SEISMIC DATA ACQUISITION A Simplified Overview of Theory and Technology by D. G. (Peter) Lang January 1991PART 1 PART 2 PART 3 PART 4 PART 5 APPENDIX CONTENTS INTRODUCTION ENERGY PROPAGATION THE SEISHOGRAM ENERGY SOURCES GEOPHONES & HYDROPHONES THE SEISMIC RECORDER BOREHOLE SEISMOLOGYAaa” ss A” Le et bt ce Os aan INTRODUCTION ‘The general purpose of a seismic survey is to give the explorationist knowledge about the various strata beneath the earth's surface. The three major components of the survey are DATA ACQUISITION DATA PROCESSING INTERPRETATION ‘This booklet is concerned with Seismic Data Acquisition whieh is performed by field crews which may be either land or marine. A seismic field crew exists only for the purpose of acquiring geophysical data. Yet a visitor to a seismic ‘crew sees very little direct evidence of geophysics: rather he sees vehicles and hydraulic machinery, electronic instruments and electrical cable. Very often the real purpose of a crew is disregarded, and each part of the operation - surveying, recording, etc. - § viewed as an end in itself and not part of an integrated whole. .¢ purpose of this booklet is to present a very simplified overview of both the theoretical base and the practical technology of seismic data acquisition Any sections in this booklet marked with a (*) afe included for reference purposes and can be shipped by most readers LINES AND GRIDS ‘The seismic crew gathers data from numerous points along pre-surveyed lines. Typically, the survey will comprise a grid of lines whose data (after processing and interpretation) may yield a subsurface comour map as shown in figure 1. TIE SEISMIC SEQUENCE Data are acquired via a sequence which for land crews, s illustrated in figure 2 and listed below: 8. A coded “fire command” is transmitied by radio from the recording vehicle. The command is received by the energy source vehicle and decoded. into the ground. b. The energy-source vehicle reacts to the “fire command” by releasing seismic ener All time neasurements are made from the instant of energy release (shot break. time break. T/O). Seismic energy propagates through the earth materials in the form of seismic waves. . Some of the source-generated seismic waves reach the seismic detectors (geophones) via various paths as shown and are converted into electrical signals. €, The elecirica signals which represent the seismic waves received by the geophones are passed, cither via cable or by radio link, to the recording vehicle. {The seismic recorder within the recording vehicle manipulates the incoming data into a suitable format and records the data on magnetic tape. ‘The raw field tape is taken to a processing center where the data are subjected to various processes designed to accentuate wanted signals and minimize nose or unwanted signal~ STRUCTURE CONTOUR map pues - - ES f . fk SSPE HE Co VOI NS < b Qe b ] INA NI lt | RES N \IN ae Nv ‘i a NY 1 [77 TE ] L — > 7 TIT TANS — » FIRE COMMAND ENERGY SOURCE we ° SEISMIC ENERGY AND TRANSMISSION HEDIU® LS D. DETECTORS E £. DATA LINK i] F. RECORDER E G. PROCESSING 1] H. INTERPRETATION Te Figure 2 Lttear is La Ls pu La td ee te Ae ‘On marine crews the geophones are replaced by hydrophones which are towed behind the vessel in a "streamer". The energy source is also towed behind the vessel.PART 1 ENERGY PROPAGATIONENERGY PROPAGATION. Not all the energy released by the energy-source is converted into seismic energy. Energy is lost due to the causes listed below: Land 4. Plastic deformation, When the energy release pushes the earth materials beyond their elastic limits, the is are ‘plastically deformed’ and cannot return to their original position. Energy has been used in causing this plastic deformation. Rock Breaking, The energy used in shattering rock. . Rebound, The energy sed in rebound, as when es weight falis to the ground and then bounces up again. 4. Haat Hestis a form of energy ard obviously the heat energy produced by un explosive charge is lost. Air Blast and Audible Sound, Energy which travels through the air obviowsly cannot ¥ Shout the earth's subsurface and is therefore wasted energy. ‘This is about the only type of energy oss we can consisicutly contro! - by adequate ich explosive charges are buried. f. Hole blow-out tamping of the holes in vg, Ifthe expanding bubble associated with an underwater energy release venis to the surface ergy of the pressured gas (air) within the a. Veagl before tne bubbie has reached maximum size, the potential bubble is lost. WAVE MODES When energy is released at the earth's suriuce by's source that inoves the surface up and down, ihe se energy generated is divided into: 2. Body waves which travel through the body of the earth and expand away from the source with spherical Givergence (figure 30) and b. Boundary waves which travel along the boundary between air and earth and expand away from the source with cylindrical divergence (figure 3b). Due to the fact that seismic energy is distributed over a wavefront represented by the surface of a sphere or cylinder, the differing surface areas of sphere and cylinder for @ given radius cause the body wave amplivude te decay more rapidly with distance from the source than does toundary wave amplitude tiigure &),Point of Surface Energy Release > Expanding ‘Expanding Went apner ical cylindrical Miverront SPHERICAL CYLINDRICAL BODY WAVE BOUNDARY WAVE db a Figure 3 RELATIVE DISTANCE FROM SOURCE Figure 4* spher ence Initial energy =W ‘Area of sphere = Aste (rmradius of sphere) Area of hemisphere =2m* Energy density in surface of hemisphere = w/t earr® ‘Available power # /zare™ put Al? (where A=amplitude & P=power) so Amplitude 0¢ )//tIrr* = (Mm) *. Amplitude % oe * Clindrical Divergence Initial energy =W area of cylinder = 2atrk Gr ror £=!) Energy density on surface of cylinder. = w/t Qawr Available power oo rrr on AVP so Amplitude fare = (a). Uf 3 Ampttd’ $° Ae . WAVEFRONTS and RAYPATHS |“. ‘The expanding cylindrical or spherical surface ont which seismic energy is distributed is known as 2 wcavefrent. For practical purposes, the seismic detectors are at such a distance from the source that the wavefronts are normally considered plane. A plane ‘wavefront {s, of course, tangential to the actual curved wavefront. , “The direction in which ary assumed plane wavefront is moving is called a raypath. The raypath is, of course, a radius of a sphere or cylinder and is perpendicular to the plane (tangential) wavefront. In practical seismology we tend to think more in terms of raypaths than of wavefronts. + Huvgen’s Principle ‘The mechanics of spherical wavefront expansion is described by Huygen’s Principle which, in essence, states that any point which is energized will reradiate omnidirectionally. We can then consider every point on 2 wavefront as being an energized radiating point. Each point on the new (expanded) waveiront is tangential 10 1 radiation sphere from a discrete point.LONGITUDINAL (PRESSURE) WAVE a pittrprph tty TRANSVERSE (SHEAR) WAVE b G@aaaoAaA a RAYLEIGH WAVE (GROUND ROLL) c Figure 5 Sintet — eeetivee PAVE suceencs Pome ABD)BODY WAVES. ‘Two types of body waves are generated: a, The compressional wave, whose particle motion is back and forth along the direction of propagation (igure 5a). ‘This wave is also known as the pressure wave, longitudinal wave and p-wave. b. The shear wave which has a particle motion which is back and forth at right angles to the direction of propagation (figure 5b). This wave & zlso known as the transverse or s-wave. As. in conventional p- ‘rave exploration, our geophones are sensitive only to the velocity of vertical motion, we normally do not detect shear waves, which typically will move a geophone from side to side. (NOTE: A shear wave ‘cannot propagate through a liquid). * Shear Wave Polarization Consider the imaginary plane between source and receiver in figure 6. If shear wave particle motion is on this plane, the wave is said to be vertically polarized and is referzed to as an SV wave. If the shear wave particle motion is at right angles to this plane, the wave is said to be horizontally polarized and is referred to as an SH wave. BOUNDARY WAVES Two types of boundary waves are generatec: the Rayleigh Wave and the Love Wave. Only the former is of interest to our present study. — a. The Rayleigh Wave, in which the particle motion is elliptical and reirograde (backward) at the upper part of its orbit. The Rayleigh wave is often loosely referred to as ground-roll, though ground roli may contain some Love waves. b. The Love Wave, This is a shear wave which propagates along the ground surface. Particle motion is horizontal and the Love wave may therefore be considered as SH (shear-horizontal) wave GY DIVISION BETWEEN MODI Very little energy goes into the Love wave and this wave is attenuated very rapidly. We seldom if ever see this wave in exploration seismology, so we will disregard it. ‘The initial energy division berween the three remaining modes (for surface energy release) is approximately as follows: Rayleigh Wave 68% Shear Wave 26% Compressional Wave Total energy -VELOCITY The velocity at which a seismic wave travels depends on: © The elastic properties of the medium through which it is propagating, © The porosity of the medium and the pore saturant, © The pressure to which the medium is subject. * Of course, all these are interrelated, but their effect on velocity is described by one or two classic equations: 1 (Gassman’s Equation) P= 8/0 Where Vp = compressional wave velocity E = Young's modulus Z = Pressure (or depth if proportional to pressure) © = Poisson's ratio Gassman’s equation is based on a matrix consisting of uniform spheres. 207 $0 + ae) ve 7 ve= Jp atte Where Vp = compressional wave velocity Ve = Shear wave velocity € = Young's modulus © = Poisson’s ratio P = density (Wyllie’s Equation) € Where Vb = bulk compressional wave velocity Vma= matrix compressional wave velocity Vf = nuid saturant compressional wave velocityVer, = 3 i ! i { ' ‘. i ° POISSON'S RATIO™ ° Figure 7 DISPLA eee OO . i : VELOCITY ° ed Figure 8@ = porosity bulk velocity is the velocity through the rock as distinct from the velocity through matrix material or pore saturant. From equations 3 and 4 above, we can derive the ratio of shear wave velocity to compressional wave velocity (Vs/Vp). M6 ve =o 05-6 Velocity Ratios We see from figure 7 that both shear wave and Rayleigh wave velocities change relative to p-wave velocity 1$ a function of Poisson's ratio. For an ‘average’ material known as a Poisson solid, with ©” = 0. Vs = 0.58 Vp Vr = 053 Vp Velocity Ranges In seismic exploration for oil, the range of p-wave velocities we may expect to encounter is from about 1,000 to 20,000 feet per second. If we assume a Poisson's ratio (€*) of 0.25, we find that: Shear wave velocity in any given medium is approximately 0.58 of the compressional wave velocity. This gives a range of shear wave velocities of from. about 580 feet per second to 11,600 feet per second. Rayleigh wave velocity for a {ree boundary is approximately 0.92 of the shear wave velocity (0.53 of the compressional wave velocity). The probable range of Rayleigh wave velocities (ford = 0.25) is therefore approximately 530 feet per second io 10,600 feet per second, just about half the compressional velocities. BASIC WAVELET The geophones used in land exploration are sensitive to velocity of ground movernent, not to displacement. ‘The