Federico Fellini Film 171

Bautista, Cielo, Conti, Donato, de Guzman January 3, 2012

Introduction

A. Personal Background

Born on January 20, 1920 in the coastal town of Rimini, Federico Fellini’s early life was nothing
spectacular. His mother was a housewife, and his father was a traveling salesman - no great distinction
in terms of wealth or birth. He had two other siblings, the younger Ricardo, who would later embark on a
film career himself, and his sister Maddalena.
As a child, Fellini enjoyed the sleepy existence of provincial life. Aside from Rimini, he also
visited the neighboring towns of Gambettola and Romagna. It is in these places that he would find the
typical eccentric characters that would eventually litter his films as a director.
Fellini attended Catholic school as a child, and was greatly affected by the oppressiveness of
the discipline. It is this trauma that led him to the infamous circus episode. If there is one instance that
has entered the realm of the Fellinian legend, it is this. The story is told about Fellini running away to
follow a traveling circus only to be eventually found sometime later. Fiction or not, the child Fellini was
for sure fascinated by every form of entertainment - the circus, the cinema, comic strips, the music hall,
the theater. This fascination would later be reflected in almost all of his films.
He spent most of his free time sketching and reading comic books, and this is what eventually
led him to Rome, where he made an abortive attempt to complete law school before supporting himself
by his natural talent for sketch. He also began writing for Marc’-Aurelio, an Italian humor magazine.
There he met friends that would greatly influence him in his career in cinema.
During World War Two, Fellini met Giulietta Masina, a young actress chosen for a radio serial
that had been written by Fellini. On October 30, 1943, they married, forming a relationship both
professional and personal that would greatly influence his work.
With the liberation of Rome, Fellini eked out a living by making caricature sketches of American
GIs. And it is in one of these shops that he first met Roberto Rossellini, who sought him out to seek his
collaboration on what would eventually be Rome, Open City, an Italian neorealistic landmark film. It is
this work that led him to a scriptwriting career before eventually directing Variety Lights.
The overview of Fellini’s childhood is important in our study of the man, particularly because
most of his films are autobiographical sketches of his youth. The brilliant career that followed his early
years would serve as a constant reminder of how Fellini’s imagination would flourish over time. Thus, the
biography becomes part of the history of his films.
He shot his last feature length film The Voice of the Moon in 1990. He died three years later on
the 30th of October, of stroke.

B. Professional Background

Beginning with Rossellini’s Open City, Fellini embarked on a luminous scriptwriting career that
associated him with the leading directors of Italian neorealism. Aside from Open City, he also
collaborated with Rossellini on Paisan. However, he wrote scripts even before his work with Rossellini,
writing for Mario Mattoli. It is notable that most of Fellini’s scriptwriting work before Open City was
comedic in nature, and his early films reflect this influence. Fellini lacked any formal training in
cinematography and developed his personal style in this scriptwriting phase in his career.
By the time of La strada, Fellini was exposed to psychologist Carl Jung’s work. Jung defined the
dream as links to archetypal images collectively shared by humanity. This is as opposed to his mentor
Sigmund Freud’s definition that dreams are symptoms of a disease that must be cured. Jung’s ideas will
greatly influence Fellini’s body of work.
His numerous commendations include BAFTAs, David di Donatello Awards, Italian National
Syndicate of Film Journalists Awards, Bodil Awards, European Film Awards, and the like. He won the
Academy Award Best Foreign Language Film numerous times: for La Strada, La Notti di Cabiria, La
dolce vita, 8½, and for Amarcord. For La strada, he also won the New York Film Critics Circle Award, as
well as the Screen Directors Guild Award. La dolce vita won for him the coveted Palme d’Or, and
another New York Film Critics Circle Award. He won the Venice Film Festival Silver Lion for best director
twice, for I vitelloni and La strada. Take note that he has never won an Academy Award for Best Director,
although this was compensated by numerous distinctions. Aside from being awarded an honorary Oscar
for his whole body of work in 1993, he was given Lifetime Achievement Awards in Cannes, Venice, and
the European Film Awards.

