Section 4.

2 Ground Rupture

Surface rupture - is an offset of the ground suface when fault rupture extends to the earth surface.
Ground rupture are earthquake faults that have reached the surface. No opening or Fissuring happens during movement of the fault,
so it should be remain closed. These are distinct from the liquefaction cracks and fissures.
Three Types of Faults
Normal Fault involves mainly downward movement of the ground across the fault called hanging wall. The hanging wall is the block
on the right side of the fault.
Thrust Fault involves mainly upward movement of the hanging wall. In any types faulting, opposite blocks simply slide past each
other along the fault plane. No opening is involved.
Strike -slip fault involves a dominantly horizontal shifting of the ground. The two types of the strike -slip fault are distinguished from
each other by the sense of motion of the part of the ground located on the opposite side of the fault, which is left-lateral or right
-lateral.
Setback – refers to the distance from the faults trace that is considered safe from the effects of ground rupture.
Section 4.3 Soil Liquefaction
Soil Liquefaction- is a phenomenon in which the strength and stiffness of a reduced by earthquake shaking or other rapid loading. It
normally occurs in saturated soils, that is soils in which the between the individual particles is completely filled with water.
Liquefaction- a process that transform the behavior of a body of sediments from that of a solid to that of a liquid.
Types of Liquefaction Features
Flow Failures -the most dangerous type of ground failures due to Liquefaction, this occurs liquefiable slope material with steepness
greater than 3 degrees.
Lateral Spreads – Blocks or the broken pieces of the flat or very gentle ground (less than 3 degrees) above a liquified zone move
laterally.
Ground Oscillation -Due to the flat or nearly flat slope, the ground is unable to spread and instead oscillates like a wave (back and
forth and up and down ).Water and wet sand are ejected through the fissures that form conical-shaped mounds of sand at the surface.
Loss of Bearing Strength – Loss of strength of sediments resulting in titling of houses and floating buoyant structures that are
anchored on the liquefied zone.
Section 4.4 Earthquake Induced Landslide
Subsidence or lowering of the ground surface, often occurs during earthquakes. This may be due to downward vertical displacement
on one side of a fault and can sometimes affect a large area of land. Coastal area can become permanently flooded as a result
subsidence can also occur as ground shaking causes loose sediments to settle and to lose their load bearing strength or to slump down
sloping grounds.
Why land slide Occur
1. Removal of Support – is the base of slope which may be due to erosion at the toe of a slope by rivers or ocean waves. That
is why landslides may occur even on a hot summer day.
2. Groundwater- (pore water) pressure- During sudden changes in the water level of bodies of water adjacent to a slope also
acts to destabilize it.
3. Volcanic eruptions- Bulging of slopes and the force of volcanic material ejection or emission may also contribute to slope
instability.
4. Intense rainfall- landslide are triggered due to the weakening of the slope material by water saturation.
5. Snowmelt – is also known to have the same effect as in saturating slope material.
6. Human interventions- man contributes to the instability of slopes through construction activities (roads, buildings, and other
facilities) quarrying /mining ,and unabated logging and kaingin which lead to the loss of deeply rooting trees and soil
cohesiveness.
7. Earthquake- Slopes are prone to widespread failure during earthquake because of the sudden shaking of hilly and
mountainous areas. What a prolonged period of rainfall cannot do to slopes is accomplished by a strong earthquake that may
last only less than a minute.
Types of Landslide
1. Topples -Occur suddenly when a massive part of very steep slopes breaks loose and rotate forward.
2. Rock Fall- involve chunks of detached rock that fall freely for some distance or bounce and roll down the steep slope.
3. Slides- involves large blocks of bedrock that break free and slide down along a planar or curved surface.
4. Lateral Spread -are triggered by earthquake and affects gentle slopes with less than 10 degrees inclination.
5. Flows -involve downslopes motion of fine-grained clay, silt, and fine sand made mobile by water saturation. These flows
include mudflows and earthflows and are common during the rainy seasons.
6. Complex Slide – are combination of two or more types of movement.
Properties of Rocks that contribute to total Resistance to Shearing forces
1. Intact rock Strength- refers to a rock’s reaction to standard laboratory test to determine its resistance or strength.
a. Relatively strong Rock – simply let sparks fly with the blow of a hammer.
b. Moderately Strong Rock – just let lumps break with a light hammer Blow.
c. Very weak Rock Simply crumble with a hand grip.
2. Mass weathering Grade – is one of the most important properties that the engineering geologist has to consider when
dealing with a slope stability issue. Weathering of rocks results in physical and chemical changes due to external process.
3. Spacing Joints- is another property to consider. The term joint as used in its engineering sense refers to the different types of
discontinuities such as a fracture, Fault or bedding plain. Spacing refers to the distance between joints along a line. The grater
the volume of joint in a rock mass, the weaker is that mass.
4. Orientation of joint – with respect to the slope becomes increasingly unfavorable for slope instability as the dip out of a
rock face becomes steeper. It is most favorable for a stability against sliding when the dip Is into the slope.
5. Width and continuity of joints- wide joints have no cohesive strength and frictional strength can only develop at the point
of contact of rock on either side of the joint.
6. Infill – as a factor is highlighted by the presence of materials such as clay.
7. Water Flow – in a joint is far more important than water in rock pores. It is the water in fissures or clefs which influences rock
mass strength when we speak of cleft water pressure.
4.5 Tsunami
Is also known as Seismic wave, is a series of wave in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water,
generally in an ocean or a large lake.
 Causes of Tsunami
1. Landslide – occurring under the ocean and coastal landslide displacing ocean water. Tsunami can be secondary effect of
earthquakes through earthquake-triggered landslides occurring under the ocean or in coastal areas.
2. Volcanic eruption or explosion – any submarine or coastal volcanic activity and products that can trigger tsunami by
displacing large volume of water.
3. Meteorite Impact- the ocean can trigger tsunamis.

