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SAE TECHNICAL 2005-01-4033

PAPER SERIES E

MODEL OF AN ABS PNEUMATIC REGENERATIVE

BRAKING SYSTEM

Mauricio Blanco Infantini

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul

João Francisco Fleck Heck Britto

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul

Eduardo Perondi
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul

Filiada à

XIV Congresso e Exposição Internacionais

da Tecnologia da Mobilidade
São Paulo, Brasil
22 a 24 de novembro de 2005

AV. PAULISTA, 2073 - HORSA II - CJ. 1003 - CEP 01311-940 - SÃO PAULO – SP

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2005-01-4033

MODEL OF AN ABS PNEUMATIC REGENERATIVE

BRAKING SYSTEM
Mauricio Blanco Infantini
Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre - Brasil.

João Francisco Fleck Heck Britto

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre - Brasil.

Eduardo André Perondi

Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre - Brasil

Copyright © 2005 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc

accomplished by companies, institutes and universities in

ABSTRACT
The energetic efficiency of automotive vehicles can
be increased through the use of regenerative brake system.
This paper introduces a mathematical model of an ABS
(anti-lock braking system) pneumatic regenerative brake. In
regenerative brakes the energetic efficiency of automotive
vehicles is increased through the conservation of part of the
kinetic energy of the vehicle. In this work we propose a
pneumatic system where the energy is stored in an air
compressed state. In this system, the brake is equipped with
the anti-lock braking system (ABS) and the regenerative
brake acts in a parallel way with the traditional brake. In
this work, it is shown that, due to the fact that ABS system
takes advantage of the maximum adherence between the
tire and the ground, the use of an anti-lock braking system
(ABS) allows a greater energy saving when compared to
passive braking system. The simulations were performed
for wet and dry asphalt. Different brake pedal activating for
reduction of the vehicle velocity and emergency braking
were simulated as well. The system is modeled and
designed for an urban bus application, and the results show
the energy saving improvement with the ABS action.
1. INTRODUCTION
Regenerative brakes are characterized by dynamic
energy conservation through potential energy saving for
subsequent application. The traditional brakes are friction
based and dissipate the dynamic energy resulting in
important losses in the energy efficiency. Fossil fuels
reserves are limited and high investments are currently
research for its substitution and establishment of more
efficient systems. The technology of regenerative brakes is
in agreement with this trend.
Nowadays, there are few known commercial
applications of regenerative brake systems. However, there
are many researches and studies that seem to be still
insufficient for its extensive application. Most of the
regenerative brakes studied are electrical. These systems
are based on the use of electrical generators and chemical
batteries. These systems are usually present in hybrid
vehicles (Otto motors and electric motor) and electric
trains.
In this work performance of a regenerative system
based on pneumatics and designed for an urban bus
equipped with ABS is evaluated. It is simulated different
brake pedal activations for medium and high adherences
between the tire-ground. The objective is the observation of
the behavior of the regenerative system in different
conditions reaching the improvement of the efficiency due
to the ABS action. Earlier studies executed by Britto [1]
indicate that in the passive brake, in some critical braking
conditions, the wheels could be locked and, therefore, the
transmission system could not drive the compressor during
this braking phase. To study the reduction of performance
in this case, an ABS model was attached to the regenerative
braking system to avoid the wheels locking.
The ABS control logic is presented briefly in the
section 5 below. Early studies showed the efficiency of this
the ABS logic applied to passenger vehicles [2]. In this