seismic wave which is received by the geophone can therefore be viewed as a velocity wavele!, and we often consider seismic energy as travelling in the form of this wavelet, The name given this basic wavelet is the RICKER WAVELET, the simple derivation of which is described below and illustrated in figure 8. For the sake of simplicity we will consider a falling weight as the energy source. Curve 8a shons ground displacement versus time. At T,, the weight strikes the ground which starts to move downwards, The ground continues to move downwards until T, at which instant downward motion ceases and upward (recovery) motion starts. The earth continues to move upwards under its own elasticity until it regains its original position at T,. (NOTE: This simple illustration assumes no plastic deformation and no overswing or reverberation.)Ineinice Distance Figure 9Curve 8b shows the velocity wavelet associated with the displacement curve. It should be noted that there is zero velocity at Ty, Ty and T,, with velocity maxima falling between these times. It should further be moved that the velodty Wavelet {bipolar and the first half cycle is shorter than the second because the ground moves down faster under the force of the energy source than it can recover upwards under its own elasticity. ‘This particular wavelet is the "near field" Ricker wavelet which exists near the source. {AS it travels through the earth, the wavelet’s frp is modified by the earth's filtering effect, somewhat as shown in figure 9. goo THE SEISM ‘An interface is, of course, the boundary between two layers of earth materials. However, for our purpose wwe are interested only in the seismic phenomena that occur at the interface. Reflection Every earth material has an acoustic impedance which is equal to@ V. where is density and V is velocity. ‘A change of acoustic impedance gives rise to a reflection of seismic energy striking the interface. ‘As adjacent layers in the earth's sedimentary section normally have differing acoustic impedances, it follows that there is an acoustic impedance mismatch at a lypical interiace, this causing the reflection associated with the interface. Reflection Coefficient . The relative amplitude and polarity of a seismic reflection is defined by the coefficient of reflection (R). fv, — LY, Re Bie te The surface seismologist can extract velocity information from seismic data, but very seldom has good information about subsurface densities. An approximation of the reflection coefficient is therefore often used: Vi Re vie If the seismologist is interested in reflected energy rather than the amplitude of a reflection: Reflected Energy = Incident Energy x R? Re 01 When energy strikes an interface, some of the energy is reflected. As can be scen from the equation for reflected energy, not all the energy is reflected (unless R = 1, which only occurs at the earth-air interface). The energy which is not reflected is transmitted into the next layer. At angles of incidence (@ other than normal, the energy which enters the second layer is refracted, that is its path is bent away from thesource sounce source sounce | i t L, i v4 \ Va J Va 1@2 V2 ' ' ' = GRITICAL ANGLE - @> CRITICAL ANGLE Vi< Va Vi Xi = /Aas Va toh? where Va = Average Velocity to Reflectorsource _—_—— primanies MULTIPLES Figure 18 erations Tae CORRECTED HoT +3 TRAVEL PATHS FOR REFLECTION POINT © SHoTs 1,283 A+ PRIMARY REFLECTIONS ALIONED EEE Tenienon eins b= MULTIPLE WITH REBIDUAL NOVEOUT b Figure 19XpoX = Distances of two geophone stations from source (Xs the greater distance.) tote = Reflection arrival times on traces at X, and Xz NMO is removed during processing by the process called dynamic correction. MULTIPLI ‘The reflections of interest to the seismologist are primary reflections - those that have been reflected once only, and whose :wo-way travel time is therefore related to depth of the reflector. Reflections which have been reflecied more than once (figure 18) are called multiples, section multiples or Tong period multiples and (as far as surface seismic is concerned) yield no information about the interlace from which they were first reflected. They are therefore categorized as noise and efforis are made to attenuate them. cpp ‘The CDP method is actually # combination of data acquisition and processing techniques working together to attenvate multiples. (The method is also effective in attenuating random noise.) For our present purpose we are concerned only with the acquisition aspect, which is used by practically every seismic erew worldwide. In the CDP method, recordings are made with traces having different travel paths but the same reflection points (or depth points). The geometry is such that the subsurface coverages overlap as shown in figure 19a. The number of traces recorded from each individual depth point (reflection point) is the CDP multiplicity cor fold. Most modern production work is fold or fold. CDP multiplicity can be found as follows: Mult = __Number of traces per record 72 x (energy release interval as a multiple of station interval) Example: Energy release every second station: 120 tr/record, 120, = 30 fold 2x2 * CDP Gather (figure 19%) In processing, all traces having common depth points (or reflection points) are gathered together and appear very much like a rormal seismic record. However, in a normal record, the traces represent different (horizontally-displaced) depth points, whereas in the gather, all traces represent the same depth point, but with differing length travel paths. If multiples are present, they will nave anomolously large NMO.MOLOGY SURFACE NOISE AMBIENT SOURCE-GQENERATED VERTICALLY Womizomratty PROPAGATED PROPAGATED | MULTIPLES | QuIDED Waves REVERDERATIONS. @nouND MOLL CONTINUOUS SPORADIC a RELATIVE AMPLITUDE OF BAND OM NOISE MULTIPLICITY (n) b Figure 20Static and dynamic corrections are now applied to the raw gather, yielding a corrected gather in which all traces appear as representing Nertical travel paths between the datum plane and the reflectors. This means that primary reflections are flattened, whereas multiple reflections still have some residual moveout. Muting is applied to the corrected gather to eliminate refractions and guided waves, and the traces are summed together to produce a trace Tepresenting a single depth point. This summing process is often referred to as horizontal stacking. SEISMIC NOISE If a seismic reflection has an amplitude which falls within the range of our recording system, the only circumstance which may prevent its detection or render it useless is poor signal to noise ratio. In practical seismology various categories of noise are troublesome and efforts are made in both acquisition and processing to attenuate these noises, and thereby improve signal to noise ratio. (Noise for this purpose is defined as “seismic noise’: that is, it is unwanted signal which is detected by movement of the geophone and not by electrical induction or other means.) Figure 202 shows the principal types of noise encountered in surface seismology. They are divided into ‘wo broad categories: Ambient and Source-Generated. Ambient Noises a. Continuous noise has its origin in wind, waves, human activity, etc. It is random in nature and is attenuated by multiplicity, that is, the number of geophones separated in space or the number of recordings separated in time which are summed together. When the energy source remains in substantially the same position to generate these recordings, the summing process is often referred to as “vertical stacking" the actual Random noise amplitude after vertical stacking is proportional to We vwhere 2 multiplicity (see figure 20b). = * Example: A crew uses 16 discrete energy releases per record (vertical stack = 16), 24 geophones per station and a CDP fold of 12. n= 16x 24x 12 = 4,608 Ax fe, bos = OO where A = relative amplitude of random noise relative to random noise ifn = 1 d. Sporadic noise is normally of short duration and appears and disappears unpredictably. A typical origin of sporadic noise is vehicle movement, Sporadic noise can be minimized in processing or by use of special field recorders which identify and de-emphasize signals having anomolously high amplitudes. A sporadic noise of non-seismic origin sometimes contaminates seismic records. This is the “static flick’ which is an electrically-induced impulse caused by atmospheric disturbances and lightning.Figure 21 naw veLocity FILTERED Figure 23 Figure 24Source-Generated Noises Noise which originates with energy released by the energy source is normally coherent, lining up {rom ame io trace on the seismic record. Scattering of coherent source-generated noise can however sometimes sgive the appearance of non-coherence or randomness on a seismic record, Categories of source-generated noises are: 2. Multiples (figure 21). These are usually attenuated ty use of the CDP method previously mentioned. b. Reverberations (figure 22). These are sometimes called "short-period multiples’, and are caused by Energy Feverberating (substantially vertically) berween the surface and a shallow interface (i.e. sea ‘surface {0 sea bed). ‘They cannot be attenuated in acquisition, but may be controlled in processing bya process called “deconvolution”. ¢. Guided Waves (figure 23). These can seldom be controlled in the field. Processing may attenuate quided waves by use of ‘velocity filters" or may eliminate some by “muting” 4, Ground Roll (figure 24). ‘This is the highest amplitude, most troublesome surfece seismic noise. It {eed to be controlled in the field by a combination of spatial and frequency filters, but multiplicity and the range of distances for each depth point are now usually such that itis taken care of by processing * GROUND-ROLL DISPERSION ‘Although ground roll is a boundary wave, it does penetrate into the earth, the depth of effective penetration being a function of wavelength. As short wavelengths are associated with high frequencies and long wavelengths with low frequencies, it follows that the low frequency components of ground roll penetrate deeper than the high frequency components. Ground roll propagation velocity is ‘a function of shear wave velocity in the material penetrated by the ground roll. As velocity increases with depth, it follows that low frequencies (long wavelengths) travel faster than high (requencies (Short wavelengths). This gives rise to “dispersion” of the ground roll as shown in figure 24. Ground roll dispersion can mean that close to the energy source the highest apperent ground roll velocity is the group velocity of the whole energy package, whereas at distance from the source, highest apparent velocity is the phase velocity of the lowest frequency. This can be seen in figure 24, Most ground roll seen on a seismic record travels directly along the line of profile from the energy source and is therefore coherent from trace to trace. However, as ground roll propagates in all horizontal directions from the source, some energy may be reflected (horizontally) by surface discontinuities such as valleys oF escarpments. This causes energy to be ‘side-scattered’, The resulting mixture of ground roll arriving {rom different directions often gives the appearance of disorganized or random noise,Coda, It may de noted that short-lived reverberations in shallow layers often change the character of the downgoing wavelet by adding a ‘coda* or til. This is