VOLCANIC HAZARD
What is Volcano?
Volcano – a vent at the earth surface through which magma and associated gases erupt: also refers to the land form built by
accumulation of materials during Volcano.
Where do Volcanoes Form?
Classification of Volcanoes
 Active Volcano -erupted within historical times (last 600 years)
- Has historical accounts

 Potentially active – land form is young looking but without no records of eruption
 Inactive – No records of eruptions
- Long period inactivity is evident from too much weathering and erosion of deep $ long guiles.
TYPES OF VOLCANO
1. Stratovolcanoes -cone shaped with summit crater, may have a multiple craters formed by repeated, alternating deposits of
pyroclastic flow and lava flow.E.g. Mayon, albay Matutum, So.Cotabato Mt. Fuji in Japan
2. Shield Volcano- gentle-sloped but large diameter Volcanoes. Typically, island volcanoes partially submerged. Formed by
frequent long period of lava eruptions in rift zones, mantle hotspots.
3. Caldera -may have several volcanic centers in & around a crater 2 km diameter. Formed by long period of explosive actively
volcanic activity. E.g Pinatubo
4. Monogenetic cones – symmetrical, accumulations of scoria (cinder)
5. Volcanic Domes – Mound shaped or convex volcanoes. Formed by repeated slow lava extrusion dome complexes. E.g
Hibok-Hibok
Parts of VOLCANO

