Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/rser

Standardization and deployment scenario of next generation NB-PLC

technologies
Bilal Masood n, Sobia Baig
Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, Lahore, Pakistan

art ic l e i nf o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Several efforts have been made in the recent decades with a goal to implement the Advanced Metering
Received 19 November 2015 Infrastructure (AMI) in the power grid. These efforts laid foundation for the implementation of next
Received in revised form generation Narrowband Power Line Communications (NB-PLC) technologies. In the recent past, stan-
14 April 2016
dardization process has been completed by IEEE and ITU-T for the deployment of transceivers, based on
Accepted 14 July 2016
Available online 28 July 2016
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) NB-PLC. In this paper significance of NB-PLC with a
focus on CENELEC band in the context of standardization and deployment is discussed. A comprehensive
Keywords: comparative analysis of Power Related Intelligent Metering Evolution (PRIME), G3-PLC and IEEE 1901.2
NB-PLC along with their routing techniques is presented. Moreover, deployment aspects and worldwide PLC
ICT
research projects by academia are discussed.
SG
& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
AMI
G3-PLC
PRIME

Contents

1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1034
2. Significance of power line communications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
2.1. An overview of next generation NB-PLC technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
2.1.1. PRIME: ITU-T G.9904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1035
2.1.2. G3-PLC: ITU-T G.9903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1036
2.1.3. IEEE 1901.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037
3. Comparison of ITU-T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904 and IEEE 1901.2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1038
3.1. Routing strategies of ITU-T G.9903 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1039
3.2. Routing strategies of ITU-T G.9904 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
3.3. Routing strategies of IEEE 1901.2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4. Chips and solutions for NB-PLC systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.1. Past generation circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.1.1. AS5501/02 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.1.2. AMIS-49587 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.1.3. ST7538/40 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.1.4. TDA5051 solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2. Next generation circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.1. ST7570 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.2. ST7580 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.3. ST7590 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.4. IT700 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.5. IT900 DCSK TURBO solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.6. LinkSprite spyder solution. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
4.2.7. MAX2992 solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040
5. PLC research projects funded by academia and deployment aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040

n
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: bilalmasood84@yahoo.com (B. Masood).

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.rser.2016.07.060
1364-0321/& 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1034 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047

5.1. Statistical modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042

5.1.1. Attenuation due to reflections. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
5.1.2. Attenuation on the line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
5.1.3. Delays due to distance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
5.2. Deterministic modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1042
5.3. Parametric modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1044
5.4. Simulation and field measurements based modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
6. Future directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1045
7. Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1046

1. Introduction observed that smart meters are key building blocks for overall
optimization of power system. A future vision of AMI is shown in
Today's power grid infrastructure is about 100 years old, whose Fig. 1 [10,11], which defines AMI with respect to driving forces,
hierarchical components and equipment are about to complete functionalities and its characteristics. The objective of this paper is
their lives. However, demand of electricity is gradually increasing to highlight the significance of NB-PLC within the context of AMI.
with the passage of time. In United States (U. S.), demand of Although a long list of wireless and wired communication com-
electricity has increased by 2.5% according to a report generated petitor technologies can be found in literature, however it is per-
by U. S. Department of Energy [1]. The present power grid infra- ceived that PLC can prove to be a more viable solution for AMI and
structure is outdated thus ill-suited to overcome the needs of 21st SG applications. A detailed discussion on the classification of PLC
century grid. It is lacking in automated monitoring system, poor along with its comparison with other wired and wireless
visibility, low response time with mechanical switches, last but not
the least, it is severely lacking with reference to Information and
Communication Technologies (ICT). The concept of Distributed
Generation (DG) has emerged in the last few years that promotes
the de-centralization of power generation [2]. Latest techniques
incorporated in the Renewable Energy Systems (RES) and con-
tinuously growing ICT infrastructure are adding to the complexity
of a typical power system [3]. Power system needs to be converted
from typical power grid to the Smart Grid (SG) by replacing the old
unidirectional power and information flow with the bidirectional
power flow and ICT based grid infrastructure. Such kinds of chal-
lenges can be addressed by introducing AMI that can facilitate ICT
within SG [4,5]. It is believed that AMI is supported by a set of
heterogeneous networking technologies without any single avail-
able solution [6]. Amongst the diversified set of choices, Power
Line Communications (PLC) is certainly an intelligent and excellent
choice for the future AMI. PLC has several benefits, from trans-
mission to distribution grid, some of which are as follows [7]:

1. Redundancy in protection and control of utility applications

which corresponds to redundant communication channels that
PLC network can provide.
2. PLC transceivers can be designed as a modem as well as an ef-
ficient sensing unit.
3. In packet switching public networks, PLC offers direct commu-
nication between Intelligent Electronic Devices (IEDs) and
controllers.
4. When countries with de-regulated telecom markets are con-
sidered, PLC provides a communication path with full control to
utility company and offers cost effective solution.
5. PLC has wide variety of technologies like Ultra Narrowband,
Narrowband and Broadband PLC, from transmission grid to
distribution grid to home automation.