illustrated in figure 25. Wavelet processing may be ‘used to collapse the wavelet with coda 10 a semblance of the original wavelet (source signature). ‘THE SEISMIC RECORD “The seismic record is a collection of seismic traces, each trace representing a receiver (geophone or hydrophone) station at a certain distance from the energy source. ‘A record which has been recorded in the field and been subjected to no further processing Is referred to as a traw" record. ‘The principal seismic events noted on 2 basic raw record are listed below: Direct Arrival When seismic energy is released by a source. the first energy to reach the closest geophones is normally the direct arrival which has followed the minimum time travel path (Fermat's Principle). Direct arrival ‘Consists of the horizontally-traveling part of the diverging hemisphere of longitudinal waves (p-waves) and is illustrated in figure 26. It should be noted that as the direct arrivals travel in a straight line from station to station they spear on the seismic record with a constant slope. Direct arrivals become attenuated rapidly or become lost in refractions, $0 very often they cannot be idemtified for many traces. Reflection ‘The second arrival at the near geophones is energy reflected from skallow interfaces (figure 27). As previously mentioned, reflections on a seismic record curve with normal moveout (NMO), appearing progressively later as distance from the source increases. “The fist reflection must arrive later in time than the direct arrival because both have traveled at the same velocity, with the latter following a shorter travel path than the former. However, later reflections have traveled at higher velocities and can therefore arrive earlier than the arrival time (or projected arrival time) of the direct arrivals. Refraction When energy is Incident atthe critical angle to a reflector with a positive reflection coefficient, itis refracted along the interface at the (higher) velocity of the second layer. Each point on the interface excited by the refracted wave radiates upwards with hemispherical divergence, causing vavetronis {0 travel to the surface with raypaths that intersect the interface at the critical angle (figure 28). Ona raw record, a reflection ceases to exist when the critical angle is reached. and is succeeded by a refraction. Unlike the reflection which curves, the refraction follows 9 constant slope from trace 10 trace. “The velocity of the second layer of the interface can be deduced from consideration of the slope of theSOURCE SIGNATURE we DOWNGOING WAVELET WITH CODA Figure 25 Gecphone Stations Figure 26refraction: a> ae where AD = distance between geophone stations represented by two traces. At = difference in refraction arrival time between the two traces. It may be noted that when refractions do not follow a constant slope the cause may be: a. Change in the thickness of the layer above the refractor. Figure 28b illustrates the effect of such a change when a seismic line traverses a sand dune. b. Change in the p-wave velocity of the low velocity layer above the refractor. ¢. Crooked line of profile. Such crooked lines are very common when it is necessary to lay the line along existing roads. The effect of a crooked line on first arrivals is illustrated in figure 28c. * Refraction survevs are often used to establish the depth of the low velocity or ‘weathered" layer which exists on the surface of most parts of the earth. The refraction survey also tells us the seismic velocity in the weathered layer (this is the direct arrival velocity), and the velocity immediately below the weathered layer (this is the second layer velocity). Figure 28d shows data with direct arrival and refraction: the slopes Of these events are plotted and yield the respective velocities. Depth to the refracting interface (base of weathering) can be found using the intercept time (t,). Intercept time is that time at which an ertension of the refraction slope intercepts the zero-disiance trace. ti, YoVr SRD sav Ground Roll Ground roll travels horizontally from the energy source. Its velocity is less than the direct wave velocity (typically about 50%), so the slope of ground roll arrivals on a seismic record is very much steeper than the slope of direct arrivals (figure 29). As previously mentioned, ground roll is dispersive, the dispersion depending on the near-surface velocity layering. This dispersion may cause ground roll on a raw record to appear to “fan out’. Guided Waves Energy incident to an interface at angles greater than the critical angle is totally reflected and is trapped between the interface and the surface, as described earlier. Guided waves are evidenced by bands of energy more or less parallel to the first arrivals as shown in figure 30. Although guided waves are body waves traveling with p-wave velocity, they expand with cylindricalceopnone Sigtions Plane wavefront Tangentanl to MC PIT NL TOT Rot sD Figure 28divergence, the cylinder depth being the depth of the reflecting interface. The guided wave therefore maintains a high amplitude relative to reflections and usually completely masks reflections in the same region. Air Blast ‘The acoustic wave travelling in the air directly from the energy source travels at about 1125 feet per second and, when visible, appears as a straight line event as seen in figure 29. NDWIDTH All seismic events contain broad bands of frequencies. The apparent frequencies we see on a seismic record are deceptive, representing only those frequencies which have the highest amplitude in the spectrum of events (figure 31). It should be noted that the spectra of ground-roll and reflections overlap each other, so attenuation of round-roll by frequency filtering alone is impractical as the frequency filter cannot distinguish between ground-roll and reflection. When Vibroseis is used, the spectrum of seismic energy is dictated by the spectrum transferred into the ground by the vibrators. However, when an impulse source (such as dynamite) is used, the spectrum of source-generated seismic evenis travelling through the ground is very broad indeed. ‘The events that appear on the raw record are, however, band-limited as follows: Upper limit, There is one limitation on the upper limit of all frequencies allowed into the recorder and ‘one on the upper frequency of horizontally propagating energy such as ground-roll. 1. The recorder contains a high-cut (low-pass) filter known as the anti-alias filter (described later). This limits the highest frequency of any signal allowed into the recorder. 2. The geophones (and often energy releases) are deployed in arrays or patterns which constitute a spatial filter (sometimes called a wavelength filter). ‘The spatial filter operates by virtue of the fact that for a horizontally-travelling wave such as ground roll, there is a phase difference between all the geophones in the array (figure 32). Geophone outputs therefore sum together out of phase and are diminished. A vertically-travelling reflection however sirikes all geophones simultaneously and the outputs therefore sum together in phase. * The response of a spatial filter is multi-lobed as shown in figure 33a. ‘This multi-lobed response is simplified in figure 33b to show that the first lobe (primary lobe) constitutes a pass-band, all frequencies above the lobe being attenuated. ‘The horizontal axis of the response curve may be calibrated in terms of wavelength (3), frequency (4), wavenumber (}) or dimensionless ratio LAwhere L = array length, This is shown in figure 34. For the purpose of this note, L/\ is considered. Let the boundary between the primary lobe and first secondary lobe (upper limit of pass band) be designated "0", Q = some value of Lin = lyEnerey Relewse SMTA aH Figure 29 Figure 30 | [ Frequency ! Apparent Apparent. Frequency Frequency GROUND=ROLL SPECTRUM REPLECTION SPECTRUM Figure 31Lf v OL = Owe f =QVL It follows that for array length L and ground-roll velocity V, fis the highest ground-roll frequency (appror) allowed into the recorder without attenuation. Lower ‘There are two limitations on lowest frequency allowed into the recorder. Both are frequency filters and affect all signals. 1. ‘The geophone (or hydrophone with its associated circuitry) acts as a low-cut (high pass) filter, typically attenuating all frequencies below say 10 Hz. 2, The recorder has an optional low cut filter, which may be set to one of many cut-off frequencies.VERTICAL VELOCITY OF GROUND woveENT FOR HORIZONTALLY-TRAVELLING ENERGY EACH QEOPMONE’S OUTPUT Is PROPORTIONAL TO VERTICAL VELOCITY OM WORIZONTALLY-TRAVELLING ENERGY: INDIVIDUAL OUTPUTS ARE OF DIFFERING AMPLITUDE FOR VERTICALLY-TRAVELLING ENERGY: INDIVIDUAL OUTPUTS ARE OF IDENTICAL AMPLITUDE Awo POLARITY. Figure Amplitude g & Ae Wt—im = 50 20 10 f= vat 0 200050 100 He ke tWvearn 0 02.05 a.3 0 i 2s slo LAs Leven Figure 34PART 3 ENERGY SOURCESENERGY SOURCES There are several types of energy sources which are used in seismic work. However, there are only wo general categories of seismic energy source: Impulse and Vibratory. ‘The impulse source transfers its energy into the ground in a very short period and yields the Ricker waveiet already mentioned. The vibratory source however transfers energy over a reiatively long period of time (seconds rather than milliseconds) and does not yield a Ricker wavelet, The vibratory source is used in the Vibroseis system. IMPULSE SOURCES Land Numerous types of impulse energy source have been developed for use on land. They range from weight Grops to vacuum hammers. However, by far the commonest land impulse source is dynamite (which is also the oldest). The word “dynamite” has become the generic name for practically all commercial explosives. Dynamites are capable of yielding more energy than any other seismic energy source. However. it must hvays be remembered that increasing the source energy does not necessarily improve signal to nvise ratio because. although reflection amplitude may be increased, source-generated noise amplitude will be increased in the same proportion. Moreover using more charge than is necessary in a single hole (overshooting) may cause low frequency effects which are associated with generation of a cavity around the detonation point. + The explosive types most commonly used in seismic exploration are: High Velocity Dynamite, This is granular and contains nitroglycerin. Its strength is rated in terms of percent nitroglycerin by weight, 60% is the strength normally used in the seismic industry. Seismic Gelatin. Gelatin may vary from a thick liquid to a rubbery solid, and contains a mixture of nitrocotton and nitroglycerin. Gelatins have the advantage of excellent water resistance. Gelatins, like straight dynamite, are specified by percentage, and 60% seismic gelatin is normally used. Niwomon®, Nitromon uses chemicals called nitro-carbonitrates and are especially “safe” in that they can be exploded only by use of a special primer. Nitromon is easier and safer to transport than true dynamite. Seismogel®, Seismogel is a seismic explosive which contains no nitroglycerin and is not a true dynamite, but releases energy equivalent to 60% dynamite. It is claimed to offer far greater safety than dynamite when subjected to impact, shock or fire. This explosive is supplied in 5 pound sticks which can be screwed together to make charges of any size. Each stick contains its own booster. Firing