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work is emphasized the improvement of stored energy with
the ABS action. Besides, it is shown that the ABS system
reduces the stopping distance and improves the stability of
the vehicle.
2. REGENERATIVE BRAKE SYSTEM
Brake systems of most standard automotive vehicles
convert kinetic energy in heat that is dissipated to the
atmosphere. The brake activation process can be divided in
two thermodynamical processes. The former is the friction
phenomena. In this process, the dynamic energy is
converted to calorific energy. The second process consists
of the heat transference from the brakes to the surrounding
ambient.
An analysis of the efficiency of a regenerative brake
should involve the vehicle potency and the transport cycle
to determine the energy percentage that can be absorbed by
the regenerative system.
Wicks and Donnelly, in [3], show the work cycle for an
urban bus and perform a regenerative brake application
potentiality analysis. They show that the portion of 91% of
total energy is wasted by the brakes, being the remaining
energy dissipated by the air and tire-ground frictions. It is
also verified that 59% of the work produced by the motor is
consumed by the brakes, being, in an ideal situation, the
potential of energy saving. These results indicate the
viability of research in this area.
Today, the most advanced studies in regenerative brakes
are in the application of electric storage systems. This
technology is mainly based in the use of the difference of
speed between a rotaries axis and a fixed magnetic field
that induces the manifestation of electric current.
Previously, in the past systems, the current induced during
the activation of the brake in electric motors was dissipated
by Joule effect in benches of resistors, wasting the energy.
Due to the technological progress of electronics and control
techniques, it is possible at present to absorb and store this
electrical energy.
Flinders, Mathew and Oghanna [4] present the
implantation in electric trains of regenerative systems based
on modern tiristors application witch allows high potency
rectification. These regenerative system, used in north of
New Zealand railroad, provided 13% of reduction in energy
waste. It is also shown measurements of energy losses did
during the application of dynamic brakes in the source line
of Central Queensland (where coal is transported by a
distance of 400km). The total energy wasted during the
activation of the brake is of 8,7MWh. Taking into account
the whole process, approximately 100GWh are wasted.
Besides its application in trains, regenerative systems
are used in hybrid vehicles (HEV, hybrid electric vehicles),
in which there is an auxiliary electric motor coupled to the
combustion motor. This vehicle conception presents some
advantages, as smaller dimension and weight and the
appropriate rotation control of the combustion motor,
causing the economy of fuel and emissions reduction as
related by He and Hodgson in [5]. Cikanek and Bailey in
Author:Gilligan-SID:1271-GUID:35214251-129.11.21.2
[6] present a model of a Regenerative Braking System
(RBS) assembled to a Parallel Hybrid Electric Vehicle
(PHEV). Simulation results of the PHEV showing the
regenerative braking performance improvement are
presented.
Panagiotidis, Delagrammatikas and Assanis in [7]
report fuel savings of 15% in some HEV vehicles
configurations. These are values much more conservatives
than the ideal 59% presented previously, but are still very
significant concerning energy efficiency performance. The
advanced technology involving hybrid vehicles limits its
application to only few commercial models.
The approach adopted in this work is alternative
because we propose the use of a pneumatic-mechanic
system. This study is based on the analogy with the electric
regenerative systems, aiming costs decreasing and faster
and easier application.
3. REGENERATIVE BRAKE DESIGN
This work reports the design of a pneumatic
regenerative brake system to be applied in a commercial
vehicle. The proposed pneumatic system must be installed
in parallel to the traditional brake, seeking global energy
efficiency improvement. Therefore, it is necessary to
accomplish the determination of a system with potential
application viability and achieve the energetic efficiency
study with the regenerative system integration. The study of
efficiency is done through simulations using a vehicle
dynamics model integrated with a regenerative and ABS
system model. A private transport vehicle (urban zone bus)
which works with compressed air to execute some actions
as automatic door driving and in the passive brake potency
system (air brake) was used.
The solution of the equations set seeking the system
dynamic behavior determination is accomplished with the
use of the numeric integration software Matlab/Simulink®.
Through the Simulink module, the blocks diagrams are
built and the set of associated differential equations is
solved. The simulation results allow the observation of the
influence of the regenerative system in the dynamic
behavior and the energetic efficiency improvement.
The parameters of the dissipative brake were defined in
such a way that the system behavior performs accordingly
to the Brazilian National Standards (ABNT, 2004) [8]. The
regenerative brake system was incorporated so that the
modified system maintains the same operational and
functional characteristics of the previous system. The
simulations were accomplished using a private transport
cycle model. The results were analyzed considering the
energy savings in the braking process and in the global
context, aiming at the evaluation of the economical
potentiality of the regenerative system application.
Automotive vehicles can be used in several
environmental conditions, so, their requirements can vary
significantly. The energy consumed in a vehicle is mainly
due to the resistance of the air, to the friction of the tires
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with the ground and the internal dumping of the movable