Section 5.1 Lava Flow

Lava flow – or simply lava is a product of the quiet effusion of molten rock or magma from beneath a volcano.
Types of Lava Flow
 Basaltic Lava-is a fastest flowing lava because of its relatively low viscosity. It is usually associated with the broad
landforms of shield volcanoes such as those in Hawaii.
Lava Flows Style
Pahoehoe - is composed of thin flows with smooth surface sometimes feature ropy folds.
A’a- Flows have sharp, spiny surfaces.
 Andesitic lava -are typically associated with strato volcanoes and commonly from lava domes. The Volume of andesitic
lavas is small, so they do not usually go beyond the foot of Volcano.
 Rhyolitic Lava Flows- have relatively higher viscosity that is why these are a lot slower than andesitic and basaltic flows. It
is usually associated with violent eruptions involving pyroclastic flows and with very very steep landforms such as lava
domes and lava spines.
 Sheet lava- are thicker than pahoehoe and have surface texture ranging from ropy to striated. It is usually collapse as a result
of the emptying of lava below.
 Pillow lava- are pillow-shaped rocks formed by the sudden cooling of lava that is deposited underwater.
Section 5.2 Volcanic Gases
Gas is what really makes Volcanic eruptions.
Dangerous Volcanic Gas
Carbon Dioxide – is abundant in the atmosphere and is a natural product of respiration.
Sulfur Dioxide – is a colorless gas with a strong odor. It is the gas that smells from lighting a kitchen match.
Hydrochloric Acid – irritates the mucous membranes of the eyes and respiratory tract.
Hydrogen Sulfide – is a colorless, flammable gas which smell like rotten egg. It causes irritation of the eyes at low concentration. E
Section 5.3 PYROCLASTIC Flows
Pyroclastic flow – are among the most harmful volcanic hazards. It is slow moving, glowing hot lava flow dangerous, consider its
fragmented version. By its heat, speed and volume none has ever close to describing how dangerous pyroclastic flow.
- Are hot mixtures of fresh lava, gas rock pumice and ash that move down the sides of a volcanic crater at high speed
during an eruption.
Types of Pyroclastic Flows
 Merapi Type- deposits of block ash are also generated by dome collapse caused by driven explosion.
 Palean Type - is flow generating process of eruption. Because of high density, block and ash pyroclastic flow deposits are
too limited to a few tens of kilometers distance from the vent.
 Soufriere Type – of pyroclastic flow generating mechanism involves the collapse occurs as the fragments laden eruption
column can no longer be supported by the upward thrust of the eruption.
 Plinian Type – the product is pumice rich pyroclastic flow deposits called pumice flow which is much like the pumice that
is abundant in the Pinatubo eruption deposits.
Effects of Pyroclastic Flows
Burn – The extreme temperature of rocks and gas inside pyroclastic flows can burn people, houses and vegetation. Through Hot
gases may have killed them first, Pompeii residents were petrified by the ash and pumice pyroclastic flow.
Impact and Burial- By its speed, mass and volume a pyroclastic flow will knock down shatter, bury or carry away nearly all
objects and structures in its path.
Inhalation of hot ash and gases – Volcanoes also emit toxic gases such as H 2S, SO2, and F2. These also combine with water to
form harmful compounds. The compounds that come with pyroclastic flow are toxic and will cause immediate asphyxiation of
people and animals.
Lahars and Flooding –Valleys and other low lying areas along the slopes of volcanoes act as channel ways receptors of
pyroclastic flow deposits.
Some Notable Pyroclastic Flow
Vesuvius Italy – One of the most Catastrophic and famous eruptions of all time. A series of pyroclastic flows consisting of
pumice and ash came down from eruption columns as high as 33 km.
Tambura Indonesia – The Largest eruption ever recorded in history prior to 1815 eruption. Pyroclastic Flows reached more than
20 km from summit and caused 4 m high tsunami waves in Indonesia.
Hibok- Hibok Philippines- 1951 on December 4, 1951. 500 people were killed by pyroclastic flow that cascaded down the
volcanos northeastern flank. The explosion of fresh Magma rather than dome collapse caused the deposition of large Magma
rather than dome collapse caused by the deposition of quantities of pumice and ash.
Pinatubo- Philippines 1991. Second largest eruption of the 20th century : it had 6th eruption periods since 33,000 BC. On June
15, 500 years since it has last pyroclastic flows reached as far as 16 km from the summit , early warning prevented deaths from
the pyroclastic flow. Most of the 847 deaths were due to roof collapsing from the weight of wet ash.