Line. This is supplied under the trade names Primacord® andGeoflex®. It consists of a non-dynamite explosive (PETN) contained in a flexible tube which may be laid out on the ground surface or in a ploughed furrow. Explosives used as seismic sources on land are always detonated in drilled holes which are normally tamped to prevent hole blowout. Uphole. In practical operations a geophone (known as an “uphole geophone’) is planted on the surface near the hole, When energy is released, the instant of detonation is recorded (this is known as the “shotbreak’, the ‘timebreak" or T/O), together with the output of the uphole geophone. This information facilitates time corrections made in processing by indicating the seismic travel time from source to surface (this is known as the "up-hole time"). * We generally assume that dynamite in a shothole constitutes a point source. This is not strictly true, as the first part of energy release is ‘consumed in creating a cavity and the surface of the (spherical) cavity is the true seismic source. In general, the larger the cavity the lower the frequency content of the seismic wavelet and the smaller the cavity, the higher the frequency content. Cavity size in a given earth material is related to charge size so frequency content is also related to charge size. AS a very rough rule ‘of thumb we can say that wavelet duration and amplitude are approximately proportional to the cube root of charge size (by weight). Marine The vir gun, while not the only marine energy source, is nevertheless the most commonly used. The air gun is merely a chamber containing a volume of high-pressure air. The gun is submerged in water and on receipt of the "fire command’, the compressed air is released with explosive force, forming an air bubble in the water. The sudden displacement of water by bubble formation generates a pressure pulse which causes a seismic wavelet to propagate into the earth. ‘The instant at which air is released into the water is the zero time (TIO) from which seismic travel times are measured. In addition to a T/O detector on the air gun. a seismic pressure detector (hydrophone) may also be used so that any delay caused by sticking valves or other causes may be detected. Two phenomena are associated with air gun use: © The surface ghost and © The bubble effect. ‘The Surface Ghost When energy is released by a submerged air gun, it diverges away from the source in all directions. In addition to seismic energy traveling down into the earth, it also travels upwards to the water surface. The earth-sir interface has a reflection coefficient of -1, so the upgoing wavelet is inverted and reflected downwards as a "surface ghost", The wavelengths of the principal frequency components of the wavelet are long relative to normal gun depth, so the downward-going ghost passes the gun while the primary wavelet20ms ab PRIMARY SURFACE =. SURFACE GHOST. 30¢t DEPTH > pawn COMPOSITE OF [— PRIMARY AND GHOST = 80 ft DEPTH € 125 tt DEPTH Figure 36 wR / \\\ SIGNATURES OF INDIVIDUAL GUNS PRIMARY pupae PULSE PULSES: COMPOSITE SIGNATURE OF ALL GUNS > Figure 37is still being generated, The wavelet that travels down into the earth is therefore a composite of the primary pulse plus the time-shifted, inverted ghost (figure 36a). Gun depth can be used to shape the down-going wavelet and help ensure that the ghost strengthens rather than weakens the primary pulse (figure 360). Bubble Effect If the air gun is located at a sufficient depth below the water surface, the bubble will expand beyond the size at which internal air pressure equals external ambient pressure and will then start 10 collapse. In collapsing, the bubble will again overswing the point of pressure balance, collapsing until internal pressure exceeds external pressure, The bubble then oscillates in size as it rises 10 the surface. Each expansion of the oscillating bubble causes a pressure pulse, giving rise to another seismic wave. In addition to the primary pulse caused by the initial release of air, the air gun then produces secondary (bubble) pulses (igure 37a). ‘This is undesirable, as each secondary pulse causes seismic events to be received which contaminate data originating from the primary pulse. Bubble effects can be controlled in processing by deconvolution, but often attempts are made to minimize bubble etfect in acquisition by one of wo means. 2 Shallow gun, When the air gun is very close to the water surface, the bubble breaks the surface before it starts to contract. There are therefore no bubble oscillations and no sccondary pulses. However, the relieving of bubble pressure to air before the bubble has grown to maximum size wasies energy. Energy vented into the air can yield no information about the subsurface. This method is more common in borehole than in surface operations. 2 Tuned arrays. Several airguns with different chamber sizes (different air volumes) are sometimes fired simultaneously. As the guns all release different volumes of air, each gun produces a different size bubble. ‘The period of oscillation is related to bubble size: 1.834/p/P (Rayleigh equation) period of bubble oscillation in seconds max radius of bubble in centimeters = water density in gmsfem? P = ambient pressure in dynesicm? Where The primary pulses produced by all guns are in phase (as all guns are triggered at the same instant). ‘The bubbles however oscillate with differing periods, so the secondary pulses are not in phase and tend to cancel each other. (This is illustrated in figure 37.) An array of guns whose chamber sizes are chosen to maximize attenuation of bubble effects is called 2 “tuned array’, VIBROSEIS Vibroseis® is a seismic system which uses mechanical vibrators 2s the energy source. Four or more vibrators are used together, and it is essential that they be completely phase-locked with each other. For this reason, vibrator controls tend to be very sophisticated.IMPULSE VERSUS VIBRATORY SOURCE ENERGY AND POWER VIBROSEIS SWEEP AVA iene Time starr ewe mea to 20 28 90 98 some wrote source a a a ae ee VIBRATORY SOURCE Figure 38 Figure 39 FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION z 3 NON-LINEAR Figure 40 VIBROSEIS RECORD LENaTH aweer Pree ee CEnELAte neconp ills S-SECOND 12-56 SWEEP. 6-SECOND MAX 2-WAY TRAVEL TIME Figure 41Power, Energy and Transfer Duration Figure 381 a plot of power versus time for an impulse energy source ogether witha similar plot for 9 Figure 38 ee pulse source's energy is trancerred at rate of Pi fr the period ti The viraiors energy iS wansferred ata rate Pv for the period tv Power multiplied by time equals energy, so Piti (area of impulse rectangle) is proportional to energy transferred from the impulse source, while Pvav (area of vibrator rectangle) is proportional to ene transferred from the vitrator. It is obvious that the total energy transferred from the vibrator can be made comparable to energy from the impulse source merely by adjusting 1v, the duration of energy release. However, the power (rote at ‘which the vibrator transfers energy) will always be smaller than the power of the impulse source. ‘This means that the vibrator can provide adequate energy while exerting relatively small force on the round surface, To illustrate this, assume that a vibrator transfers the some amount of enerey in 12- Seconds as would de transferred by a 25-millisecond impulse fom an impulse sour. W= Piso Pyty = Pini 12,000?v = 25 Pi Py = 0.002Pi ‘Vibroseis Sweep “The vibrator vibrates through a predetermined range of frequencies called the sweep (figure 39). The sweep duration (or sweep length) 8 typically between 4 and 16 seconds. ‘Sweep spectra are described by the starting and finishing frequencies, eg. 10-40, 12-48, 14-56, 32-8, ete. A ‘weep Which increases in frequency is called an up-sweep and a sweep which decreases in frequency is called a downsweep. ‘Asweep may be lincar, having & constant rate of frequency change or may be non-linear. dwelling on higher frequencies in on attempt to compensate for earth attenuation (figure 40). Recor th Fora given maximum 2-way travel time, the duration of the Vibroseis raw record is longer than for the corresponding impulse-source raw record. Record Length = Sweep Length + Max 2-way travel time required ‘This is illustrated in figure 41, where we see that to record 6 seconds of 2-way travel time when using an 8- second sweep, we must have a total record length of 16 seconcs. We can also see from this figure that on a raw Vibroseis trace, each reflection lasts as long as the sweep and has the same frequency content and frequency distribution as the sweep.Figure 44 CORRELATED RAW ‘ A Tims Figure 42 8 —hA—~ e—V\— Figure 45The Correlated Record Each trace of a raw Vibrosels record is subjected to a correlation process which compresses each reflected ecipinte a vavelet known as a Klauder wavelet and collapses the raw record 10 a correlated record of the maximum 2-Way travel time required. “The correlation process is merely a means of measuring the degree of correlation (or similarity) between the sweep that Was transferred into the ground and the seismic trace that was recorded. Correlation may te performed in the field or in processing, Older systems are generally able to perform a correlation re ipble only for field quality control. More modern systems are able to perform full correlation in the eld. so the processing center is presented with fully correlated rather than completely raw records. igure 42b shows the effec of correlation: the transformation of an apparently meaningless raw record to a correlogram, which is a record resembling the seismogram produced when using an impulse source. * Resolution Figure 43 shows that practical seismic bandwidths yield a wavelet which falls between the extremes of sine wave and spike. AS far as the ratio of primary lobe peak to side lobe peak emplituce is concerned, we start to approach a spike when sweep bandwidth equals 2-octaves. For Vibroseis the approximate width of the primary lobe region (refer to figure 42a) can be calculated for bandwidths of 2-octaves or more: ‘k= _2,000 va where ‘k= duration of primary lobe region fj = lowest frequency in sweep {= highest frequency in sweep ‘The theoretical width of the primary lobe itself (1p) is given by: = 500 milliseconds A where f= mid-frequency of sweep “The practical width of the primary lobe will always be somewhat less than the theoretical width due to the fact that the earth attenuates higher frequencies, causing the effective center frequency t0 be less than the actual center frequency (figure 44). Phase “The basic difference between the impulse source record (which is composed of Ricker wavelets) and the correlated Vibroseis record (which is composed of Klauder wavelets) is illustrated in figure 45. This is a Sery much simplified view of minimum phase and zero phase filtering, and is shown here as the Ricker wavelet is assumed to be minimum phase and the Klauder wavelet zero phase.PART 4 GEOPHONES & HYDROPHONESDAMPING CASE herstox COIL. REMAIAS au | STATIONARY eon. ; snonicd Rf [F=! werente revo sacner Let = proves ve and down POLE PIECE’ sparse MAGNETIC FIELD & COLL WINDINGS Cort FORM SCHEMATIC CROSS-SECTION THE VELOCITY CEOPHOKE Figure 46 Displacenent af . (input) / t i Velocity | Coutrue) TK] Displacenent a eo (Input) ttn ee output of } critteally Vamped Geophone Yj ' ouepur of ' overdamped) 7 Geophone ourpuc of Underdanped Geophone