The most important and widely used feature of PLC within SG

is AMI that is used to obtain the information from end consumer of
electricity, appliances and devices [8,9]. AMI is an architecture
which combines the power system and several technologies
through a two way communication system between a utility
company and smart meters. An efficient AMI can prove to be a
major contribution towards practical and fast implementation of
SG. Within the context of customer engagement, it has been Fig. 1. A future vision of Advanced Metering Infrastructure [11].
 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
communication technologies is provided. A state of the art next
generation OFDM based, PLC standards that include PRIME, G3-
PLC and IEEE 1901.2 and their comparison is discussed. Chips and
Solutions for NB-PLC systems by critically investigating the past
and next generation circuits is presented so that an insightful
analysis can be carried out for the available solutions. Last but not
the least, another significant area focused by this research work is
to present the research projects funded by academia for affective
utilization of PLC and various types of channel modeling techni-
ques that is a foundation stone for the deployment of PLC systems.
This paper is divided into 7 Sections. Section 2 elaborates the
significance of PLC by giving an overview of available next gen-
eration NB-PLC technologies. Section 3 presents a comparative
analysis of ITU-T G.9904, ITU-T G.9903 and IEEE 1901.2 standard
technologies. Section 4 discuss the commercially available NB-PLC
solutions. Section 5 explains the PLC projects in academia along
with deployment aspects in the perspective of PLC channel mod-
eling. Finally, Section 6 refers to the future directions of next
generation NB-PLC technologies, followed by conclusions.
2. Significance of power line communications
PLC technologies have been used by utility companies to pro-
vide the consumers with services like remote monitoring and
control applications around the globe. PRIME, G3-PLC, IEEE
P1901.1, P1901.2 and IEC 61,334 are few standards, based on which
services to SG for the purpose of AMI are provided [7,12]. The
three major classifications of PLC are:

Ultra Narrowband (UNB) PLC with frequency range of 0.3–3 kHz.

NB-PLC that ranges from 3 to 500 kHz which include the Eur-
opean standard CENELEC EN 50,065 band (3–148.5 kHz), Japa-
nese Association of Radio Industries and Businesses (ARIB) band
(10–450 kHz), US Federal Communications Commission (FCC)
band (10–490 kHz) and Chinese band (3–500 kHz).

Broadband Power Line Communications (BB-PLC) operated at
1.8–250 MHz.
The most significant advantage of PLC is that it offers lower values
of attenuation for the frequencies less than 500 kHz. However, higher
values of attenuation are reported for the frequencies greater than
1 MHz, mainly due to the occurrence of capacitive coupling between
cable/conductor and ground/earth. Therefore, the lower values of
attenuation observed for frequencies defined for NB-PLC, allow a
signal to travel longer distances as compared to BB-PLC. Moreover,
due to dedicated frequency bands in Europe, like CENELEC-A which
is dedicated for the control, monitoring and energy utilization of
connected equipment with low voltage (LV) distribution system, the
equipment at consumers end do not share the same frequency band.
As per the specifications given by International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) 61,334, most exhaustive PLC technologies deployed
for AMI are Frequency Shift keying (FSK) based technologies that
allow data rate up to few kbps [13]. In the present scenario, several
hundred million of FSK based smart meters are installed all around
the world, especially in China and Europe.
There are many other communication technologies whose selec-
tion depends on the requirements and type of applications [14–16].
Communication technologies can be segregated into two types, wired
(Fixed line) communication technologies and wireless communication
technologies. Both wired and wireless communication technologies
have pros and cons depending on the choice of technology. Major
wired or fixed line communication technologies are as follows [17],

Hybrid Fiber Coaxial (HFC)

Fiber to the Home (FTTH)
1035

Digital Subscriber Line (DSL)

PLC
On the other hand, wireless communication technologies are [18]:

Satellite Communications

Microwave links

Wireless Fidelity (WiFi)

3 G and 4 G Cellular Networks
A comparison of PLC with aforementioned fixed and wireless
communication technologies is illustrated in Fig. 2. Although PLC
has many attractive features and advantages but still it is facing
many challenges as compared to other contemporary commu-
nication technologies.
The upcoming section deals with CENELEC EN 50065 band that
is most frequently and extensively available band worldwide for
NB-PLC operation.
2.1. An overview of next generation NB-PLC technologies
The specific bands of frequency spectrum are allocated for NB-
PLC signalling. CENELEC EN 50065 is a European standard with
frequency range from 3 to 148.5 kHz, for NB-PLC [19]. It is further
segregated into CENELEC A, B, C and D bands with reference to its
utilization for specific application is given as follows,

CENELEC-A band (9–95 kHz), reserved exclusively for power
utilities

CENELEC-B band (95–125 kHz), any application

CENELEC-C band (125–140 kHz), in-home networking systems

CENELEC-D band (140–148.5 kHz), alarm and security systems
In NB-PLC frequency range, CENELEC band is the most frequently
utilized band in European countries, as depicted in Fig. 3. CENELEC-
A band is restricted and dedicated to control and monitoring of
applications of LV distribution system, whereas CENELEC-B and D
bands are unrestricted bands for electricity consumers. CENELEC-C
band is assigned to consumers with medium access protocol (MAC).
Fig. 4 elucidate the applications of CENELEC EN 50065 bands within
the smart grid [20]. Since, the utilization of CENELEC bands was
restricted to control and monitoring of power distribution system
and offered reliable communication of low data rates. Therefore,
researchers focus their attention to the formulation of new stan-
dards and technologies. OFDM communication technologies
seemed to be an attractive choice for NB-PLC standards. The next
generation OFDM based PLC standards such as PRIME, G3-PLC and
IEEE 1901.2 are discussed in the following subsections.
2.1.1. PRIME: ITU-T G.9904
The increasing demand of data rates by smart metering com-
panies led to rehabilitating the NB-PLC standards. The first effort in
this context is made by PRIME Alliance, 2007 with the help of
Spanish Distribution System Operator (DSO), which was one of the
founding members. The first PLC protocol for PRIME was accepted
in October 2012 and published in February 2013, available online
in [21]. It was the time when PRIME was first ever evolved for
OFDM based NB-PLC. PRIME proposed a solution for NB-PLC to
utilize CENELEC A band with orthogonal frequency division mul-
tiplexing (OFDM) up to 128 kbps with no forward error correction
(FEC) and up to 61.4 kbps with FEC. Selection of constellation de-
pends on the level of noise present in the power line channel. In
the present scenario, PRIME: ITU-T G.9904 is being rolled out
especially in Portugal, Spain and UK.
PRIME supports the network layers; IEC6134-4-32, IPv4 or IPv6
and modulation schemes; differential binary phase shift keying
1036 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047