Filmography

A. Filmography

Luci del varietà (Variety Lights) (1950)

Lo sceicco bianco (The White Sheik) (1952)
I vitelloni (I vitelloni, The Young and the Passionate) (1953)
‚Un’agenzia matrimoniale‛ (‚A Marriage Agency‛) (1953) one episode in Amore in città (Love in
the City)
La strada (1954)
Il bidone (The Swindle) (1955)
Le notti di Cabiria (The Nights of Cabiria) (1957)
La dolce vita (1959)
‚Le tentazioni del dottor Antonio‛ (‚The Temptations of Doctor Antonio‛) (1962) an episode in
Boccacio ’70
8½ (Otto e mezzo) (1963)
Giulietta degli spiriti (Juliet of the Spirits) (1965)
‚Toby Dammit‛ (1968), an episode in Tre passi nel delirio (Spirits of the Dead)
Block-notes di un regista (Fellini: A Director’s Notebook) (1969)
Fellini Satyricon (1969)
I clowns (The Clowns) (1970)
Roma (Fellini’s Roma) (1972)
Amarcord (1973)
Casanova (Fellini’s Casanova) (1976)
Prova d’orchestra (Orchestra Rehearsal) (1979)
La città delle donne (City of Women) (1980)
E la Nave va (And the Ship Sails On) (1983)
‚Oh, che bel paesaggio!‛ (Oh, What a Beautiful Landscape!) (1984) – a television
commercial for Campari Bitter aperitif
 ‚Alta Società‛ (High Society) (1984) – a television commercial for Barilla rigatoni
Ginger e Fred (Ginger and Fred) (1985)
Intervista (Interview) (1988)
La voce della luna (The Voice of the Moon) (1990)
‚Che brutte notti!‛ (1992)

B. Synopses, Content, and Themes1

I vitelloni (I vitelloni, The Young and the Passionate) (1953)

When Fausto impregnates Sandra, Moraldo’s sister, he agrees to a shotgun wedding to
claim responsibility. His group of twenty-something friends enjoy a period of extended
adolesence in his absence; they play pranks and loiter around town killing time.
Moraldo, the youngest of the five dreams of escaping to the city. Riccardo wishes,
unrealistically, to sing and act. Leopoldo is an unsuccessful playwright and romantic dreamer.
Alberto is idle and is supported by his sister and mother.
When Fausto comes back from their honeymoon, he continues to womanize even with
his wife and child. When she hears news of this Sandra runs away with his child, only to be
found by Fausto and the gang at the home of Fausto’s father. Fausto is whipped in anger by his
father.
Moraldo realizes that he must leave the province for the big city and boards a train for
Rome.

Main theme: In growing up, change is necessary, and responsibilities as adults cannot be
avoided forever

Subordinate themes:
■ Contemporary society is predatory and socially oppressive, thus one is forced to deceive.
■ Leading a dull and uneventful life in the province can be solved by moving to the city.

Motifs: masks, festivities, seriocomic structure

La strada (1954)
Gelsomina, innocent and fay, is sold by her mother to the brutish Zampano when
Gelsomina’s sister dies on the road. Zampano earns his living as a traveling strongman, and she
eventually learns to clown around as he performs. He is cold and intimidating, sometimes
bordering on physical abuse to Gelsomina. Having enough, she leaves him and goes to town.
She meets a fellow entertainer and highwire artist, Il Matto, and is intrigued. However,
Zampano forcibly takes her back and they join a circus where Il Matto is coincidentally working.
Il Mattois philosophical towards Gelsomina and advises her to stay with Zampano. However, he
is mischievous in his treatment of Zampano and they are both fired from the troupe after a
dangerous squabble,
Zampano eventually catches up on Il Matto on an empty stretch of road and accidentally
kills him. Gelsomina is heartbroken and depressed, and is eventually abandoned by Zampano
while taking a nap.

1
The Synopses and Content and Themes sections have been merged for brevity.
 Years later, Zampano comes across Gelsomina’s tune being sung by a woman, learning
of her eventual death. He breaks down, and the movie fades to black.

Main theme: Life is a constant tearing away from things known and a plunging into the
unfamiliar.

Subordinate themes:
■ There is in each of us a purpose, a destiny that must be accomplished
■ Existence of the individual must rely on the existence of the intellect (Il Matto), emotion
(Gelsomina), and physical health (Zampano).
■ It is only through genuine human interaction that the individual can proceed to discover
himself, and there is always some hope of redemption.