parts, besides the amount consumed by the brakes.
Therefore, it is less effective to use a regenerative system
for vehicles that travel broad distances with operational
situation that needs low braking actions. Smaller vehicles
have space restriction, hindering the application of the
proposed pneumatic regenerative system. So, the most
appropriate vehicles for the system implantation are buses
and urban trucks that have intense accelerations cycles and,
consequently, considerable efficiency losses caused by the
frequent activation of brakes. This is the main situation
usually addressed in the electric regenerative brakes
bibliography. Therefore, it was convenient the choice of an
urban bus working in the air ocean level pressure.
The proposed regenerative brake system is composed Figure 1- Proposed regenerative brake system
by a compressor, a tank and a clutch that links the
transmission axis and the compressor. It was chosen an The main objective is to study the performance
alternative double action piston-type compressor. In this variation due to regenerative brake equipped with an ABS
former proposed design, only the back wheels of the with respect to the traditional passive brake system. The
vehicle are coupled to the regenerative brake system. system free body diagram is presented in the Figure 2.
The scheme of the proposed system installed in the
vehicle is presented in the Figure 1. After the brake pedal is
pressed in the braking action process, besides the
dissipative brakes activation, the vehicle transmission
system separates the motor of the transmission train. Then,
through a clutch, the compressor is automatically linked to
the transmission axis (the coupling mechanism is not
accomplished in this work). So, the compressor initiates the
process of air pumping to the vessel, generating an opposite
torque to the motor axis. At this time, the dissipative brake
is also working, and the two systems act together, slowing Figure 2– Free body diagram of the vehicle.
down the vehicle. The traditional electric regenerative
systems are similar. In the electric systems, during the
braking action process, the electric generator is driven by The equilibrium equations can be obtained from the
the vehicle motor transmission system and applies a free body diagram of the vehicle. The horizontal forces can
negative torque, causing the slow down of the vehicle. The be expressed by Eq. (1)
generated electric charge is stored in batteries for
subsequent application. d 2x dx (1)
M 2
 C ar  Fdx  Ftx 0
dt dt

4. THE REGENERATIVE MODEL

In this section the mathematical model of the system is
presented. To simplify the analysis, some considerations
are specified. The first condition is that in the beginning of
the simulations, the joining between the compressor and the
transmission is already done and the motor is already
separated from the system. Then, the initial instant is
considered with null acceleration and constant vehicle
speed.
Where M is the mass of the vehicle, Car is the damping
coefficient of the air, Fdx and Fdy are the reactive forces of
the friction between the tire and the ground. In the vertical
direction, it can be expressed as
Fdy  Fty  Mg 0 (2)
Where g is acceleration of the gravity, Fdy is the front
reaction force in the vertical direction and Fty is the back
reaction force in the vertical direction. The moment caused
by the contact forces with the ground by the front wheel are
described by

d 2x dx (3)
(M  Car )d 3  Mgd1  Fty (d1  d 2 ) 0
dt 2 dt

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Where d1 is the distance of the center of gravity to the
front axis and d2 is the distance of the center of gravity to
the back axis. The moment in the back wheel can be
described by
d 2T dT
 Jt  T f  Cang  Ftx .rt 0 the transmission system. In this subsystem, the hydraulic
dt 2 dt
Where Tf is the torque due to the application of the
brake, Jt is the moment of inertia with respect to the back
axis, Cang is the internal friction dumping coefficient and rt
the radius of the back tire.
The horizontal forces Ftx and Fdx are proportional to
the contact friction coefficient and to the normal forces Fty
and Fdy, respectively. The force Ftx is expressed by
block the back and front horizontal forces are used to
calculate the equivalent angular speeds in each wheel
which depend on the action of the dissipative brakes, on the
loss for the internal friction in the two wheels and on the
action of the regenerative brake in the back wheels.
(4) The brake subsystem block diagram is a subsystem of
pressure of the brake action is multiplied by the actuator
cylinder piston area, resulting in the equivalent force. This
force, through the equation for drum brake from Gillespie
[10], results in the equivalent torque. The drum brake
action is then added to the regenerative torque which
calculus is based on the analysis of the free body diagram
presented in Figure 4.