Fig. 2. A comparison of PLC with fixed and wireless communication technologies [17].

Fig. 3. Frequency regulations of CENELEC band.

(DBPSK), differential quadrature phase shift keying (DQPSK) and
eight-ary differential phase shift keying (D8PSK). Current certified
solutions of PRIME are Texas Instruments, Hitrend, Atmel, Phoenix
Systems, Indra, STMicrocontrollers, Semitech available in [22]. The
PRIME's transmitter scheme is shown in Fig. 5.
2.1.2. G3-PLC: ITU-T G.9903
The initiative of G3-PLC Alliance was taken by twelve compa-
nies mainly sponsored by DSO European Regional Development
Fund (ERDF) in 2011. The first PLC protocol for G3-PLC was ac-
cepted in February 2014 and published in April 2014, available
online in [23]. ITU-T G.9903 defines the OFDM based NB-PLC, data
rates up to 46 kbps with compulsory FEC for CENELEC-A band and
up to 234 kbps for FCC. The objectives to design and standardize
the G3-PLC differ from the specifications provided by PRIME. Focus
of designers was to achieve a robust physical (PHY) mode instead
of getting high data rate. For this purpose G3-PLC utilizes con-
catenating coding i.e; convolutional and Reed Solomon along with
robust modulation (ROBO) technique with repetition coding is
developed.
Existing standards of MAC layer which are based on IEEE
802.15.4 with adaptation layer of IPv6 over Low power Wireless
Personal Area Networks (6loWPAN) to support IP version 6 have
been used. The additional band plans for FCC band of US, Japanese
band ARIB and rest of world were introduced. G3-PLC supports
modulation schemes; binary phase shift keying (BPSK), quadrature
phase shift keying (QPSK), DBPSK, DQPSK, D8PSK and 16 ary
quadrature amplitude modulation (16QAM). Current certified
 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047 1037

Fig. 4. Applications of CENELEC bands in Smart Grid [20].

Fig. 5. Transmitter scheme of PRIME.

solutions of G3-PLC are Texas Instruments, Reneses, Atmel, STMi-
crocontrollers, Maxim Integrated available in [24]. Like PRIME, G3-
PLC also uses OFDM modulation with transceiver frequency range
34–90 kHz. Unlike PRIME, G3 utilizes the positive frequencies only.
When the spectrum is transformed into time domain then only
real portion of spectrum is transmitted. In order to avoid the burst
error that has tendency to corrupt the symbols constellation, an
interleaver is used. The G3-PLC's transmitter scheme is shown in
Fig. 6.
2.1.3. IEEE 1901.2
An effort to initiate a new OFDM based NB-PLC standard was
started in 2010 with the sponsor of IEEE Communications Society
due to the strong drift of industries towards advanced NB-PLC
technologies [25]. The first PLC protocol for IEEE 1901.2 was ac-
cepted in October 2013 and published in December 2013. Only
PHY and MAC layers specified in IEEE 1901.2 standard and this
standard is based on G3-PLC. Features like authentication, routing
and boot-strapping are not specified in it. The supporting network
layer is IPv6 with band-plans CENELEC A, CENELEC B, ARIB and
FCC. The specified data rates for this standard are up to 46 kbps for
CENELEC A band and up to 234 kbps for FCC. The supported
modulation techniques include DBPSK, DQPSK, D8PSK, BPSK,
QPSK, 8PSK and 16QAM. Information and communication can use
the frequency band ranges from 10 to 490 kHz. The transceiver
operating on IEEE 1901.2 standard can be configured as per
1038 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
Fig. 6. Transmitter Scheme of G3-PLC.
Fig. 7. Transmitter scheme of IEEE 1901.2.
requirements of the physical layer so that signal can be trans-
mitted according to band-plan i.e; FCC or CENELEC. The IEEE
1901.2 transmitter scheme is shown in Fig. 7.
There are numerous applications of NB-PLC for AMI within SG
for all voltage levels of transmission lines. Salient functionalities of
NB-PLC for LV, MV and HV transmission lines are exhibited in Fig. 8.
3. Comparison of ITU-T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904 and IEEE 1901.2
ITU-T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904 and IEEE 1901.2 are at the same
time technologically quite similar, especially IEEE 1901.2 and
Fig. 8. Applications of NB-PLC for AMI within SG.
G.9903, yet different from each other. The similarities amongst
these three technologies create confusion and make the technol-
ogy selection process more complicated. Many countries around
the world are focused on the development and deployment of ITU-
T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904 and IEEE 1901.2. In this regard many pilot
and major development projects have been initiated and executed.
Spain has deployed approximately 5 million PRIME based smart
meters. Similarly Japan has installed tens of millions of smart
meters and France is expected to deploy a large number of smart
meters by early 2016 which are based on G3-PLC. Poland and
Luxemburg have massive deployment of smart meters. The com-
parative analysis of ITU-T G.9904 (PRIME), ITU-T G.9903 (G3-PLC)
and IEEE 1901.2 is elucidated in Fig. 9. The differences among these
standards are further elaborated as follows:

The MAC layer of standard IEEE 1901.2 allows up to 1280 bytes
of maximum transmission unit (MTU) whereas MAC layer of
G3-PLC allows up to 511 bytes MTU.