Motifs: the sea as site for redemption and enlightenment, the procession, the empty piazza, the
riderless horse

Le notti di Cabiria (The Nights of Cabiria) (1957)

Cabiria is a prostitute and happy with her current lover. It turns out, however, that he
only wants her money. He pushes her into a river and steals her purse. She nearly drowns before
being rescued by ordinary folk.
What follows is a sequence of episodic narratives that illustrate Cabiria in humiliating
circumstances, only to be defiantly positive in the end. She gets picked up by a movie star only
to be locked up all night with his dog when his mistress arrives. Going for a blessing from the
Virgin Mary, she instead gets drunk and humiliates herself in front of a crowd.
She eventually meets Oscar, an accountant. At first she is cautious and doubtful of his
intentions, but she eventually falls passionately in love with him. Nonetheless, her doubts come
to life when she almost experiences the very same situation she had with her previous boyfriend.
Oscar runs off and leaves Cabiria weeping in the woods.
Cabiria walks to town dejected, only to be accompanied by a group of young people in
scooters parading and dancing to music. Eventually, she smiles through her tears.

Main theme: Life is but a cycle between misfortune and happiness.

Subordinate themes:
■ The woman is stifled in the patriarchal attitude of contemporary society.
■ Maturity is attained only through loss and misfortune.
■ The desire to find meaning in life is elusive, and the search for it is mired by challenges and
risks.

Motifs: vaudeville performance, comedic sequences, the religious and musical procession,

La dolce vita (1959)

Marcello, a gossip journalist, does not love his job but nevertheless strives for the glittery
and glamorous life that comes with it. Flirting with a foreign movie star, having encounters with a
socialite one of which happens in a prostitute’s room, Marcello ignores his girlfriend Emma.
Steiner, a writer and a friend of Marcello, commits suicide and kills his own children during
Marcello’s stay in Rome. All of these happened in a short time that it put Marcello in shock. In
the end, Marcello finds himself lost in the glitz, glamour, and profane life, with no idea how to get
back to his ‘roots’.
 Main theme: The modern world can be too intriguing and can keep anyone off track. With its
sugar-coated world, also come consequences and sufferings.

Subordinate themes:
■ The formation of a modern morality based on movie stars, religious visions, and self-
indulgent aristocracy is one consequence of the modern world.
■ Contemporary life is all façade and masquerade set against the ancient Christian past.
■ The modern world forces in the individual a sense of self-conflict as to morality and
profanity, traditional and modern, etc.

Motifs: the empty piazza as a setting for reflection, sunglasses and masks to hide from society,
musical numbers parties and clubs as ‘the sweet life’

8½ (Otto e mezzo) (1963)

Famed director Guido Anselmi is working on his latest movie - part science fiction, part
commentary on Catholicism, but most importantly primarily autobiography. Despite Anselmi
declaring that this movie should be an easy one to make, he is having problems with his artistic
vision, specifically as he does not want to tell a lie on screen. From the stress, he has checked
himself into a spa to help him with many of his problems, both professional and personal.
As he works through these problems, he reminisces about his childhood and fantasizes
about how he either sees things playing out or how he hopes they will play out. Surrounding him
at the spa and/or on set are many of the real life people who will be portrayed on screen
including: his wife Luisa who he loves but who he does not fully understand especially as it
relates to their marriage; his mistress Carla, the antithesis of Luisa; and an actress named
Claudia who he sees as providing his ultimate salvation.

Main theme: Creation is a complex and arduous process, wherein the creator must compromise
between personal happiness and the happiness of his audience.

Subordinate themes:
■ Modernization is alienating and confusing, and the individual must rely on his feelings, not
on logic, to accept life, with all its confusion and defects, for what it is.
■ The domain of the irrational, memory, fantasy, and dreams is the ultimate source for artistic
inspiration.

Motifs: interweaving of dreams and fantasies with reality, women as Guido’s downfall and
salvation, religion as distant and impersonal

Giulietta degli spiriti (Juliet of the Spirits) (1965)

The film begins with Giulietta preparing to surprise her husband, who forgot that it is
their anniversary. He brought along friends, and a seance session takes place. With their house
being near the beach, they are frequently visited by her sisters and mother, all whom appears to
be more beautiful and confident than her. She becomes friends with her neighbor Suzy, who
turns out to be high profile prostitute, introducing Giulietta to her odd lifestyle. After hearing her
husband call out the name ‚Gabriella‛ in his sleep, and catching him talking to a woman on the
phone one night, Giulietta hires detectives to follow him. They confirm her suspicions, and this
troubles Giulietta, who has already been dealing with her mundane life through her subconcious.
In the end, she realizes her desires, finally achieving self-confidence and independence.
 Main theme: Society and institution closets the woman in a state of ignorance, disempowering
her in the process.