Ftx PFty
(5)

Equations (1) to (4) allows the composition of the

block diagram elaborated for Simulink/Matlab
implementation. Figure 3 presents the system main block Figure 4 – Free body diagram of the regenerative brake
diagram. system

The relationship between the angular speed wa of the

axis and the translational speed of the piston vp given by
Mabie [11] is presented in Eq. (6):

R p Lp sen2T
vp  R p wa ( senT  ) (6)
2

where Rp is the radius of the "crank", Lp is the length of the

connecting rod and ș is the angle formed between the
radius Rp and the normal vector of the traverse area of the
piston. The relationship between the mass flow m dm / dt
and the translational speed is presented in Eq. (7):
Figure 3 – Main block diagram of the model.
m UAp v p (7)

The friction coefficient µ is a function of many
parameters like environment conditions, vertical loads,
surface types, translation speeds and internal pressures of
the tires. For analysis simplification purposes, in this study,
only the initial speed is tested with different values. The
other parameters are considered constants.
Where ȡ is the atmospheric air density and Ap is the
traverse area of the piston.
The variation of the pressure in the tank (Eq. (8)) due to
the injection of the mass flow, being considered an
adiabatic isentropic process with small temperature
variation, is given by Perondi and Guenther in [12].

The vertical reactions are calculated in each wheel using dp RrT

the model of suspension of Maclay (1997) [9], where the
stiffness and dumping coefficients of the suspension and
the gravity center position are considered. The reactions are
multiplied by the friction coefficients and the result is used
to calculate the front and rear friction forces.
The transmission system is elaborated based on the
generalization of the Eq. (4). In this system, the torque due
to the action of the brakes, Tf, is calculated in a subsystem
block (the “brake subsystem block”). In the transmission
m (8)
dt Vt
In Eq. (8), R is the constant of the air, r is the
relationship among the specific heats with constant pressure
and volume, T is the absolute temperature and Vt is the
volume of the tank. The pressure variation integrated along
the time represents the reactive pressure against to the
movement of the piston. This effect causes the braking

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action. The reactive equivalent torque is presented in Eq.
(9):
Tregen p tan A p R p senT
The torque calculated according with Eq. (9) is then
added along the time to the torque given by the traditional
dissipative brakes. The pressure generated by the
regenerative system is accumulated in the vessel.
The elastic potential energy collected in the tank is
expressed by Eq. (10):
E p.Vt
5. ABS CONTROL LOGIC
The designing process of the wheel slipping controller
needs to take into account the behavior of some variables of
the system, such as: torque supplied by the engine (Ma) and
by the brakes (Mb), the longitudinal force (Fx) on the wheel.
Equation (11) expresses the balance of the torques applied
on the wheel:
Jw rdynFx  aFy  Mf  Ma  Mb
where rdyn is the rolling radius, w is the angular velocity of
the wheel, Fn is the normal force on the wheel and Mf is the
bearing friction toque. Figure 5 presents a graphic
interpretation of Eq. (11):
Figure 5 – Forces and torques acting on the wheel
The term aFy+ Mf can be replaced by:
M* aFy  Mf
The Eq. (11) can be then rewritten as:
Jw rdynFx  M *  Ma  Mb
The applied torque (Tf) on the wheel is given by:
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§ Oe Oe ·
Tf ¨  ¸ Pa.rr (14)
© m  On m  On ¹
(9)
where Ȝ is the adherence between the drum and the brake
inside layer, e is the distance perpendicular of the actuator
force until the pivot, n is the perpendicular distance of the
friction force line until the pivot, m is the perpendicular
distance of the normal force until the pivot, Pa is the
actuator force and rr is the drum radius. The wheel slip (S)
is defined according to the situation: braking or
acceleration of the wheel. In the case of braking, the wheel
slip is given by
(10)
v  wrdyn
S (15)
v
According to Semmler [13], neglecting M* (due to its
small contribution), an expression for the torque to keep the
wheel in the desired slip (Sd) can be given by.
Jv Jv
Tf ( abs ) Ma  rdynFx  ( S  1)  [ (16)
rdyn rdyn
(11)
where a PD (proportional derivative) control law is given
by:
[ kp ( Sd  S )  kd ( Sd  S ) (17)
and v is the longitudinal velocity of the wheel, kp is the
proportional factor and kd is the derivative factor.
6. RESULTS
The system engine was modeled with 8 cylinders with
piston radius of 70mm. The proposed vessel volume is
0,1m3. The simulations were performed with an initial
vehicle velocity of 60 km/h in the cases of wet (µ=0,7) and
dry asphalt (µ=0,9).
The analyses were performed aiming the study of the
energetic saving due to the ABS action when compared to
passive braking. The results are related with the way that
the brake pedal is activated and the energy stored. It was
(12) executed simulations for brake pedal velocities of 50%/s,
100%/s and 400%/s (the unit used to measure the brake
pedal velocity is the percent of pushed pedal course per
second [%/s]).
(13)
6.1 – REDUCTION VELOCITY MANEUVER
(50%/s), WET ASPHALT – The results presented in this
section show the behavior of the regenerative system in a
reduction velocity maneuver. In this case, the brake pedal is
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5
activated slowly until the vehicle stops. Figure 6 shows that x 10
5
the vehicle velocity decreases quickly in ABS braking case ABS braking
in comparison with the passive braking. Figure 7 shows the Passive braking
occurrence of a considerable reduction (about 5m) in 4
stopping distance with the ABS action in comparison to the