The Super ROBO mode of IEEE 1901.2 repeats the data 6 times
however G3-PLC repeats it for Frame Control Header (FCH) only.

Unlike G.9903, the mechanism of collision avoidance does not
exist for IEEE 1901.2.

The frames of IEEE 1901.2 utilize information elements that are
limited to MAC and physical (PHY) layers, however 6loWPAN
(adaptation layer) of ITU-T G.9903 also specifies the techniques
like Bootstrapping, Extensible Authentication Protocol Pre-
shared Key (EAP PSK) and default layer 2 LOADng (routing al-
gorithm) for 6loWPAN.

The anti replay protection technique is not embedded for the
MAC layer of IEEE 1901.2 but specified for the MAC layer of
G.9903.
 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047 1039

Fig. 9. Comparative analysis of ITU-T G.9904 (PRIME), ITU-T G.9903 (G3-PLC) and IEEE 1901.2.

(ADVOC) [26]. Due to its reactive characteristic, once it is cre-

Another key difference between ITU-T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904, and
IEEE 1901.2 is the way in which routing is carried out. The routing
strategies of ITU-T G.9903, ITU-T G.9904, and IEEE 1901.2 are dis-
cussed in the following subsections.
3.1. Routing strategies of ITU-T G.9903
The ITU-T G.9903 is facilitated with a reactive protocol for
routing known as LOADng based on OSI Layer 2. ITU-T G.9903
belongs to the family of Ad hoc on demand Distance Vector
ated, it will keep exchanging the information until route expired
or failed. In case of unavailability of neighboring link, the first
alternative route is established whereby in case of the failure of
local repair, a complete new route is established from starting
point to the destination. LOADng has also capability to handle
the frequently used unidirectional PLC links. Although, ITU-T
G.9903 has a default algorithm such as LOADng but it can be
deactivated in order to activate other routing algorithms for
Layer-2.
1040 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
3.2. Routing strategies of ITU-T G.9904
The ITU-T G.9904 incorporates its own Layer-2 routing algo-
rithm that is proactive one with tree topology for network. In this
algorithm, the role of coordinator node is assigned to base node,
whereas remaining devices will play their role as service nodes. If
it is suitable for base node to send data to other nodes and receive
data from other nodes of subnetworks then the role of each ser-
vice node is converted from terminal to switch and vice versa. The
base node of ITU-T G.9904 administers the network. In case that
link is broken between two nodes, the switch generates a warning
to the base node to intimate that route is deactivated. The routine
of information exchange continues to ensure the reliability of each
device.
3.3. Routing strategies of IEEE 1901.2
The IEEE 1901.2 does not specify an appropriate metric or al-
gorithm mechanism for routing, however it has specified the MAC
and PHY layers. The route selection is mainly based on PHY criteria
that includes the number of hops, link quality and modulation
techniques etc. The IP Layer route cost is obtained by averaging the
information elements (IE) where IE is a data block located in the
header and payload of MAC. Having discussed the comparison of
various standards for NB-PLC in Section 3, the development of
standard modems and solutions is discussed in the following
Section.
4. Chips and solutions for NB-PLC systems
The task of two way communication in the grid can be ac-
complished by a suitable choice of NB-PLC technology. The basic
prerequisite to deploy a two way communication setup is to
choose a reliable communication solution that can transmit a
signal up to a longer distance. This section of paper presents the
discussion on commercially available solutions for the im-
plementation of NB-PLC modems using different circuits and
chips, divided into two categories i.e., past generation circuits and
next generation circuits.
4.1. Past generation circuits
4.1.1. AS5501/02 solution
AS5501/02 is an FSK based modem that offers half duplex,
asynchronous data transmission. The carrier frequency of AS5501/
02 modem can be adjusted from 64 to 140 kHz by programming
whereas its baud rate is programable to 600, 1200 and 2400 bps.
4.1.2. AMIS-49587 solution
AMIS-49587 modem follows CENELEC EN 50065, CENELEC-A
band and IEC 61,334-5-1 standards, using robust communication
with modulation scheme S-FSK. The baud rate of 300, 600, 1200
and 2400 can be selected for 50 Hz. The carrier frequency of AMIS-
49587 modem can be adjusted from 9 to 95 kHz by programming
with step size 10 Hz [27].
4.1.3. ST7538/40 solution
ST7538/40 modem is half duplex based on synchronous/asyn-
chronous FSK modulation scheme. The baud rate of ST7538/40
modem is programable up to 4800 bps, however CENELEC EN
50065 is recommended [28].
4.1.4. TDA5051 solution
TDA5051 modem is a half duplex modem with amplitude shift
keying. Maximum achievable baud rate is up to 1200 bauds.
TDA5051 follows CENELEC EN 50065–1 complaint with program-
able carrier frequency from 95 kHz to 148.5 kHz [29].
4.2. Next generation circuits
4.2.1. ST7570 solution
ST7570 is a IEC61334–5-1 based standard with S-FSK solution.
The maximum programable data rate is up to 2.4 kbps. The carrier
frequency can be programmed 148.5 kHz with 1 Hz step. This so-
lution has capability to estimate the signal to noise ratio (SNR) and
signal strength indication [30].
4.2.2. ST7580 solution
This solution complies with CENELEC EN 50065, ARIB and FCC
part 15 with programable carrier frequency up to 250 kHz. FSK,
BPSK, QPSK and 8PSK modulation schemes are used with data rate
up to 9.6 kbps (FSK) and 28.8 kbps (BPSK, QPSK and 8PSK). ST7580
solution offers the features like convolutional error correction
coding or dual channel operation mode, mode against impulsive
noise and estimation of SNR [31].
4.2.3. ST7590 solution
ST7590 is the first solution that offers complete OFDM based