Section 5.4 Tephra Fall

Tephra refers to volcanic rock and lava materials that are ejected into the air by explosions or carried upward by eruption columns hot
gases.it is a gravitational setting of volcanic ash fragments from the umbrella clouds of tall eruption columns and ash clouds of
pyroclastic flows.
Types of Tephra Fall
Pele’s Tears – Strong winds may shaped lava into fragments.
Pele’s Hair – still in the air produce teardrop-shaped lapilli-size.
Pumice- deposits are derived from Plinian eruptions like the type which occurred in the 1992 eruption of Pinatubo.
Scoria Fall- deposits are products of strombolian eruptions of basaltic to andesitic volcanoes like Tall.

Section 5.5 Lahar

Lahar is the process where in wet cement like mixture of volcanic material water flows down the slope of a volcano. In Japanese
Lahar actually means Lava or Lava Flow.
Lahar usually carries fresh eruption material like pyroclastic flows and tephra fall.
Faces of Lahars
Lahar Deposits – Poor Setting (mix of different sizes of fragments. Fragments are from clay sized to boulder -sized (depends on
source material’s : Boulders are more common in Mayon lahars than in Pinatubo.
-May contain a variety of a wide variety of clasts.
- Matrix -supported means means pebbles, rocks and boulders are not touching each other, majority of out crop is slit sand or Clay.
-May have reverse graded base (smaller fragments are at the tower part.
-May show some clast imbrication or preferred orientation of the largest fragments.
- Clasts are typically angular to sub angular.
Lahar run out Flow Deposit
- Display better bedding than lahar: shows better sorting than lahar.
- Normal Grading (above a possible reverse graded base.
- Better clasts Imbrication than lahar.
- Boulders not as common.
Characteristics of Lahars
 Lahar move rapidly down valleys like rivers of concrete.
 Lahar can occur with or without a volcanic eruption
 Lahars pick up materials as they travel, which can cause damage to structures in their path.
 Lahars and excess sediments cause serious economic and environmental damage to river valleys and Flood plains.
Section 5.6 Volcanic Debris Avalanche
Volcanic Debris Avalanche are landslide that occur in Volcanic Slopes. Debris Avalanche it not ordinary landslide. Compared with
the non-volcanic landslide, debris avalanche is faster and their deposits more far reaching.
- May involve collapse of the volcano flank or one big sector of the volcano including that of it’s top.
- May deposit not the entirely as hot as a lava flow or pyroclastic flow but the abnormally large volume of Volcanic
material traveling at great speeds will bury areas far and wide.