Tank Pressure (Pa)

passive braking. In this case, there is an increase of 50% of
3
the pressure of the air stored in ABS braking over passive
braking, as it can be verified in Fig. 8. The curves began to
present different behavior close to 1s, that is, when the rear 2
wheels are locked in passive braking as can be seen in Fig.
9. In ABS braking case, the rear wheels present angular
1
movement until the vehicle stops, and consequently, store
more energy in the tank, while in passive braking the rear
wheels are locked in the beginning of the braking (as can 0
0 1 2 3 4
be seen in Figures 6 and 9). Time (s)
Figure 8 – Tank pressure, 50%/s and µ=0,7

20 35
ABS braking ABS braking

Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

Passive braking 30 Passive braking
Vehicle Velocity (m/s)

15
25

20
10
15

10
5
5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 6 – Vehicle velocity, 50%/s and µ=0,7 Figure 9 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 50%/s and µ=0,7

6.2 – STANDARD BRAKING MANEUVER

(100%/s), WET ASPHALT - The results presented in this
40 section represent the behavior of the regenerative system in
ABS braking
35 Passive braking a usual braking maneuver. The brake pedal is activated
until the vehicle stops. Figure 10 shows that the vehicle
Stopping Distance(m)

30 velocity decreases quickly in ABS braking case in

25 comparison with passive braking. Figure 11 shows a
considerable reduction (about 6m) in stopping distance
20 with the ABS action when compared to the passive braking.
There is an increase of about 160% in the pressure of the
15
air stored in ABS braking over passive braking case as it
10 can be verified in Fig. 12. The curves began to present
different behavior close to 0.5s, that is, when the rear
5
wheels are locked in passive braking, as can be seen in
0 Figure 13. As in previous case, in ABS braking case, the
0 1 2 3 4 rear wheels present angular movement until the vehicle
Time (s)
stops, and consequently, store more energy in the tank,
Figure 7 – Stopping distance, 50%/s and µ=0,7
while in passive braking the rear wheels are locked in the
beginning of the braking (see figures 10 and 13).

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20 35
ABS braking ABS braking

Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

Passive braking 30 Passive braking
Vehicle Velocity (m/s)

15
25

20
10
15

10
5
5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 10 – Vehicle velocity, 100%/s and µ=0,7 Figure 13 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 100%/s and µ=0,7

6.3 – EMERGENCY BRAKING MANEUVER

40
ABS braking (400%/s), WET ASHPHALT - The results presents the
35 Passive braking behavior of the regenerative system in an emergency
braking maneuver. The brake pedal is activated until the
Stopping Distance(m)

30 vehicle stops. Figure 14 shows that the vehicle velocity

25 decreases quickly in ABS braking case in comparison with
passive braking. Figure 15 shows a considerable reduction
20 of about 8m in the stopping distance with the ABS action in
15
comparison to passive braking. There is an increase of
440% in compressed air stored in ABS braking over
10 passive braking (see Fig. 16). The curves began to present
different behavior close to 0.25s (when the rear wheels are
5
locked in passive braking) as can be sees in Fig. 17. As in
0 previous cases, in ABS braking case, the rear wheels rotate
0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) until the vehicle stops, and consequently, store more energy
Figure 11 – Stopping distance, 100%/s and µ=0,7 in the tank, while in passive braking the rear wheels are
locked earlier as can be seen in figures 14 and 17.