NB-PLC system on chip with PRIME compliant. ST7590 is based on
CENELEC-A band, OFDM with 96 sub carriers with programable
modulation DBPSK, DQPSK and D8PSK modulation schemes along
with data rate up to 128 kbps. Features like SNR, estimation of
channel quality, convolutional coding and Viterbi decoding are
enabled in this solution [32].
4.2.4. IT700 solution
This solution provide extremely robust communication, mod-
ulation technique Yitren patented Differential Code Shift Keying
(DCSK). CENELEC bands, ARIB and FCC part 15 complies with IT700
solution. The data rate for CENElEC band is programable up to
2.5 kbps [33].
4.2.5. IT900 DCSK TURBO solution
This solution complies with CENELEC-A band (0.625–75 kbps),
FCC and ARIB bands (1.25–500 kbps).
4.2.6. LinkSprite spyder solution
LinkSprite Spyder Solution is proposed for both DC and AC PLC
systems using FSK with carrier frequency 144 kHz or 262 kHz and
data rate up to 30 kbps [34].
4.2.7. MAX2992 solution
This solution works for AC power lines. MAX2992 is an asyn-
chronous, half duplex modem that compliance G3-PLC with data
rate up to 300 kbps. The modulation techniques used in this so-
lution are OFDM based DBPSK, DQPSK and D8PSK [35].
Evaluation boards and developer's kits are also commercially
available in which EVALST7538DUAL, EVALCOMMBOARD,
EVALST7540-2, EVALST7570-1, EVALST7580-1, EVALST7590T-2,
TMDSPLCKIT-V3 and TMDSPLCKIT-V4 are included. The standards
followed by these evaluation boards vary from each other. The
salient standards used by most advanced boards are PRIME, G3-
PLC and IEEE 1901.2 etc. The detail of these evaluation boards and
developer's kits can be found in [36–40].
5. PLC research projects funded by academia and deployment
aspects
PLC is not only getting attention by industry but also is a focus
of several researchers and scholars working in academia. Many
 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
universities around the world are launching their projects based
on PLC technologies, some of which are discussed in this section.
1. OPERA project was supported by University of Dresden, Swiss
Federal Institute of Technology, Duisburg Essen and University
of Comillas. OPERA project provided various solutions such as
new prototypes, PLC development, PLC equipment and stan-
dardization aspects etc, completed in 2007 [7].
2. The PLC Project was supported by K.B. Chandrasekhar Research
Center located in Chennai, India consisted of two parts in which
part 1 is focused on PLC on LV side of distribution transformer
and part 2 is focused for the short range communication
through underground power cables in urban areas [41].
3. Development of EMI Suppression Techniques for PLC project
was financed by Nanyang Technological University, China. The
research grant for this project was 240,000 US dollars, con-
tributed by its partners Agilent Technologies, Singapore and
Network Research Technology Center [42].
4. Device Control via Power Line Communication Project, was
conducted by University of Guelph in order to implement and
design remote system that can control the power of devices
from the outlet. The design was focused on the user interface,
PLC and power switching devices [43].
5. Working Group on Power Line Communications project was
supported by University of Malaga. This project was focused on
the modeling of Indoor PLC channels by including background
noise and impulsive noise [44].
6. UWB PLC above 30 MHz Project was supported by Queen Mary
Fig. 10. PLC projects operated and funded by Universities.
1041
and University of London United Kingdom. The goal of this
project was to analyze and investigate BB-PLC channel in the
presence of noise [45].
The objectives of these projects are shown in Fig. 10.
In the context of deployment of NB-PLC in power lines, it is
quite different from traditional communication networks, because
before installation, it is particularly important to design and model
the power line channel on which communication can take place
along with the proper analysis and evaluation of channel char-
acteristics [46,47]. Main characteristic of power line channel in-
cludes the impedance matching/mismatching and its continuously
varying nature with respect to change in frequencies of the signal,
channel multipath delay that lead to drop in quality of commu-
nication signal and various type of noises. After a thorough lit-
erature review on PLC channel models it has been observed that
several channel models have been presented based on various
channel conditions and configurations [7,48–50]. Since PLC based
communication systems may operate in various frequency bands,
not one approach of channel modeling is applicable to all sce-
narios. Therefore it is important to model various specific channel
conditions on a channel model.
In this section, all possible PLC channel models proposed so far
have been reviewed. Channel modeling is categorized into three
sections on the basis of opted methodology, model type, simula-
tion and performed field measurements. The main contributors
towards PLC channel modeling are Zimmermann, Andrea M. To-
nello, Stefano Galli, Anna Scaglione, Anatory, Antonio Cataliotti
1042 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047

and R. Lefort [49–54]. Contributions of Zimmermann and Andrea Uk − Z 0 Ik −γ (l − l)

e
M. Tonello are focused on Statistical power line channel models C2 e γz 2 Z − Z0
r= = = k
[51–54]. Stefano Galli and Anna Scaglione presented the various C1e − γz Uk + Z 0 Ik γ (l − l) Zk + Z 0
e
types of deterministic power line channel models [49,50], whereas 2 (3)
Antonio Cataliotti and R. Lefort contributed towards simulation where Zk is load impedance and Z0 is characteristic impedance.
and field measurements of power line channel modeling [55,56]. Therefore remaining transmitted part of wave is,
Fig. 11 shows the classification of work presented for PLC channel
models. t=1−r (4)