CHAPTER 6 HYDROMETEOROLOGICAL HAZARD

Hydrometeorological hazards are processes which involve the interaction of the atmosphere, bodies of water and land which pose
threat to lives and human property.
Section 6. 1 Typhoons
Typhoon is a severe weather disturbance characterized by a strong winds and heavy rains which revolve around a central low pressure
area.
The word Typhoon is most likely derived from the Chinese term “Tai Fung “, “ta-big” Fung wind. It is Locally known as Bagyo.
Tropical Cyclone Major Types
1. Tropical Depression- wind speed is up to 62 kph
2. Tropical Storm - wind ranging from 63-118 kph
3. Typhoon – wind speed is greater than 118 kph
4. Super Typhoon -wind speed exceeding 220 kph
Tropical Cyclone Structure
The “eye” is the area of lowest atmosphere pressure in the structure of a cyclone.
In the eye, with diameter which may span 20-65 km wide, winds are weak, the temperature is warm and the sky is clear.
Eye wall = the region immediately surrounding the tropical cyclone center which can reach as 15 km above mean sea level brings the
strongest winds and heavy rains.
Rain bands – are spiraling strips of clouds in the fringes of tropical cyclones which are associated with rainfall. The winds of a
tropical cyclone blow counterclockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern hemisphere Due to Coriolis effect.
Coriolis effect- describes the deflection of an object motion due to the earth rotation about its axis.
Effects of Tropical Cyclones
Tropical cyclones are one of the most destructive natural phenomena worldwide.
Strong winds – which cover a much larger area during tropical cyclones, cause the most obvious damage.
Storm surge – Localized unusual increase of sea water level way above the predicted astronomical tide level.
Heavy rains – unlike strong winds and storm surge actually occur in tropical cyclones of lower intensity.
Section 6.2 Storm Surge
Storm surge – Localized unusual increase of sea water level way above the predicted astronomical tide level primarily due to intense
winds and lower atmospheric pressure during the passage of intense tropical cyclone from the sea to the land.
Factors that Influence the Build Up of Water Level During a storm surge
1. Storm intensity (Wind Speed ) is mainly wind driven . Storm intensity, which is related to the wind speed of a storm, has
influence on the amount of surge produced.
2. The pressure effect – During a tropical cyclone storm surge level is also influence by atmospheric pressure. A lower
atmospheric pressure result in a higher storm surge level.
-In an open ocean or sea, atmospheric pressure is the force exerted on the surface of water by the weight of air in the earth’s
atmosphere. The pressure is lower toward the center or eye of the tropical cyclone and higher in fringes. Water as a result is
pushed down on the fringes and bulges at the center.
-The highest surge level happen at the center of the tropical cyclone due to lowering in pressure is a misconception.
3. Size – A tropical cyclone with a larger diameter will from a higher surge because the winds brought about by a larger tropical
cyclones push on larger surface area of the ocean and affects this area fro a longer period of time.
4. Storm Forward speed – a tropical cyclone with a higher velocity will produce a higher surge along an open coast. Conversely a
tropical cyclone travelling with a lower velocity is more efficient in producing a higher and broader storm surge.
5. Angle of approach to coast
The amount of surge formed is affected by the angle by which the tropical cyclone hits the coastline. When a tropical cyclone hits
coast perpendicularly as opposed to an approach which is parallel or oblique. It will more likely form a higher storm surge because a
larger part of the storm surge mound comes into contact with the coastline and is allowed to build up more.
6.The effect of the earth Rotation
There is a tendency for ocean currents to be deflected as a result of the earth rotation. This is called Coriolis Effect. In the Northern
hemisphere currents are bent to the left. Consequently, when a tropical cyclone from in the Northern hemisphere the surge will be
observed to be largest in right forward option. When a tropical cyclone form in the Southern Hemisphere, the surge will be observed
to be largest in left forward option.
7.The Rainfall Effect- water levels can rise quickly in estuaries because large volumes of accumulated rainfall from water sheds in
higher elevation areas which are drained by rivers encounter water driven by the tropical cyclone from the ocean.
8. Geometry of coastal area (Bathymetry, Topography, Coastline Shape, and local Features)
Bathymetry – Is the appearance of the ocean or sea bottom resulting from the variation in depth in different portion.
Topography – also has an influence on storm surge extent. Wide low-lying areas elevation of only a few meters above sea level are
vulnerable to storm surge.
Shape of the coastline- also affects the behavior of a storm surge. Storm surge level is higher when a tropical cyclone hits a concave
coastline. This is because of funneling Effect, which is simply the entrapment in a smaller accommodation space of water being
dumped by the strong winds.
Local Features – Like sea walls, breakwater mangroves coral reefs onshore vegetation sand dunes and berms, some extent may
weaken a storm surge.
9.Timing – as with the current occurrence od a lot of other natural phenomena, timing plays important role. When the formation of the
storm surge during a tropical cyclone coincides with a high astronomical tide.