Subordinate themes:
■ The woman must seek empowerment in herself in order to stand up to the existing
immorality of contemporary life.
■ The truth will set us free; it is in accepting the truth that we become free from what troubles
us.

Motifs: the dream space as a source of empowerment, failing marriage, seances, sea/beach,
circus, party, theater,

Fellini Satyricon (1969)

Encolpio is lamenting the loss of his lover Gitone to Ascilto. After finding out that Gitone
was sold to the actor Vernacchio, he immediately reclaims Gitone. But Gitone chooses Ascilto
and they leave Encolpio, who barely escapes the earthquake. Encolpio meets a poet Eumolpius,
who brings him to a feast hosted by a freeman who pretends to be a poet; Eumolpius was
tortured after accusing the host of copying another poet’s work, and a mock funeral was held.
After that, Encolpio, Ascilto, and Gitone were taken as slaves on the pirate ship of Lichas.
Attracted to Encolpio, Lichas marries him with the blessing of his wife. A new Caesar replaces
the boy Ceasar, who was forced to commit suicide, rebels behead Lichas, taking Gitone as their
slave. Encolpio and Ascilto goes through many things,, including kidnapping a hermaphrodite(a
demi-god), and finding the cure to Encolpio’s impotence. Ascilto dies after a fight, leaving
Encolpio who decides to join Eumolpius’ ship. Unfortunately, Eumolpius dies before the ship
departs, asking his heirs to eat his corpse in order to receive their inheritance. As this act on
cannibalism takes place, Encolpio leaves with the captain and his crew. The film ends in mid-
sentence.

Main theme: Survival and pleasure are man’s sole motivating forces.

Subordinate themes:

■ Societal morality is dictated by the roles different people play within the society.

Motifs: graffiti, monologue, homosexuality, theater, shadow, feast/party, fascination with death
(mock funeral), marriage, sea, suicide, frescoes, murder, sacrifice, cannibalism, mid-sentence
ending, hermaphrodite (demi-god)

Roma (Fellini’s Roma) (1972)

The film is a virtually plotless autobiographical tribute to Rome, Italy, featuring narration
by Fellini himself and a mixture of real-life footage and fictional set pieces. It flows from episode
to episode, beginning with the director's early years arriving in Rome in 1931 during the time of
Mussolini.
He visits the city with classmates and becomes infatuated. The young Fellini moves in to
a tenement building and explores the wild characters living in neighborhood. The events that
follow switch between the past and contemporary times, including a story line that involves a
1970s film crew making a movie about Rome.
 He also incorporates segments of Roman history and problems in the government,
including an improvised speech from Gore Vidal. Throughout this journey there are visits to an
outdoor restaurant, a movie theater, a music hall, and a brothel.
In one famously surreal segment, groups of clergymen gather together for a Catholic
fashion show spectacle. After a visit to a street festival and some on-camera interviews, the film
concludes with shots of motorcycles driving by the Colosseum.

Main theme: The past and the present are in constant collision, and the individual must account
for this to examine his future.

Subordinate themes:
■ The situations of the past may or may not be better than the situations of the present, but
the acceptance of the status quo relies solely on the individual.
■ Immorality and morality is eternally coexistent in society.

Motifs: prostitutes as symbols of immorality, morality symbolized by the Church,

Amarcord (1973)
The story ostensibly tells of Titta and his family. His father Aurelio speaks his mind about
his hatred of the fascists, something which gets him into trouble, and he often also clashes with
his wife Miranda. But the story is just a series of vignettes, interspersed with characters talking
directly to camera. While it does not seem to be enough to sustain a narrative, there is a feeling
at the end of the film of having reached some objective and leaving the town of Rimini behind
forever, at least physically if not emotionally.

Main theme: Sexuality, politics, and entertainment are sources of relief from tedious and
provincial lives.

Subordinate themes:
■ It is a regressive state of adolescence that finds its highest and most dangerous expression
in sexual repression.
■ Ignorance is perpetuated by the illusion of politics and entertainment, and, when take to the
excess, may be destructive.

Motifs: Gradisca’s desire for Gary Cooper, the military parade as symbol for politics (Fascist
Italy)

Casanova (Fellini’s Casanova) (1976)

The film itself has no real plot. Casanova is a Viennese gentleman who begins by
bedding a nun and, when imprisoned for heresy and black magic, is forced to escape and live
the rest of his days travelling around Europe bedding more and more bizarre sexual partners
until he dies, poignantly declaring his love for a mechanical woman while dancing on ice, thereby
revealing himself to be a pointless and empty shell of a man.
Unable to have a real relationship with a real woman, unable to live up to his vainglorious
boasts of being a philosopher and economist, he dies utterly alone. His life wasted.