STEADY-STATE AND IMPULSE RESPON: VELOCITY GEOPHONE Figure 47 External Load (Amplifiers and Cables) = Current Flow R, = Coil Resistance R, = Shunt Resistance G = Lossless Generator Figure 48OPI & HYDROPHO INTRODUCTION 'A seismic wave possesses certain properties which can act upon transducers, enabling the wave to be detected together with its frequency and rclative amplitude. The detectable elements of wavemotion arc: Displacement Pressure Velocity Acceleration ‘The seismic transducer, or seismometer, is called a geophone when used on land and a hydrophone when used in a marine environment In seismic practice associated with the oil industry, velocity-sensitive geophones are slmost invariably used on land and in boreholes. Pressure-sensitive hydrophones are used in marshes or water. It may be noted that: a. A velocity geophone cannot be used in water unless it is physically coupled to the solid water bottom. For this reason, gimbal or trunion-mounted geophones are often used on surface crews which must work both on land and in water, as in many deliaic regions. These geophones can be placed on the water bottom and, being gimbal or trunion-mounted right themselves automatically. b. A pressure hydrophone cannot be used at the surface of a liquid, but must be submerged. The reason for this is that the dynamic pressures of a seismic wave are relieved at the water's surface and there is therefore little or no detectable pressure change associated with the wave at the surface, Tm OCITY GEOPHON! The velocity geophone is merely an electrical generator consisting basically of a magnet rigidly attached to the geophone case, and a coil of wire suspended on springs within the magnetic field (figure 46). As the geophone moves up and down, the magnetic field moves up and down, cutting the conductors of the coil which, ideally, maintains a fixed position in space. Voltages are induced into the coil which are proportional to the rate at which the magnetic field cuts the coil windings. ‘The voltage output of the geophone therefore is not proportional to displacement, but to the velocities associated with displacement. This is illustrated in figure 47. Figure 48 shows the equivalent electrical circuit of a velocity geophone. Polarization In "normal" p-wave exploration, the velocity geophone is vertically polarized - that is, the geophone is sensitive to the velocity of vertical movement. In shear wave exploration, horizontally polarized geophones are used and are sensitive to the velocity of horizontal movement. It is important that vertically polarized geophones te positioned substantially vertically and horizontally polarized geophones be positioned horizontally.100% Damping og Damping ne Dias 2200 Damping 70N Daaping RELATIONENE? oF shins 10 ouTPLT AMPLITYOE (STEADY-STATE RIVED Figure 49 ve cr voutage ourpeT sou Age ouren REFERENCED To RERRENCED TO ‘Nur vetoery mv Dace * 7 fo 2fo “at sto | | of 40 =} +50°|-270 ee! ° PRR i } TH ETT a : See Abe EEO 4707] «2609 ee SURE a ob ia = +4 +50°} 4230°| +220°|- 66! + 20°| 1004 °| 120° + 40%}-240% GECPHONE PASE RESPONSE Figure 50* It may be noted that horizontally polarized geophones are almost invariably used in conjunction with p-wave geophones. One vertically polarized and two horizontally polarized geophones, all mutually ‘orthogonal may be mounted in a single case. The combination is planted so that the p-wave geophone is vertical, the SV geophone points along the line towards the energy source, and the SH geophone is oriented at right angles to the line. Natural Frequency and Dampii As the coil is suspended on springs there is a tendency for it to oscillate up and down at a frequency called the geophone’s natural frequency. The natural frequency is determined by the spring constant and the ‘mass of the coil. Natural frequency of geophones commonly available for seismic work are typically: 7.5 Hz, 10 Hz, 14 Hz, 28 Hz and 40 Hz Geophones with 10 Hz natural frequency are most commonly used, though higher frequency geophones may be chosen ifa ‘clean-band” (free of spurious geophone noise) is required to frequencies much higher than normal. Oscillation at the natural frequency can be reduced or eliminated by electrical damping. Basically, this is just a matter of current lowing through an external load known as the damping or shunt resistor giving rise to sufficient motor action to have the desired effect on coil movement. (AS can be seen from the geophone’s equivalent circuit in figure 48, any current flowing through the damping resistor (R,) must 2lso flow through the geophone coil, thereby causing the motor action.) Critical damping results when the damping is just sufficient to prevent oscillation, thereby ensuring coil return to the zero position in the shortest possible time without overswing. ‘A damping of 0.7 critical (70% damping) gives overswing of less than 5%. 70% damping is regarded as an acceptable compromise between considerations of overswing, output amplitude, and phase shift for the following reasons: a, The overswing is less than 5% of the total excursion. b. The transduction (sensitivity) is greater than with 100% damping (figure 49). c. The rate of change of frequency-related phase shift in the region of the natural frequency is considered an acceptable compromise (figure 50). * Damping may be thought of in three parts. bo INTRINSIC or open-circuit damping. Any geophone possesses this intrinsic damping regardless of load. Intrinsic damping is, always quoted in the manufacturer's specifications. be COIL damping. This is the damping caused by current flow through the coil (motor action) and is, therefore, the damping due to electrical load. bt TOTAL damping, This is merely intrinsic damping plus coil damping (bt = bo + bc). ‘There are various ways of calculating damping without making directThe Geophone as a Low-Cut Filter AMPLITUDE RESPONSE CURVES Total Damping 308 DAMPING AND SHUNT RESISTANCE b Figure 51measurements, but the simplest way is to use the graphic method described below and illustrated in figure 51. ‘The method involves making a plot on linear-linear squared paper, with vertical axis calibrated in damping (bt) and horizontal axis calibrated in R, / (R, + R,), where R. = geophone coil resistance and R, = shunt resisiance. a, From top curve (open-circuit) of manufacturer's response ccurves read off damping and plot at R, /(R, + R,) = 0 b. Read shunt resistance from bottom curve and calculate value of R, / (Re + Ry). ¢ Read damping given on bottom curve and plot at the value of R, / (Re + Rg) determined in step b, 4. Join the two points with a straight line. This line may be extended 2s far as desired, Transdvetion ‘The wansduction or sensitivity of a velocity geophone is measured in volis/inch/second, or volis/centimeterisecond, voltage being the clecirical output and inches or centimeters per sceond being the velocity of ground movement. Manufacturers’ curves (figure 51a) always show the open-circuit condition as the top curve, The Nat part of this curve indicates the intrinsic or open circuit transduction of the geophone. Due to the current flow caused by damping resistors (or by low input-impedance recorders), the useable transduction of @ geophone is less than the open circuit transduction. ‘The Geophone as a Filter 1t is obvious from figure 51a that the geophone acts as a filter, attenuating frequencies lower than the natural frequency. A geophone damped to 70% critical can be regarded as a low-cut filter with a cutoff frequency equal 10 the natural frequency (f,) and with a slope of 12 dbioctave. The geophone. being a filter with reactive components, introduces‘phase shifts between input and output. The input may be regarded 2s ‘input velocity" (which is the velocity at which the case is driven by ground movement) or as “drive displacement* (which is the actual displacement of the case caused by ground movement). The phase curves in figure 50 show output phase related to both inputs. These curves are true for any velocity geophone regardless of ‘ype or make, but disregard the effect of inductance (which is negligible for the types of geophone normally used in the seismic industry). * Itmay be noted that the greatest rate of phase change occurs around {,, The exact phase shift for any frequency or degree of damping may Be found from the formula: ¢= tent — 24 Fook fo Fwhere b= total damping of geophone f, = geophones natural frequency {= driving frequency ‘This formula is applicable only to the spring-mass system and does ot take coil inductance into account. Effect of coil inductance may be significant if coil has high resistance (numerous turns). Spurious Oscillation Every type of geophone suffers from spurious oscillations within the spring system. This oscillation is usually excited by movement at right angles to the direction of polarization and occurs at relatively high frequencies outside the normal seismic band, giving rise to sinusoidal oscillation on the record. When recording with sample intervals of 2 milliseconds or more the spurious oscillations seldom present a problem as they usually fall above the cut-off frequency of the anti-alias (hivh-cut) filter. However, when higher resolution is required and shorter sample intervals are used, geophone types should not be spe without first ascertaining the frequencies of spurious escillation. ‘TIE PRESSURE PHONE ‘The pressure phone is used in marine or marsh environments and may be: a. Towed in a streamer behind a vessel, the streamer having neutral buoyancy but having fins (known as birds") which make it stream beneath the water surface. This is normal marine application for seismic exploration. The streamer is typically coupled to the vessel via a compliant (elastic) section of streamer, which serves to insulate the hydrophores from mechanical accelerations associated with pitching of the vessel, which would cause varying pressures. The hydrophones mounted in the streamer are also designed to cancel the effects of these accelerations. b. Taped to a "bottom cable" or "drag cable’ which is deployed on the bottom of a body of shallow water and may be dragged from point to point. €. Suspended beneath a floating cable by lengths of wire known as “drops”. 