5
x 10
4.5 18
ABS braking ABS braking
4 Passive braking 16 Passive braking
3.5 14
Vehicle Velocity (m/s)
Tank Pressure (Pa)

3 12
2.5 10
2 8
1.5 6
1 4
0.5 2
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 12 – Tank pressure, 100%/s and µ=0,7 Figure 14 – Vehicle velocity, 400%/s and µ=0,7

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6.4 – REDUCTION VELOCITY MANEUVER

40
ABS braking (50%/s), DRY ASPHALT - The results presents the
35 Passive braking behavior of the regenerative system in a reduction velocity
maneuver. The brake pedal is activated slowly until the
Stopping Distance(m)

30 vehicle stops.
25
Figure 18 shows the vehicle velocity decreasing
20 quickly in ABS braking in comparison with passive
15 braking, the vehicle stops first. Figure 19 shows a reduction
in about 2m in stopping distance with the ABS case. There
10 is an increasing of 48% in compressed air stored in ABS
braking case (see Fig. 20). The system dynamic perform as
5
in previous cases.
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (s)
Figure 15 – Stopping distance, 400%/s and µ=0,7

5
x 10 20
3.5
ABS braking ABS braking
3 Passive braking Passive braking

Vehicle Velocity (m/s)

15
Tank Pressure (Pa)

2.5

2
10
1.5

1 5
0.5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 16 – Tank pressure, 400%/s and µ=0,7 Figure 18 – Vehicle velocity, 50%/s and µ=0,9

35 40
ABS braking ABS braking
Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

30 Passive braking 35 Passive braking

Stopping Distance(m)

30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10 10
5 5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 17 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 400%/s and µ=0,7 Figure 19 – Stopping distance, 50%/s and µ=0,9

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5
x 10
4.5 20
ABS braking ABS braking
4 Passive braking Passive braking
3.5

Vehicle Velocity (m/s)

15
Tank Pressure (Pa)

3
2.5
10
2
1.5
1 5

0.5
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 20 – Tank pressure, 50%/s and µ=0,9 Figure 22 – Vehicle velocity, 100%/s and µ=0,9

35 35
ABS braking ABS braking
Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

30 Passive braking 30 Passive braking

25 Stopping Distance(m) 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 21 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 50%/s and µ=0,9 Figure 23 – Stopping distance, 100%/s and µ=0,9

6.5 – USUAL BRAKING MANEUVER (100%/s),

DRY ASPHALT- The results presents the behavior of the x 10
5
4
regenerative system in a usual braking maneuver. The ABS braking
brake pedal is activated until the vehicle stops. Figure 22 3.5 Passive braking
shows that, as in the previous studies, the vehicle velocity
decreases quickly in ABS braking case when compared 3
Tank Pressure (Pa)

with the passive case. Figure 23 shows a reduction of about 2.5

2m in the stopping distance with the ABS action in
comparison to passive braking. The increasing in the stored 2
air pressure in ABS braking case over passive braking is
1.5
about 90% (as it can be verified in Fig. 24). Again, with
more efficient braking presented by ABS system, more 1
energy is stored in the pressure vessel in the ABS case (see
0.5
figure 22 and 25).
0
0 1 2 3 4
Time (s)
Figure 24 – Tank pressure, 100%/s and µ=0,9

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35 35
ABS braking ABS braking
Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

30 Passive braking 30 Passive braking

Stopping Distance(m)
25 25

20 20

15 15

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 25 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 100%/s and µ=0,9 Figure 27 – Stopping distance 400%/s and µ=0,9

6.6 – EMERGENCY BRAKING MANEUVER

(400%/s), DRY ASPHALT - The results presents the
behavior of the regenerative system in an emergency
braking maneuver. The brake pedal is activated until the
5
vehicle stops. Figure 26 shows the vehicle velocity x 10
3
decreasing quickly in ABS braking in comparison with ABS braking
passive braking, the vehicle stops first. Figure 27 shows a Passive braking
considerable reduction around 5m in stopping distance with 2.5
the ABS action in comparison to passive braking. There is
Tank Pressure (Pa)

an increase of 340% in compressed air stored in ABS 2

braking over passive braking as it can be verified in Figure
28. The curves separate close to 0.25s, that is, when the 1.5
rear wheels are locked in passive braking, see Figure 29. In
ABS braking the rear wheels rotate until the vehicle stops, 1
and consequently, store more energy in the pressure vessel,
while in passive braking the rear wheels are locked soon in 0.5
the beginning of the braking, see Figure 26 and Figure 29.
It justifies the higher tank pressure for ABS braking respect 0
to passive braking. 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s)
Figure 28 – Tank pressure, 400%/s and µ=0,9