5.1. Statistical modeling 5.1.2. Attenuation on the line

Zimmermann in [51] presented a multipath model for power
line channel in which the author derived the complex frequency
response of PLC channel for the frequency range 500 kHz to
20 MHz. The author derived the results by taking physical effects
like multipath signal propagation and typical cable losses into
consideration. The presented model was analytical model that
describes the complex transfer functions of typical power line
networks by using only a small set of parameters. The presented
model is suitable for the cases when one is unaware with a
complete set of exact network parameters. However, on the basis
of measured values, identification of transfer function is required
that is depending on the assumption; on the specific point of
consideration, the signal is a sum of forward components of pro-
pagating signals in all possible paths up to a point of destination.
The quality of received signal is reduced due to the reflections.
Mathematically it can be expressed as,
N
H( f) = ∑ gi A ( f , di ) e−j2πfτi
i=1
where N is number of paths under considerations, gi is attenuation
due to reflections, A ( f , di ) is attenuation on the line and e−j2πfτi
represents delays due to distance.
5.1.1. Attenuation due to reflections
In case of impedance mismatch in branching lines, reflections
take place on interfaces due to which part of traveling wave is
transmitted and part is reflected back. The reflected part of wave
can be expressed as,
U (z ) = C1e−γz + C2 e γz
where C1 and C2 are forward and reflected waves respectively.
Subsequently, the final expression of reflection coefficient can be
obtained as,
The line attenuation can be represented by e−γli . However, in
case the line parameters are unknown then γ can be approximated
as,
α ( f ) = a 0 + a1 f k (5)
Whereas attenuation of line can be expressed as,
k )l
A ( f , li ) = e−α ( f ) li = e−(a0 + a1f i (6)
where k, a1 and a2 are constants which can be calculated by
measured data.
5.1.3. Delays due to distance
The delays in waves can be expressed in frequency domain as
e−2πfτi , where τi is delay expressed by,
li ϵ r
τi =
c0 (7)
where li, c0 and ϵr are known as route length, speed of light and
relative permittivity of conductor respectively.
(1) Andrea M. Tonello proposed statistical bottom up approach for
PLC channel modeling by using random topology technique for
obtaining the transfer function utilizing the computational effi-
ciencies in [52]. The author first derived the results of European in-
home network topology by practicing the statistical approach then
the author proposed a novel method that can determine the
transfer function between any pairs of outlets of a given topology.
In [53,54], Tonello presented a simulator that can be used to
configure a small set of parameters for theoretical framework. The
simulator is used to study and investigate the properties of PLC
channel statistically.
(2)
5.2. Deterministic modeling
In reference to deterministic channel modeling of PLC, Stefano
Galli has produced significant research work. Galli published

Fig. 11. Classification of works on PLC channel models.

 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047 1043

[49,50] simultaneously in two parts by focusing on the indoor PLC

channels. Author conducted his research on circuit analysis along
with its companion model in [49]. Galli addressed the problem of
indoor power line channel by its proper modeling based on mul-
ticonductor transmission lines (MTL) theory and model decom-
position. The author followed MTL approach that ultimately leads
to a model consisting of two coupled circuits representing the
propagation interaction of the two dominant modes called dif-
ferential and pair mode. The differential model basically caters the
differential propagation of signals and companion model account
for the excitation and propagation of pair mode. Author concluded
in [49] that, by neglecting the mode coupling and therefore the
companion circuit leads to an incomplete circuit model that is not
capable of representing the physics of signal propagation on power Fig. 13. Transmission line with single connection of bridge tap.
line cables specifically for PLC.
In Galli [50] presented a novel approach for the modeling of
indoor power line channel in which author elucidated and calcu-
lated the transfer function and properties of power line channel.
The author crossed several levels of abstractions before locating a
useful and accurate model for indoor power line channel. In [50],
the author used the differential and companion models as a cas-
caded two port networks. Each of these networks are represented
by their parameters by utilizing the transmission matrix techni-
ques. The author suggested that distributed parameter of circuits Fig. 14. Equivalent transmission network of transmission line with single connec-
tion of bridge tap.
can be considered or replaced by a single lumped network for the
ease of analysis and calculations. Author also proved mathemati-
cally and then experimentally that indoor power line regardless of ZL
H = 20 log10
its topology exhibit the same transfer function from either side. In AZL + B + CZL ZS + DZS (10)
the research trials it is concluded with the fact that, only condition
required for the symmetry is matching of source and load im- where ZS is the source impedance and ZL is the load impedance.
The subsections T0 (series impedance as a two port network), T1
pedances or the output impedance of transmitter should be equal
(power lines as a two port network), T2 (parallel impedance as a
to input impedance of receiver. Furthermore it has been experi-
two port network) and T3 (power lines as a two port network) as
mentally observed that it is possible to isolate the reflections and
illustrated in Fig. 14, can be represented in the form of ABCD
resonant modes on the basis of specific topologies.
matrices as,
According to [50], each segment of power grid can be ap-
proximated by utilizing the approach of ABCD matrix (transmis- ⎡ 1 ZS ⎤
T0 = ⎢ ⎥
sion line parameters) which establishes a relationship of sending ⎣0 1 ⎦ (11)
end voltage Vs and current I1 with the receiving end voltage VL and
current I2 as shown in Fig. 12 given as [57],
⎡ V1⎤ ⎡ A B ⎤ ⎡ V2 ⎤ ⎡ cosh (γ l1) Zcl1 sinh (γ1l1)⎤
⎢ ⎥=⎢ ⎥⎢ ⎥ ⎢ 1
⎥
⎣ I1 ⎦ ⎣ C D⎦ ⎣ I2 ⎦ T1 = ⎢ 1 ⎥
(8) sinh (γ l ) cosh (γ l )
⎢⎣ Z 1 1 1 1 ⎥⎦ (12)
cl1