Main theme: The quest for pleasure is not enough to complete a man’s humanity.
 Subordinate themes: Constant repetition of something so precious eventually loses its
preciousness.

Motifs: emptiness/hollowness, playful musical numbers, mechanicality

Overarching Themes:

1. Our trouble, as modern men, is loneliness, and this begins in the very depths of our being, and
only between man and man can this solitude be broken.

2. One consequence of the contemporary world is the degeneration of morality and innocence.

Overarching Motifs:

● Circuslike atmosphere
● Processions
● Theatrical and vaudevillian performances
● Seriocomic structure
● Masks and masquerades
● Grotesques
● Empty piazzas
● Alternation of scenes (noisy vs. quiet; night vs. day; hysterics vs. loneliness; estrangement vs.
recognition)
● Nostalgia for childhood innocence, moral purity, sanctity
● The sea as symbol for redemption

Style and Techniques2

Classical Neorealism / Social Realism (I vitelloni, La strada, Il bidone, Le notti di Cabiria)

Script
This movement is characterized by the characterization of postwar Italy from a social
perspective – that is, the characters in Fellini’s films are figures typical of the times. In the neorealist
phase, he constructs reality objectively, utilizing characters like Zampano, Gelsomina, and Il matto
(travelling performers) in La strada, and Gelsomina (a prostitute) in Le notti di Cabiria as portraits of the
economic and political situation of postwar Italy.
Fellini’s neorealist films possess an implicit voyage and subsequent climactic destination. Also,
Fellini does not give conclusions, but rather leaves the ending open and ambiguous. He frequently
collaborates with Tullio Pinelli and Ennio Flaiano over the script, which is wholly original as he avoids
adaptations of previously published work.
Autobiography is a major element in most of Fellini’s works, both in the neorealist and poetic
realism phase.

2
From his first films to La strada, Fellini followed the tradition of classical neorealism in his films. This movement is
characterized by the examination of the social environment of postwar Italy. Beginning in Le notti di Cabiria, there is a
transition to poetic realism, whereupon Fellini utilizes different techniques in his cinema. For a more detailed
examination, refer to Booth, Philip. Fellini’s La Strada as Transitional Film.
Acting
With the exception of I vitelloni, Fellini follows in the neorealist tradition of employing
nonprofessional actors for small parts and employing professionals in key roles (i.e. Mastroianni, Masina,
Ekberg), as opposed to de Sica’s Bicycle Thief, Umberto D., which employed non-professional actors as
leads. I vitelloni employed nonprofessionals in the whole.
Fellini’s wife, Giulietta Masina, starred in the two films La strada and Le notti di Cabiria, to critical
acclaim.

Production design
Fellini uses production design that is evocative of surreal influences. They function as motifs and
abound with symbolism, such as the riderless horse in La strada.
On-location shooting allows Fellini to utilize an objective perspective to the experiences of the
characters in his films.

Cinematography
He uses deep space to portray a layered composition with the foreground and background in
focus. He sets up figures or elements in the foreground and another group of figures in the distance with
appropriate perspective cues to let us know the composition exists on at least two planes.
His black and white photography in the neorealist phase is characterized by natural, realistic
lighting.

Editing
Fellini cuts all his own films. He never reshoots, since he believes that a good picture has to
have defects. He utilizes continuity editing.
Establishing shots are a rarity, and the viewer is often disoriented in terms of space or place.

Music and Scoring

Nino Rota’s scoring is lyrical, festive, contemporary, reminiscent of the fairground. In scenes
with musical comment, Fellini eliminates almost all natural sounds, all realism.
The director is intimately involved in all stages of constructing the soundtrack: he either selects
the tunes or helps compose them and maintains complete control over recording, editing, and mixing.
On-location sound is never used, but the whole track is redone in the studio.

Direction
Fellini avoids rigidity in the directing process. He does not need a very well written script to
begin filming, and improvises in the course of it. He begins a picture unsure if the location or the actors.