20 35
ABS braking ABS braking
Rear Wheel Angular Velocity (rad/s)

Passive braking 30 Passive braking

Vehicle Velocity (m/s)

15
25

20
10
15

10
5
5

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4
Time (s) Time (s)
Figure 26 – Vehicle velocity, 400%/s and µ=0,9 Figure 29 – Rear wheel angular velocity, 400%/s, µ=0,9

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7. CONCLUSIONS [6] Cikanek, S. R., Bailey, K. E., Regenerative Braking

In this paper, the modeling of a pneumatic regenerative
brake equipped with ABS is presented. The simulations
performed with the model show that the use of an ABS
brake system would to improve the pneumatic regenerative
brake system performance when compared with passive
braking. The ABS system avoids the wheels locking,
allowing a more efficient activation of the compressor by
the transmission system. The results show the considerable
improvement in pressure stored when ABS braking is used
and also that the performance of the regenerative brake
system is dependent on the passive brake system pressure
adjustment.
Further studies will include simulations to study the
influence of the pneumatic regenerative brake system in the
mechanical brake system heating, which is a source of one
of the main trouble in actual brake systems applied to heavy
vehicles. As, in the case of regenerative brakes, the
regenerative system stores part of the kinetic energy of the
vehicles, less energy will be dissipated by Joule effect in
the friction braking process. So, the mechanical brake
system will have his heating curve changed, and as it is
known, the process involving the material abrasion
effectiveness properties and the system temperature
presents a nonlinear behavior, the gains in breakability
could be significant with regenerative brakes. This fact,
allied to the energy saving, could justify real industry
investments in this area.
System for a Hybrid Electric Vehicle. Proceedings of
the American Control Conference. Anchorage, 2002.
[7] Panagiotidis, M., Delagrammatikas, G., Assanis, D.,
2000, “Development and Use of a Regenerative
Braking Model for a Parallel Hybrid Eletric Vehicle”.
Ann Arbor:.
[8] INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE METROLOGIA,
NORMALIZAÇÃO E QUALIDADE INDUSTRIAL,
2004. “Portaria n.º 30”. Brasília.
[9] Maclay, D., 1997, “Two DOF Vehicle Suspension
Model”. Cambridge.
[10] Gillespie, T. D., 1992. “Fundamentals of Vehicle
Dynamics”. Warrendale: Society of Automotive
Engineers, Inc,
[11] Mabie, H. H. 1980, “Mecanismos”, LTC 2.ed. Rio de
Janeiro: LTC,.
[12] Perondi, E. A., Guenther, R., 2003 “Modelagem de um
servoposicionador pneumático com atrito”. Ciência &
Engenharia. Uberlândia: , v.12, n.1, p.43 - 52,.
[13] Semmler, S., Isermann, R., Schwarz, R., and Rieth, P.,
2003, “Wheel Slip Control for Antilock Braking
Systems Using Brake-by-Wire Actuators”, SAE,
Warrendale, EUA

8. REFERENCES

[1] Britto, J. F. F. H. 2004. “Freio Regenerativo

Pneumático”. Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do
Sul. Porto Alegre, Brasil.

[2] Infantini, M. B., 2003, “Braking Systems

Experimental Test and Virtual Modeling”, Politecnico
di Torino, Turin.

[3] Wicks, F., Donnely Y, K, 2002, “Modeling

Regenerative Braking and storage for vehicles”, New
York.

[4] Flinders, F., Mathew, R., Oghanna, W., 1995.

“Energy Savings Through Regenerative Braking
Using Retrofit Converters”. Central Queensland,
Australia.

[5] He, X., Hodgson, J., 2002, “Modeling and Simulation

for Hibrid Electric Vehicles – Part I”: Modeling, IEEE
Transactions on Intelligent Transportation Systems.
vol. 3 no. 4.

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