⎡ ⎤ ⎡ cosh (γl) Zc sinh (γl)⎤ ⎡ ⎤

⎢ V1⎥ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢ V2 ⎥
⎢ I ⎥ = ⎢ 1 sinh (γl) cosh (γl) ⎥ ⎢ I ⎥ ⎡ 1 0⎤
⎣⎢ ⎦⎥ ⎢⎣ Zc ⎥⎦ ⎢⎣ 2 ⎥⎦
1
(9) ⎢ ⎥
T2 = ⎢ 1
1⎥
All parts of transmission line can be modeled in the form of an ⎢⎣ Zin ⎥⎦ (13)
appropriate two port network. Power line networks using trans-
mission line theory normally consist of bridge taps of different
cable and conductor types with variable lengths that ultimately ⎡ cosh (γ l2 ) Zcl2 sinh (γ2 l2 )⎤
⎢ 2
⎥
construct a power line network comprises of various sections. T3 = ⎢ 1 ⎥
Fig. 13 represents the transmission line with one bridge tap, its ⎢⎣ Z sinh (γ2 l2 ) cosh (γ2 l2 ) ⎥
⎦ (14)
cl2
equivalent circuit diagram is shown in Fig. 14. Transfer functions of
power lines is expressed as, where Zcl1, γ1, Zcl2 and γ2 are the characteristic impedances and
propagation constants of sub-networks, whereas Zin is input im-
pedance. Finally, ABCD matrix can be computed by multiplying
each of the above matrices with each other using chain rule i.e., a
generalized expression for i cascaded sections is given as:
N
T= ∏ Ti
i=1 (15)

Once ABCD matrix is obtained, one can calculate the transfer

Fig. 12. Transmission matrix of two port network. function by using Eq. (10).
1044 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047

In [48] Sung, Anna Scaglione and Stefano Galli expanded their

research by evaluating the time varying nature of power line. They
highlighted the fact that power line channel may vary abruptly
with respect to the layout of topology. They incorporated the fact
that due to the switching of appliances and devices installed in-
door, variations in the characteristics of power lines take place.
These variations are caused due to the continuously varying im-
pedances that are linked with the instantaneous amplitude of the
mains voltage which in turn results in a periodically time-varying
channel response. Similarly in [58,59], Anatory analyzed the
power line channel by following the aforementioned approach of
Galli, the only difference in the evaluation was conductor schemes. Fig. 16. Modeling of access impedance with resonant circuits [61].
Author evaluated the power line channel model by incorporating
the two conductor and multiconductor concept. 1
Za,3 − ph − theoratical =
1 1 1
+ +
Za,1 Za,2 Za,3 (18)
5.3. Parametric modeling
Similarly in [61], various properties of power line channel are ex-
The significance to model the parameters of power line chan- amined. The analysis include the examination of channel properties
nels such as R, L, G, C and Z is inevitable that plays a key role for such as access impedance, amplitude response noise scenario of in the
the characterization of channels. A comprehensive discussion on frequency range from 50 to 500 kHz. A measurement tool is also de-
veloped to measure these the said properties. Access impedances are
the modeling of power line channel parameters is available in
modeled by employing four types of models with the help of different
[60,61,62].
combinations of R, L and C as shown in Fig. 16.
In [60], access impedances is determined by applying voltage-
The basic expressions to develop a resonant circuit by using R, L
current approach whose measurement setup is shown in Fig. 15.
and C are given as,
The parameter Rsh known as shunt resistance is used to measure
the current. Coupling capacitor C with the value of 1μF is in- 1 + j2πRS CS + ( j2πf )2L S CS
ZS ( f ) =
corporated, whereas Zp is the parasitic impedance of complete 2πf CS (19)
coupling network, comprises of a series combination of L and R
with values 6μH and 0.6Ω respectively.
The analysis of impedances was done by using following ex- RP + j2πfLP
ZP ( f ) =
pressions, 1 + j2πRP CP + ( j2πf )2LP CP (20)