Poetic Realism (La dolce vita onwards)

Script:
Fellini eventually transformed his work into poetic realism, which is more inspecting of the
individual. In this vein, Fellini’s characters are not socially typical in the neorealist sense, but symbolic.
He uses their subjective experiences (i.e. dreams, fantasies) to portray reality.
Fellini’s protagonists in the poetic realism phase are economically established and well-to-do
(i.e. Guido in 8 ½ , Juliet in Juliet of the Spirits). The story is derived more from internal than external
conflicts that serve as challenges for the protagonist to overcome.
Acting
The director never commits the ‚error‛ of adjusting the actor to fit the character. He always does
the opposite, endeavoring to adjust the character to the actor. He lets the actors improvise and form the
character on his/her own.
He employed Marcello Mastroianni in La dolce vita and 8 ½, casting him in the two roles often
regarded as Fellini’s alter ego.

Production design
Fellini’s use of surreal images continued to his poetic realism phase but the function of his
imagery shifted from symbolism to the portrayal of the subjective experience of his characters (i.e.
dreams, fantasies).
Also notable is his usage of costumes. The women in Fellini’s films are often shown in unnatural
outfits (e.g. feathered boas, oversized hats).
Beginning in La dolce vita, Fellini began a tendency to shoot in the studio, granting him more
artistic freedom over the mise en scene, and enabling him to more creatively emulate his dream
sequences.

Cinematography
In the poetic realism phase, he still uses deep focus and the mobile camera, although he uses
close-ups and zooms more frequently, isolating the major character within the frame.
Beginning in Juliet of the Spirits, his first color film, he uses non-naturalistic use of color.

Editing
Owing to the typical construction of a Fellini film, his editing does not mimic reality, but the
processes of the dreaming mind. He is adept at using unconventional editing to create an illogical
continuity.

Music and Scoring

Fellini’s longtime collaborator and friend Rota composed the scores of all of his films except the
last five. Although the score in his films plays a key role, he utilizes it as a marginal, secondary element
that can hold first place only at rare moments and that, in general, it must simply sustain the rest.
Fellini uses music as an instrument to develop continuity despite the lack of it in the narrative
structure.

Direction
For Fellini, direction is crucial in creating an atmosphere of complete complicity. He fosters the
feeling of total friendship towards his coworkers.
Fellini is also renowned for his improvisational skills, eliciting improvisational authority over his
actors and towards the script. He seeks complete control over every aspect of his films.
Summing Up

Fellini as Auteur

Across Fellini’s repertoire as director emerges his brilliant stature as an auteur of the highest
quality. His films are almost always autobiographical, and possess a consistency in their episodic and
rhythmic structure. The themes of struggle of the individual against modernization and society in general
(early films), as well as against himself and inner psyche (latter, Jungian films), encompass his cinematic
career.
In his filmography, one can trace the cinematic development of his style. Whereas Fellini’s films
up to Le notti di Cabiria approached reality in an objective, classical neorealist manner with somewhat
poetic tendencies, his cinema after La dolce vita heralded his flamboyant style of evoking dreams,
memories, and Jungian psychology to evoke his characters’ subjective experience to his/her
environment.
He does not rely on the resolution of reality, but a revelation of it. In reality, the director means
the subjective, relative reality. He makes it a point not to make an objective reality in his films, any more
than there is in life. Fellini’s style is governed not by the traditional conventions of direction, but by the
internal logic of his characters.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bachmann, Gideon & Fellini, Federico (1964) Interview with Federico Fellini. Federico Fellini:
interviews. Bert Cardullo (ed.) University of Mississipi.
Bondanella, Peter (2002) The films of Federico Fellini. Cambridge Univ. Press
Booth, Philip. (2011) Fellini’s La strada as transitional film: the road from classical neorealism to
poetic realism. Journal of Popular Culture 44 (4) 704-716. Blackwell Pub.
Fellini, Federico (1976) Letter to a Marxist critic. Fellini on Fellini trans. Isabel Quigly. London:
Eyre Methuen, pp. 59-63
Murray, Edward (1976) Form and content. Fellini, the Artist. F. Ungar Pub.
Salachas, Gilbert (1969) Federico Fellini. Crown Publishers.
Solmi, Angelo (1967) Federico Fellini. Trans. Greenwood, Elizabeth. London: The Merlin Press.
Stubbs, John C. (1993) The Fellini manner: open form and visual excess. Cinema Journal. 34 (4)
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_____________. (2006) Fellini as auteur: seven aspects of his films. Southern Illinois Univ.
Van Order, Thomas (2009) Listening to Fellini: music and meaning in black and white. Rosemont
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