4. Fixed to the end of a pole and pushed into the soft water bottom. )peration “The pressure phone contains a crystal which gives an electrical output when subjected to the changing pressures of a passing seismic wave. “The force exerted on the crystal is often amplified by mounting the crystal on a flexible diaphragm. Such a pressure phone is sometimes referred to as a "bender hydrophone’. The crystal is capacitive rather than resistive, so the equivalent circuit is as shown in figure 52 and the crystal has a very high impedance at seismic frequencies. For this reason the pressure phone is normally coupled to the recorder by means of a transformer (figure 52b) which may sometimes be enclosed in the hydrophone case.ACCELERATION Pressure due to acceleration: Pressure due to seismic wave: Py > Py Py> Py? Py > Ps Part Pyv where P, = pressure on crystal face A Py = pressure on crystal face B Voltage due to acceleration: Voltage due to seismic wave: at junction X, voltage from A is + at junction X, voltage from Ais + voltage from B‘ is — voltage from B’ is + ut junction Y, voltage from Bi is— at junction Y, voltage from BY is - voltage from A’ is + voltage from A is- Figure 54“The inductance of the transformer together with the capacitance of the crystal form a circuit with 9 resonant frequency at which there is a tendency to oscillate. AS in the case of the velocity geophone therefore damping is necessary. This damping is accomplished by inclusion of a resistor either in series wwith he primary or shunted across the secondary (figure 53). The combination of erystal capacitance, transformer inductance, and damping resistance causes the pressure phone to act as a low-cut filter in exactly the same manner as the velocity geophone. A: with the Velocity geophone, 70% critical damping is generally the accepted stsnéard. * The hydrophones mounted in towed streamers are normally designed to cancel the effecis of acceleration. Ifa hycrophone is accelerated through the water, there is a pressure increase on the "front" and a corresponding decrease on the "back". The acceleration-canceling hydrophone contains two or more crystals mounted on diaphragms as shown in figure 54. Elecirical connections are as shown, so that electrical cutpuis caused by accelerator-related pressures are canceled ul, whereas outputs caused by changes in ambient pressure (as by passage of a seismic wave) are unaffected. Transduction The transduction of a pressure phone is measured in microvolis/microbar or microvolts/micropascal, microvolts being a measure of the electrical output and microbars or micropascals being | measure of pressure. (10 microbars = 1 pascal) = GEOPHONES versus HYDROPIIONES Raw records made with geophones often have a different appearance than raw records made with hydrophones, and geophone and hydrophone records having contiguous depth points may not tie with each other. This is normal for the unprocessed records and should not be a cause for concern. * There are several basic rezsons for the differences between land data - which is acquired using velocity geophones - and marine data - which is acquired using pressure hydrophones. a. In land work, the geophore is normally on the earth's surface and receives only upgoing reflections. In marine work the hydrophone is below the surface and receives both upgoing reflections and downgoing ghosts. The ghosts are reflections which, on striking the water-air interface (or marsh-air interface) are inverted and reflected downwards. This is illustrated in figure 11 where we see how the shape of the reflection wavelet is changed by mixing of the reflection and iis ghost. >. The pressure of a seismic wave is proportional 10 velocity. However, interaction between the upgoing (primary) wave and the downgoing ghost is such that the composite of primary and ghost is proportional to acceleration. Acceleration is 90° out of phase with velocity which is, in turn, 90° out of phase with displacement. c. The velocity associated with constant displacement is directly proportional to frequency, whereas acceleration for constant displacement is proportional to the square of frequency. Thismeans that if we double the frequency we increase the velocity twofold (6 db) and increase the acceleration fourfold (12 db). There is then a 6 db/octave slope difference between the amplitude response of a geophone and the amplitude response of a hydrophone (above the natural frequency). We can convert the pressure signal to a velocity signal by integration, but this is valid only if we have already removed the phase effects of the hydrophone system, and we are comparing the results with land data from which the geophone'’s phase effects have been removed.PART 5 THE SEISMIC RECORDERSEISMIC RECORDERS GENERAL Digital recorders are used in all modern seismic work. These recorders have two important attributes: ‘Computer compatibility Large dynamic range Computer Compatibility is the ability o take the recorded tape from a field recorder and mount it on the tape drive of a digital computer which will read and process the cata. Dynamic range is the range of signal amplitudes that can be recorded without distortion or loss. Dynamic range is expressed in decibels (db) (see figure 55), The recorders used in seismic work typically have a theoretical dynamic range of 84 db (16,383:1) and practical range of about 78 db (8,192:1). It is probable that future recorders will have a theoretical dynamic range of 138 db. Digital seismic recorders are not completely digital, but consist of two parts: ‘An analog section whose purpose is 10 amplify and filter voltages from the geophones. b. A digital section which manipulates and records numbers, these numbers being digital measurements of analog voltages from the analog section. Input Modes ‘The input to each amplifier of a recorder is normally balanced with respect to ground; that is, the resistance between the high and low inputs and ground are identical. This is illustrated in figure $6. When wire cable is used to connect the electrical output of the geophones to the recorder input, 2 geophone responding to motion sends a current through one wire to the amplifier, through the amplifier input, and back to the geophone through another wire as shown in figure 56b, This method of feeding the amplifier is called the *differential* or "normal" mode. Currents flowing in the ground due to static discharges, power lines and nearby generators produce changing fielés which induce voltages of identical polarity into both wires of the pair. Current flow is therefore from ground, through both conductors in the same direction, and through the amplifier back 10 ground, as shown in figure Sée. This method of feeding the amplifier is called the "common mode". If the system were perfectly balanced, a common mode input would cause no output from the amplifier. However, although it is possible to balance the amplifier, it is impractical to balance the whole system - which includes geophones and cable in addition to the amplifier input. As the system is unbalanced, a common mode signal causes more current flow in one direction than in the other an¢ the amplifier amplifies the difference and gives a corresponding output. * Assimple form of static filter designed to attenuate common mode interference is shown in figure 57. This circuit may either be part of the recorder or a separate unit preceding the recorder. The two diodes (X1 and X2) conduct only if the voltage from line to ground greatly exceeds the amplitude of the largest normal signal. This effectively “shorts out" large excursions which may damage the amplifier input.x Dp = Amplitier voltage Gain (44d) © 2020 voltage tors (08) = gore ot + cans ‘ ot 2012 B 73a ry Leas 3 623 as nose 2 086 0.6 non @) > 8 2 0.7 Lae a 186 os oer s 2197 as pee rm 00 he : “ 262 ze Lass 2 3,981,072 30 has Pagrtetotsre facee m 7,943,282 40 21.585 "Generator ee 33,848,932 sc ane 90 31,622,777 5.0 2.995 EEEERSSTEAE OE: 36 63,095,734 re 2.239 > rz 125,892.54 c 21512 los 751,288.64 x0 zane me 501,287.29 1.0 aie 120 1,000,000.00 20.0 30,000 126 319981262.3 40.0 1¢0.000 132 3,9e2,071.7 6.0 1.000.900 ae “19ea.z02.3 80.0 39,00.000 Figure 35 Serertesr Figure 56brGrzAL EE {CORD PLATBACK ‘BIGETAL NDS Figure 58 i 1 Teequency | ; 1 ij /' , | al / | ‘ z i 1 Wo i Teeat tout Taeal WigUE | t 7 Teeeener 1.5 tromane? ' ' fg at Correct Frequency fo drifted 0.5 as 1 4 1 1 Figure 60 1 1 1! 1 Practical tone Figure 59 Practiced High-cot“The inductance of the 1wo coils L1 and L? is such that they offer high impedance to transient spikes. Moreover, these coils may be magnetically coupled together as a transformer, and connected so that Current flow through one coil induces voltages into the other coil ‘which oppose current flow in the same direction. ‘TIE RECORDING SYSTEM Figure 58 shows the simplified block diagram of a basic seismic recorder. The verious functional boxes are described below. Fixed Gain Amplifiers Each seismic channel has its own fixed-gain amplifier which serves to boost the low-level geophone signals to a level sufficiently high for succeeding circuits to operate on. Fixed gain can be set by the operator. Depending on the particular recorder being considered, this gain is variable in steps of either 6 db or 12 db (x2 oF x4) from a lowest gain of 12 or 18 db (x4 or x8) to a highest gain of 36, 42 o 48 Ub (x64, x128. or 1256). ners, ‘The recorder has three frequency filters per channel: low-cut, notch, and high-cut of anti-alias. Idealized response curves for these filters are shown in figure 59. Low-cut and high-cut filters are specified by cut-off frequency (f,) and slope. The cut-oif frequency is a frequency above or below which the filter attenuates signals passing through it dbs/octave, 6 db being a factor of 2 for ‘The slope defines the sharpness of the cut-oif and is expressed amplitude and 1 octave being a factor of 2 for frequency. Low-cut Filter, The purpose of this filter is to enable the attenuation of unwanted low frequencies. Both the low-cut f, and the slope are switch selectable. Slope may typically be 12, 24 or 36 dbjoctave Use of a low-cut filter introduces frequency-dependant phase shifis 10 the data, and changing the filter setting will change these phase shifts. Apparent misties between present and earlier work have often been ‘caused by the two surveys using different low-cut filter settings. Notch Filter. This filter is designed to attenuate either SO Hz or 60 Hz picked up from power lines or {generators by the geophone cables. The amount of attenuation at 50 or 60 Hz should not be less than 40 a. It may be noted that the center frequency of a notch filter may tend to drift. The notch is so narrow that a drift of one quarter cycle from the nominal frequency will cause drastic reduction of attenuation of the 50 of 60 Hz interference (figure 60). ‘This drift is the usual cause of notch filters appearing less effective ‘on some channels than on others. sure 61 shows different frequencies being sampled with the same sample interval It can be seen that when the frequency is very low relative to the sampling frequency (2), the samples are such that the original waveform can be recovered quite accurately by digital to analog conversionSTE Signal frequency much lower than Nyquist fequensy Signal frequency equal ‘Signal frequency higher than Nyquist flequency DIFFERENT FREQUENCIES SAMPLED AT A CONSTANT RATE ‘Sampling frequency Figure 61 ANTL-ALAS FILTER F, 03) Figure 63, MUX = 64 and SAMPLE INTERVAL = 2 ms, each sample period lasts 31.25 a8. ‘TIME-SHARED OUTPUT OF MULTIPLEXER Figure 62, UPPER LIMIT ‘Output of 1FP AMP ‘kept in this region ~----4-----50%, TOWER LIMIT Figure 64when the frequency being sampled is equal othe sampling frequency (b), the samples are oll of constant evel and polarity, giving the appearance of zero irequency (4c). ‘wen the trequency being sampled is greater than balf the sampling frequency, a wavelorm reconstiuicd pines N sigitl samples appeats at an alias frequency’, which Isa lal frequency lower inan ihe frequency of the waveform sampled (). -The sampling frequency divided by two is known as the "critical" or “Nyquist frequency (Ig) Below ihe Noaoist equency, waveforms can be sampled and reproduced, Above the Nyquist frequen wavelorms appear at an alias frequency. fa where f@-—-= alias frequency (output) In digital recorders therefore, itis necessary to precede the digitize: with antivalias filters in order 10 penent the possibility of hgh frequency signals being aliased (0 lover seismic frequencies, The snttaias Pheri a high-cut filer with a very steep slope (typically 90 db/octave or greater). “The cutoif frequency of the ant-alias filter depends upon the seismic bandwidth required. A “standard” antiallss Hlter has fy =f / 4 and an “extended” anti-alias filter typically has (g %fy /3- jultiplexer “The filtered outputs of all fixed gain amplifiers are fed to the multiplexer whose purpose is to sample ech Channel sequentially. ‘The multiplexer cutput may be somewhat as shown in figure 62 - sequential samples Of the instantaneous amplitude and polarity of the voltage on each channel In addition to seismic channels there are a number of auxiliary channels to be sampled, some of which can tbe used for external information (\ime-break, up-hole geophone, etc.) and some of which are required by the format written on tape. ‘The complete sequence of sampling all channels once is called @ “mukiplex qycie™. The sime occupied Py cone multiplex cvcle is termed the "sample interval” or "sample rate’. Sample intervals (and anti-alias filter f,8) are shown in figure 63. 