⎛ 1 ⎞ By using (19) and (20), type 1 and type 2 can be expressed as,
Za, k = Z m, k − ⎜ R + jωL + ⎟
⎝ jωC ⎠ (16) ZS ( f ) ZP ( f )
Z r1, r2 ( f ) =
ZS ( f ) + ZP ( f ) (21)
where Za, k is single phase impedance at reference plane B that can
be computed from measured impedance value of Zm, k that is single However, type3 can be expressed as,
phase impedance at reference plane A.
ZS1 ( f ) ZS2 ( f )
Zr 3 ( f ) = + ZP ( f )
Za,3 − ph = Z m,3 − ph − Z3 − phase / calibration (17) ZS1 ( f ) + ZS2 ( f ) (22)

where Za,3 − ph is three phase coupling impedance at reference The expression of type 4 is a simplest case of analysis. Fig. 17
plane B that can be computed from measure impedance of Zm,3 − ph presents the measured and modeled cases of access impedance
that is three phase impedance at reference plane A. Z3 − phase / calibration with all four types.
is calibration impedance, depicts the impedance of coupling In [62], author proposes a channel model for indoor PLC. The
network. channel model is presented by focusing and modeling the three
The theoretical value of access impedance can be calculated by types of load impedances in which constant, frequency selective
taking parallel combination of single phase impedances of each and time varying impedances are included.
phase given as,

Constant Impedances with values 5 Ω, 50 Ω, 150 Ω, 1000 Ω, ∞,
representing low, Radio Frequency (RF) standard, similar to
characteristic impedance of transmission line, high and open
circuit impedances respectively.

Frequency Selective Impedances:
R
Zω =
⎛ ω ω ⎞
1 + jQ ⎜ − 0⎟
⎝ ω0 ω⎠ (23)

where Q is quality factor, R is resistance at resonance and ω0 is

resonance angular frequency.

Time-varying Impedances:
⎛ 2π ⎞
Zω, t = ZA (ω) + ZB (ω) sin ⎜ t + ϕ⎟ ; 0 ≤ t ≤ T0
Fig. 15. Measurement setup to obtain impedance [60].
⎝ T0 ⎠ (24)
 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
Fig. 17. Modeled and measured impedances of all four types [61].
where ZA, ZB and ϕ are offset impedance, amplitude of variation
and phase respectively.
5.4. Simulation and field measurements based modeling
Many authors contributed in field trials, laboratory experi-
mental tests and performed simulations of medium voltage power
line communication (MVPLC) systems. [63] modeled a complete
PLC model for medium voltage (MV) network by using line-shield
configuration along with power transformers. Authors experi-
mentally evaluated the PLC performance by designing and in-
corporating the MV line coupler and ST7540 FSK power-line
transceiver. [55,56] developed the MVPLC model using core-shield
configuration for signal transmission over power cables. Authors
also employed the ST7540 FSK power-line transceiver and capa-
citive coupler device in the field and then simulated the complete
model for the validation of their results. Similarly various authors
shed light on simulation and measurement based modeling in
[64,65,60,66].
6. Future directions
Globally, there are numerous types of topologies and regula-
tions for power and communication systems respectively [9,67].
Therefore the choice of NB-PLC technology vary from region to
1045
region and some NB-PLC technologies may create greater impact
compared to others. Section 3 of this research work is evidence of
the main NB-PLC technologies. NB-PLC technologies are also sub-
jected to the coexistence problem that occurs when the data ex-
change in more than one network, technology, device or system
takes place [68]. The spectrum of NB-PLC is not properly defined,
neither well-shaped and there is no such kind of mechanism that
can prevent the NB-PLC signal from interference issues. Although,
if designed well, the non-interoperable technologies which are
separated in frequency spectrum, can become interference free
[69]. There is still a need to overcome the issue of performance
degradation caused by mutual interference. For the incorporation
of efficient next generation NB-PLC technologies that can effec-
tively serve the SG applications, a state of the art coexistence
mechanism is a need of the hour.
Another open issue for NB-PLC technology is a transformer
bridge that leads to the significant degradation of SNR, due to
which probability of error in data communication for NB-PLC in-
creases. Therefore, NB-PLC technology with additional codes that
enhance robustness in FEC is required, especially in the presence
of number of transformer bridges. An existing example is that of
G3-PLC and PRIME, where G3-PLC performs better compared to
PRIME for communication across the transformer bridges because
of its strong FEC mechanism specifically in the environment of
noise in the typical power lines [9]. However, additional codes in
FEC require more processing power. Hence, the cost of each chip
1046 B. Masood, S. Baig / Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 65 (2016) 1033–1047
set of G3-PLC will increase accordingly. The tradeoff between cost
and solutions for NB-PLC systems need to be examined by the
industry, utilities and regulatory bodies. The requirements of high
data rate and real time communication for SG applications is also
an open issue. Real time communication has inevitable sig-
nificance in order to control the equipment and appliances in-
stalled in the SG. The quality of ICTs can vary with respect to time
due to switching operation and various load conditions at different
times of the day. Therefore, in case of fault occurrence within the
SG, next generation NB-PLC systems must respond quickly ac-
cording to the scenario [70].
7. Conclusions
The development of Smart Grid with a clear aim to enhance the
safety, efficiency and reliability of existing typical power grid can
be a sophisticated solution to meet the requirements of 21st
century grid. Timely information sharing, gathering and to provide
the end users with ICT based infrastructure is a need of the hour.
PLC can play a key role to facilitate the SG with ICT infrastructure.
PLC is a Next Generation technology, especially for those countries
that have proper operation & maintenance systems and depart-
ments to ensure the efficiency of transmission and distribution
power lines. There is a need to improve the role of utilities and
DSOs in order to achieve the goal of next generation AMI and a
more complicated and non uniform smart grid infrastructure. The
deployment and standardization status for NB-PLC technologies
discussed in this paper can serve as reference for stakeholders and
utilities to come closer to the future vision of AMI and smart grid.
The deployment aspects of PLC can be tackled by a suitable choice
of channel modeling technique. Many Asian countries and Europe
are now committed to choose PLC technologies to address the
challenges being faced by existing and future power grid.
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