriptions which lead into a specific statement which represent all

terms in tables and diagram presented before.

3.8. Research Triangulation

As another support for a research to be appropriate and trusted

research, it is claimed by Bryman (2011) that process of gathering or

89
collecting the data in a research needs to be conducted in more than one

approach in order to support the findings of the research. Moreover, several

approaches which are used in gathering data are called as triangulation, and

this triangulation refers to series of triangles in investigating the areas of

research. Those triangles are divided into some types according to the

approach which is decided to be used in order to make the research to be

valid and trusted in term of the data gathered to support process of

answering the research problem of research. Further, the types of the

research triangulation can be noticed as follow:

A. Data Triangulation

This type of triangulation is focused on the use of several strategies

which are used to gather the data in to the same research subject of

a research. This type is aiming on how data can be varieties since

they come from some strategies which are related and appropriate

to the research.

B. Investigator Triangulation

The use of some researchers and experts are the main idea of this

investigator triangulation. In details, the data which are gathered

need to be investigated by some researchers who are qualified as

experts in the research conducted. Moreover, it is believed that the

experts who investigate the same data can support the validity and

reliability of the data in a research.

C. Theoretical Triangulation

90
 In this third type, it is recommended that some theories are applied

as sources or fundamental concepts in a research. The variant of

theories are believed can interpret the data through some related

points of view in order to support the validity and make the data of

research trusted.

D. Methodological Triangulation

Different methods of research are suggested by this methodological

triangulation, in which the data is gathered or collected through

some related and supported method.

Furthermore, by regarding the types of the research triangulation

above, it can be stated this research of qualitative research is aimed on

investigator triangulation. This investigator triangulation is conducted by

using some experts who are indicated can be involved in describing and

analyzing the speech acts types and politeness categories at XI grade of

Sekolah Menengah Atas Negeri 1 Abiansemal. Related to the experts who

are involved in investigating the data analysis of this research, they are

two experts who are indicated to be qualified in term of investigating

terms in speaking particularly in speech acts and politeness, further those

two experts are both lecturers of outstanding university in Singaraja, Bali.

CHAPTER IV

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

91
 In this chapter there are some points to be mentioned and presented as the

result of conducting the research and also data gathered. In specific, there are two

main points in this chapter namely (1) Findings; and (2) Discussion. As it is

mentioned in previous chapter that the data of this research is the record of

speaking activity of students in which students are expected to make sentences

based on locutionary acts of speech acts types which are mostly used by the

students. Moreover, the record is conducted until all students get turn to speak

the sentences that they make. Further, the record is analyzed in some ways of

analysis in order to specified into the problems of this research in which to map

the speech acts types, locutionary acts in terms of politeness and also to find out

the error committed in terms of pronunciation, content and grammar.

4.1 Finding

4.1.1 Types of Speech Acts

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