2 millisecond sample inten s the most commonly wed, 4 and 8 giving less temporal resolution, and 0.25, 0.5 and 1.0 having bandwidths which rmay include frequencies of spurious oscillation within the geophone. instantaneous Floating Point (FP) Amplifier (One IFP amplifier is time-shared between all channels. ‘The IFP amplifier is fed by the multiplexer, and therefore reeeives one sample ata time from sequential channels, ‘The IFP amplifier adjusts its gain on every sample to ensure that its output is over half the maximum amplitude the recorder can handle (See figure 64). This optimizes the amplitude resolution of samples fecorded on tape. (This is strictly true only of sysiems whose amplifiers are binary and can change evn in eps of 6 db (2). Some older systems may have quaternary amplifiers which cam only change gsin 18 multiples of 12 db (x4).a ae s a s = 4 4 F giz OG i sa 3, 28 G8 :@ 38 12 4 § ° § ° 8 oF = =f os ido ide fae i foo gn FO gs e goog oe ga § kei Bi &: : iP onb #8 : ° 4 “ 3 S 2 2 3 é ik 3 i Pooevoansnaagggan | iain aesasset ees Eee TisssNsssssssse2 Po: Eacccccersctsesce, HW eeeeceeenee econ 3 eecccceceee sees Asn 3 CooCCCDeCeGCCOnAnalog to Digital Converter ‘Tne analog to digital converter measures the voltage amplitude of each sample and converts this TiSsurement into binary digits (figure 65). The dicitized sample usually consists of 15 bits (sign plus 14 apnitude bits) but in some recorders may be 12 bits (sign plus 11 magnitude bits). In DFS recorders the feast significant bit represents 0.25 millivols. In MDS and DSS recorders the least significant bit represents 0.6 millivolts, ‘The sign bit is 0 for positive numbers and 1 for negative numbers, For the commonly used SEG B format, negative numbers are normally in "ones complement", which means that all ones in the magnitude bits are replaces by 2210s, and all zeros replaced by ones as shown in figure 66. (Twos complement is sometimes lused, This is the ones complement with a *I* added in the least significant bit position.) Formatier ‘The formatter arranges the "header" or identification label that precedes cach seismic record written on tape. and also breaks each digital sample into two paris for writing on 1/2" tape (SEG B format) Tape Tope width is 12 inch (IBM compatible) and is typically supplied in 1200 ft or 2400 ft reels. In digital recording we write across the tape, at right angles to direction of tape movement (figure 67). Each bit is written on a “track”, and a group of bits written across the tracks Is called a “frame. There are nine bits written in each frame across the 12 inch tape, and the tape is therelore often referred 1 as “9: track tape’, ‘Two recording methods are used: NRZI (non-return to zero inverted) and PE (phase encoded). ‘These two recording methods are illustrated in figure 68. It can be seen from this figure that for NRZI there is a magnetic flux change on tape for every "I" and no flux change for "0". In the case of PE, 2 flux change in one direction (at the correct time) always indicates a "I', while flux change in the opposite direction (at the correct time) always indicates a Parity, One tape track is reserved for a parity bit. Seismic systems always use odd parity, that is. 3 one or ‘a zero is written as the parity bit of each frame to ensure that the complete frame contains an odd number of ones (see figure 69), ‘When a tape is played back, each frame is checked to determine whether the number of ones is odd or even. Ifa frame containing an even number of ones is detected, the recorder signals the operator that an error is present. Parity errors may be caused by faulty electronics in either writing or reading the tape, but are more ‘commonly caused either by dirty heads, by dirty or damaged tape or by poor tracking (read heads not squarely on the recorded tracks). All computer-grade tape used on field recorders has been "certified". This means that it has been written over and read back with no errors detected. However, the certification is performed at 75°F and if, alter centfication, the tape temperature is changed substantially, the resulting expansion or contraction of the tape can cause surface deformation or damage which will give tise to parity errors. Very often 2 “tad” tape can be made good merely by normalizing it 0 the temperature at which it will be uscd and then relieving‘his fame contaas « paity ero. ran sce OTT YoTi Tito 1 fot To \ ihitto \ OTA TRACI Olitotit Ne Tot A Dotty ) ee i Qi Tory Figure 69 saa ry aaa census SEAT, Figure 70internal pressures by unwinding and then rewinding the whole tape. ‘Summing Recorders summing recorders are always used in Vibroseis or other surface-source work, and may advantageously be ‘used when non-surface or other energy sources are used. “The energy source array may be comprised of several encigy releases separated in time. Each release gives tise to a seismic record, These records are summed together (vertical stacking) in the recorder to produce record which appears as tough energy was released at all points of the array simultaneously. In order to sum samples from consecutive records without giving undue weight to those samples which, pecause they were of low amplitude, received most gain, summing recorders compare the gains at which samples were acquired, and then adjust the magnitude bits $0 that samples being summed appear as though they were acquired at the same gain. Plovback of Recorded Dz If recorded data were demultiplexed and played back directly from the field tape to the field monitor, a seismic trace would appear almost as square waves due to each sample being amplified to over half ‘maximum amplitude. Recording instruments have playback circuits which alleviate this problem. The data is first adjusted, sample by sample, 10 appear as though each trace was recorded with a constant gain. This “defloated” data is then subjected to automatic gain control and filtering. This is illustrated in figure 70. Dve to the fact that the field monitor has been subjected to automatic gain conuol, field monitors sometimes appear "better" than unprocessed computer playouts of the same data. This is misleading: both records contain the same data, but low amplitude events may not be evident on the unprocessed playoutAPPENDIX BOREHOLE SEISMOLOGY Extracted from AAPG Continuing Education Course, SEISMIC SURVEYS by D.G. Lang, April 1986.BOREHOLE SEISMOLOGY The borehole seismology with which we are concerned falls into two categories: GHECK SHOTS and VERTICAL SEISMIC PROFILES (VSPs). There is no basic difference between the conduct of these two types of survey. The Check shot Slides 40 and 41 Seismic waves generated and received by a sonic logging tool penetrate the surrounding rock only a few inches. Integrated tines are therefore indicative of seismic velocities in the wall of avery thin-walled rock cylinder. However, the density and acoustic properties of parts of this cylinder have been altered by the drilling process, due mainly to the absorption of drilling fluids, especially by shales. This shale alteration causes increased seismic travel time, and the integrated times therefore tend to indicate lower velocities than may be expected sone distance from the wellbore. Cycle skipping also causes reduction in apparent velocity. It is desirable to correct or calibrate the sonic log by means of check shots in which seismic travel time is ueasured froma source at the earth's surface to 2 seismic receiver located at appropriate levels down the borehole. The seismic wave in this case passes through a considerable body of unaltered earth materials and, although the travel path is sloping (Slide 41), arrival times can readily be corrected to appear as though the travel path vere vertical. ° In a check shot survey only the first arrivals are of interest, so: ° The record length need be only long enough to accomodate the uaxinum I-way travel time required. ° The fidelity of waveforms following the first arrival is of no great concern. * Tube waves which may be excited by close proximity of energy release to the borehole are detected the first arrivals and are therefore of no consequence. Check shot levels are normally specified by the client, and these levels may coincide with formation tops. Zach formation top represents a seismic inter face, so if the tool is slightly above this interface it can receive both the direct arrival and an arrival reflected from the interface at almost identical times. The downward-travelling arrival from the surface moves the geophone downwards, while the upvard-travelling reflection from the interface moves it upwards. The two wavelets therefore destructively interfere and tend to cancel each other out. [t is good practice therefore to clamp the tool a few feet below.a forma— tion top. isSlide 433 Slide 43a Slide 43¢when check shot levels are located in casing, it {s possible for seismic energy to be transmitted dom the casing at a velocity of about 17,000 £t/second. This can give Tise to spurious arrivals known as “casing breaks”. These can be fdentified by their constant velocity from level to level. The VSP Slide 42 The VSP ts like the Check Shot in that seismic data are acquired using a surface source and a downhole seismic receiver which is moved to appropriate levels. However, In a VSP survey, reflections from below the tool are just as important as first arrivals so: * The record length must be long enough to acconmodate maximum I-way travel time anticipated for the deepest target of interest. ‘The fidelity of waveforms following the first arrivals 1s of great importance and the recording quality (dynamic range, dc bias etc) must be comparable to that demanded in a surface seismic survey. Zero-Offset VSP Slides 43A, 43B and 43¢ A zero-offset VSP, as its name implies, is like a check shot survey in that it is acquired with the source close to the borehole. Raypaths for two tool levels are shown as dashed lines for downward-going waves, and dotted ‘lines for upward-going waves. However, upvard travelling reflection energy does not stop at the tool - it continues up to the earth's surface. At the earth/air interface there is a reflection coefficient of -1 so (as in the case of the surface ghost mentioned previously) the wavelet 1s inverted and reflected downvards. This downward- going energy is sometimes called “multiple” energy because, unlike the “primary reflection” which is reflected only once, this “multiple” is reflected mre than once. The downward-going reflections are detected at the tool in addition to those events already mentioned. It should be noted that as the tool moves up the hole, the length of direct arrival path and ultiple arrival paths decrease, while the length of upward- going reflection paths increase. This means that es the tool moves up the hole, all downward-going energy 1s detected earlier in time, whereas all upward-going energy is detected later in time. “47-Slide 44 MuLTicorrseT vir Slide 44a DEVIATED HoLE var 6S Slide 45 -48-offset VSP ‘Slides 44 and 464 this is the same as the zero offset VSP except that the source ts laterally offset from the borehole. there are tvo principal reasons for offsetting the source: © Reduction of tube vave, The most common cause of tube wave generation is the Rayleigh wave passing the borehole. Due to cylindrical divergence, Rayleigh wave amplitude decreases with distance from the source, and tube wave generation can often be minimized by locating the source 500 to 1500 feet or nore from the borehole. © Delineation of structure. Slide 44 shows the locus of reflection points Foran offeet VSP. If we draw an interface at any level we can inmediately see from which podats on the subsurface the reflections received at various tool levels emanate. As the reflection points are distributed laterally avay froa the borehole, the VSP can be processed to “image” the reflected Qvents to their true spatial reflection points. It may be noted that in the case of a dipping interface, reflections points are shifted updip with respect to reflection points on a flat interface. Multiple offsets may be used for all or selected levels as shown in Slide 444 in order to improve horizontal (spatial) resolution. hole VSP When a borehole is substantially deviated, a single source point may be used. However, efforts are sometimes made, particularly in marine work, to locate multiple source points above the tool positions in the deviated hole. It may de noted that ip a substantially deviated hole, a normal arrangement of geophones within the tool will not provide good results. This is because @ vertically polarized geophone aust be in a substantially vertical position to operate correctly. Gimbal mounted geophones are therefore preferred when acquiring VSP in a substantially deviated well.ARRIVALS. oinect Slide 46B Slide 46A REFLECTIONS oF Hsp Slide 473 ATA Slige -50-RECORD REVIEW Let us now briefly review sone of the foregoing saterial in terms of actual seisnic da Direct Arrival Slides 46A and 46B vhen seismic energy is released by a source, the first arrival at a geophone hes followed the minimum time travel pach (Fermat's principle). This means that, with the exception of casing breaks, the first arrival on a ysP trace is always the direct arrival (Slide 46A). In HSP, the first energy co reach che closest geophones te normally the direct arrival (Slide 463). The direct arrivals follow a constant slope from trace to trace and as the record is verely a plot of distance versus time, in HSP this slope indicates the velocity at which che direct arrival is travelling. We OF Where 2D = distance between geophone stations represented by two traces. et = difference in direct arrival times between the two traces. In VSP, due to velocity increasing with depth, the first arrivals may appear curved rather than following a constant slope. Reflection Slides 47A and 473 In VSP, a reflection appears as a coherent event moving from trace to trace with a slope opposite to that of the first arrivals (Slide 47A). The reflection can only be detected when the tool is above the reflector. For this reason the reflection slope intersects the first arrival slope at the depth from which the reflection appears to emanate. Th HSP, due to the increasing length travel paths shown, the reflection curves from trace to trace with a hyperbolic curvature known as move-out or normal moveout or NMO (Slide 47B). This mveout can be used to compute average velocity to the interface frou which the reflection enanate: Ge ti? where Va = average velocity to reflector va = /%, te X1, X2 = distances of two geophone stations from the source. ty, tg = reflection arrival times on traces at X, and Xz gtsREFRACTION 4g Slide MULTIPLES 49 SlideRefraction Slides 484 and 483 when energy is incident at the critical angle to an interface having a positive reflection coefficient, it is refracted along the interface at the (higher) velocity of the second layer. Refractions are not normally observed on VSFs, though an offset VSP can give rise to refractions along “shallow” interfaces tn HSP, the refraction can be observed as shown in Slide 48A. Each point on the interface excited by the refracted wave radiates upwards with hemispherical divergence (Huygen's Principle), causing wavefronts to travel to the surface with raypaths that intersect the interface at the critical angle. It follows that on a HSP record a reflection ceases to exist at the critical distance and is succeeded by a refraction. Unlike a reflection which curves, a refraction follows a constant slope fron trace to trace. The velocity of the second layer of the interface can be deduced fron consideration of the slope of the refraction: 4D, Vo at where AD = distance between geophone stations represented by two traces. At = difference in refraction arrival time between the two traces. Refraction surveys are often used to establish the depth of the low velocity ‘or “weathered” layer which exists on the surface of most parts of the earth. The refraction survey also tells us the seismic velocity in the weathered layer (this is the direct arrival velocity), and the velocity inmediately below the weathered layer (this is the second layer velocity). Slide 4B shows HSP data with direct arrival and refraction: the slopes of these events are plotted and yield the respective velocities. Depth to the refracting interface (base of weathering) can be found using the fatercept time (ty). Intercept time is that tine at which an extension of the refraction intercepts the zero-distance trace. v2Vi 2 z= VF Multiple Slide 49 In a VSP display, the downward-travelling multiple has a slope which is parallel to the first arrivals. The complete dovn-going wave field can be separated from the upgoing wavefield in processing by transforning the data to the fk domain (see Appendix 1).RAYLEION WAVE PENETRATION GUIDED WAVES sTuDY Showing GROUND ROLL D and QUIDED WAVES slide 52 RED TY FILTER VELOCITY FI UPGOING WAVEFIELD No VeLoct Courtesy of Tenneco O11 Exploration and Production Slide 53ing field can now de attensated without affecting the upgosng field. he doumgtog 1226 a cae be sveeeformed ack #9 the norma Efae-spact Jemsin virtually free of multiples, Ground Roll ‘Blige 50 Ground roll (Rayleigh wave) is seldon detected on a VSF, but its passage is evidenced by generation of tube waves. Ground roll travels porizontally fron the energy source. Tes, veloes ty is less Groume e direct wave velocity (typically sbour 502). so the slope of ground than thejvals on an HSP record 12 very much steeper than the slope of direct arrivals. Although ground roll is @ boundary vave, it does penetrate inte the earth, the depth of effective penetration being a fimction of wavelength (Slide 50A). Ag short vavelengths are associated with high irequencies and tong wavelength As short (requencies, it follevs chat che low frequency components of ground Well penetrate deeper than the high frequency coaponents, Ag velocity increases with depth, it follows that low frequencies (oag save Jengehs) travel faster than high frequencies (short wavelengths). This gives die to esispersion” of the ground roll as shown in Slide 50B Guided Waves Slide 51 and 518 Energy incident to an interface at angles greater than the critical angie 4s ieenely reflected and is trapped betwen the interface and the surfaces te ts posaible in large offset VSPs for guided vaves to be generated on 6 selon lagers Although these guided waves may not be identifiable on the VSP Tecord they, like ground roll, can trigger generation of tube waves. In HsP guided vaves are evidenced as bands of energy wore or less pareliel £0 the firet arrivals (Slide SIA). They can often be renoved by velocity filtering as shown in Slide 51B. ruses vaves are, of course, a borehole phenomenon, They may be of very nigh anplitude and ean propagate up and down the borehole, being reflected Py. such atecontinuities as the bottom of the hole and the top of the fluid colum as shown in Slide 52. Tube waves can often be controlled by velocity filtering in processing (slides 53), As hae been stated, they can often be minimized in acquistcion by recording offset rather than zere-offset VSP, or by lowering the borehole fluid level.VIBROSEIS RESOLUTION LINEAR aWEEP NON-LINEAR SWEEP BOREHOLE/*URFACE TIE HA v.8.P. Fron BALCH, LEE, MILLER £ TAYLOR gg Geopnyeses, Sane Slide 56 Slide 55Resolution Reference was made to non-linear Vibroseis sveeps in which the Vibrator dwells Rehger ac high frequencies than at low frequencies in order to compensate for songh attenuation. Here we see a comparison of raw records having identical Satep start and finish frequencies and identical sweep durations. The non~ see? Stweep has obviously yielded higher resolution, and may offer promise of higher resolution VSPs. Correlation of VSP to ESE Slide 55 — ‘A simple example of this is shown in Slide 55. the processed HSP section ison the left: it has been cut fo end at the borehole. are down-going the raw (zero-offsec) VSP is on the right: events marked gultiples and events sarked “R” are upgoing reflections. In the center we see the time corrected VSP in vhich each trace has deen subjected to a static tine ehdfr to correct the VSP to the same datum as the Seismic and horizontally align the reflections. The correlation between the VSP and USP reflections is obvious and the HSP events can now be tied to specific depths and lithologies. Another example (from Balch and Lee), 1s shown in Slide 56. Ar the side ve have traces from an ASP traversing the borehole and at the top we have 2 Mehologic log. Correlation between lithology and seismic events cen be seen by following any seismic event up through the VSP to its enanation depth and thence to the lithology log. VSP Seisuogrem ‘Slide 37 When the traces of a VSP have been tine-shifted to align all reflections Teclzontally, a8 in the center panel of Slide 55, it is possible to sum all traces together to produce a single trace. This type of sunning is sometines referred to as “upstacking”. In order to minimize contamination of the VSP seisuogram, a band or corridor parallel to the first arrivals is chosen. Most noise (tube waves and multiples) fall outside this band. The band is then corrected to align reflections horizontally and the “noisy” data outside the band is rejected. The summed “lind stack” or “corridor stack" is often displayed as a VSP seismogram actirg we cnecel trace within an HS? section, This is illustrated in Slide 57+ -57-* From BALCH, LEE, MILLER & TAYLOR Geophysics, June 1982 Slide 57 CHECK SHOT SURVEY Slide 58 -58-‘Check Shot Slide 33 This shows a 10-level check shot record together vith curves of time picks, computed average velocity and computed interval velocity. ‘ 22 = 2) vine = gost Where Vint = Interval velocity 21, 22 = depths of two levels ty, tz = picked arrival times for levels Z; and Zp