Section 6.3 THUNDERSTORM

Thunderstorm is a violent, transient type of weather associated with thousands of meters tall cumulonimbus clouds and which usually
involves lightning and thunder, strong winds intense rainfall and occasionally tornadoes and hail .
Requirements for the formulation of the Thunderstorm
  Moisture which must be readily available in the lower atmosphere to produce clouds and precipitation.
 An unstable, rapidly rising mas swarm air
 Strong upward currents of air to force moisture to higher, colder levels of the atmosphere.
Thunderstorm Cycle
Developing or Cumulus Stage- begins with upward growth of cumulus cloud due to the continuous updraft and supply
moisture.
Mature Stage – in indicated by the initiation of strong downward currents of air and by perception. The thunderstorm keeps
on growing until it reaches the tropopause which separate from the stratosphere.
Final or Dissipating Stage -when updraft are prevented by the cool air of the dominant downwards in the lower portions of
the cloud.
Lightning – is the abrupt, natural, visible high voltage electrical discharge which takes place when positive and negative charges join
with in a cloud, between a cloud or between a cloud and the ground.
Thunder -is a acoustic effect of a sudden expansion of air caused by the heat released during a lightning strike.
Lightning Strike – if lightning hits an object on the ground.
Cloud to ground Lightning – is a more accurate term just lightning when referring to the most dangerous type of lightning.
Hail- is the type of solid precipitation.
Hailstone – is the individual piece of layered rounded or irregularly shaped iced which is occasionally produced during a
thunderstorm.
Hailstorm – when a thunderstorm produces hail.
- It is different from ice pellets which are formed during winter in regions with temperate climate.
Tornadoes- are narrow, funnel or cylindrical shaped and intensely rotating columns of wind that during pwerful thunderstorms and
extend from the base of a cumulonimbus cloud down to the earth surface.
Waterspouts- are basically the same as tornadoes, the only difference is that the rotating column of wind moves over a body of water.
Flooding – is the abnormal rise of water level in rivers , coastal areas, plains and in highly urbanized centers which may be a result of
natural phenomena, human activities or both during floods land which is usually dry becomes submerged.
Primary Floods Types and Causes
1. Riverine- when the level of water flowing through rivers increases and goes beyond the average water level or worse further
encroaches levees. The rate of water level is dependent on the river type and source of additional water input.
2. Extreme and sustained Rainfall the volume of water input can sometimes be too much for the capacity of rivers to Darin
the water and for the ground to absorb the water.
3. Estuarine and coastal -occur when seawater encroaches low lying land that is usually still above sea level.
Astronomical High Tide – is a short term level rise caused by the gravitational pull of the moon and the sun on the
earths waters.
Spring Tides – happen when the sun and the earth and the moon are aligned during new moon and full moon and
caused water to bulge in the direction of the alignment.
Neap tides – occur during quarter moons do not caused extreme tides because the gravitational pull of the moon
and the sun are perpendicular to each other and cancel each other out.
4. Urban Flooding – occurs in highly populated ,developed area set on relatively low lying areas like valleys and plains. Urban
Flooding is the result of
Saturation of the ground due to much rainfall.
The presence of large areas of impermeable surfaces like concrete pavements and rooftops.
5. Catastrophic Flooding – may result from the ground failure and or/ major infrastructure Failure
Ground failure – is the weakening of the rock or soil such as subsidence, liquefaction and occurrence of landslides that may
be triggered by earthquakes volcanic eruptions intense rainfall and other natural disasters
6. Flash Flood – is a rapid , short lived and violent arrival of a large volume of water which can be caused by a intense
localized rainfall on land that is saturated or unable to absorb water.
Destructive Effects of Flooding
Flooding can be divided into three Types
Primary Effects- are those which results from direct interaction of humans and their property with flood waters. Primary effects
include loss of lives and damage to amenities and loss of access to basic necessities.
Secondary Effects- are those short term, immediate but indirect consequences of flooding. Thes may onclude the power loss,
domestic and potable water loss or shortage.
Tertiary effects- are long term indirect consequences of flooding. Economics hardships at the local and national level and
unemployment may result from the destruction of production and services.

RAINFALL ADVISORIES, CALSSIFICATION AND MEASUREMENT

.