TRACTOR AND SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE Strictly According to revised new syllabus For Automobile Engineering (6 Semester) Md SAHIL Deptt. of Automobile Engg Govt. Polytechnic SonepatSYLLABUS 1. Tractor (08 periods) Definition, classification of tractors, main tractor assemblies, types of engine used, human factor in tractor design, applications of tractors, Basics trends in tractor design, forces acting on a tractor on move, parallel pull and rolling resistance, tractive effort, tractor stability, longitudinal and lateral stability, weight transfer concept. 2. Tractor Chassis (04 periods) Types of clutch used in tractors, types of transmission boxes used in tractors, , final drive, reduction gear, tractor brake systems; operator seat design 3. Supplementary System (08 periods) Power take off shaft, draw bar working, double clutch system, traction control unit: mechanical and hydraulic, belt pulley three point linkages 4. Tractor Wheels and Tires (06 periods) Salient features of wheels, tires, and wheel base/wheel tracks and ground clearance. Classification of tractor tires, Specifications of wheels and tires, tread types and their applications, dual versus tandem tyres,. differential lock. 5. Hydraulic system (08 periods) Principle and Functions of hydraulic system, hydraulic system layout, various components of hydraulic system and their functions. Methods of attaching implements, various control systems — depth control, position control, draft control, combination control. Working of hydraulic control levers, other uses of hydraulic control system.6. Tractor Operation, Maintenance and repair (06 periods) Common control and safety levers; Tractor indicators, safe tractor operating procedure, maintenance checks before starting the engine, periodic maintenance procedure of tractor, faults and their rectification, prominent makes of Indian tractors, selection criteria for tractor. 7. Special Purpose Vehicles (08 periods) Earth Moving Machinery — Introduction, general layout and classification of earth moving machinery. Layout, working and applications of Dozer, Loader, Excavator, Fork Lift Truck, Tipper and Crane, MotChapter 1 TRACTOR 1.1 Tractor Tractor is a self-propelled power unit having wheels or tracks for operating agricultural implements and machines including trailers. Tractor engine is used as a prime mover for active tools and stationary farm machinery through power take-off shaft (PTO) or belt pulley. 1.2 Classification of tractor © Wheel tractor e Crawler tractor © Walking type tractor/ power tiller 1.Wheel tractor:-Tractor having three or four pneumatic wheels are called wheel tractor. It is also classified; a)General purpose tractor:-It is used for major farm operations; Fy Three whee! tractor Four whee! tractor such as ploughing, harrowing, sowing, harvesting, transporting work.sot2e1 esoqwa levencd b)Row crop tractor:: It is used for crop cultivation. Such tractor is provided with replaceable driving wheels of different tread widths. It has high ground clearance to save damage of crops. Wide wheel track can be adjusted to suit inter row distance. Cc) Special purpose tractor:- Itisused for definite jobs like cotton fields, marshy land, hillsides, garden etc. Special designs are there for special purpose tractor. eg. i) tractor with winch unit, ii) multi drive tractor, iii) tractor of golf ground etc.2. Crawler Tractor: A crawler tractor (also called: track-type tractor, tractor crawler, or track-laying vehicle) is a vehicle that runs on continuous tracks instead of wheels. In agriculture they are used for land clearing and land leveling works. 1.Walking type tractor/power tiller: In agricultural power tillers are used for ploughing, sowing, spraying, harvesting and transporting works, It is the most wanted machine for puddling operation in rice cultivation. Uses:- a) For puddling operation in paddy fields- using rotary tines. b) For cutting and pulverizing the soil in dry lands and in garden lands. c) For cutting and pulverizing the stubbles of sugarcane, maize and cotton. 1.3 Main tractor assemblies Components 1, I.C Engine2. Clutch 3. Transmission gears. 4. Differential unit 5. Final drive 6. Real wheel 7. Front wheels 8. Steering mechanism 9. Hydraulic control and hitch system 10. Brakes 11. Power-take-off unit 12. Tractor pulley 13. Draw bar and 14. Control panel 1. 1.C. Engine: Internal combustion of suitable horse power is used as a prime mover in a tractor. Engines ranging from 8 to 200 hp are used in agricultural tractors. 2. Clutch: Clutch is a device, used to connect and disconnect the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and driven members. 3. Transmission System: Transmission is a speed reducing mechanism, equipped with several gears. It may be called a sequenceof gears and shafts, through which the engine power is transmitted to the tractor wheels. Functions of power transmission system i) To transmit power from the engine to the rear wheels of the tractor ii)To make reduced speed available, to rear wheels of the tractor. 4. Differential Unit: Differential unit is a special arrangement of gears to permit one of the rear wheels of the tractor to rotate slower or faster than the other. While turning the tractor on a curved path, the inner wheel has to travel lesser distance than the outer wheel. The inner wheel requires lesser power than the outer wheel. This condition is fulfilled by differential unit, which permits one of the rear wheels of the tractor to move faster than the other at a turning point. 5. Final drive: Final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between differentials and drive wheels. Final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle and the wheels. The tractor rear wheels are not directly attached to the half shafts but the drive is taken through a pair of spur gears. Each half shaft terminates in a small gear which meshes with a large gear called bull gear. The bull gear is mounted on a shaft, carrying the tractor rear wheel. The device for final speed reduction, suitable for tractor rear wheels is known as final drive mechanism. 6. Steering mechanism: The system, governing the angular movement of front wheels of a tractor is called steering system. This system minimizes the efforts of the operator in turning the front wheels with the application of leverages. 7. Hydraulic Control system: It is a mechanism in a tractor to raise , hold or lower the mounted implement or semi mounted equipment by hydraulic means, All tractors are equipped with hydraulic control system for operating three point hitch of the tractor. Hydraulic systemworks on PASCAL’s Law which states that pressure applied to an enclosed fluid is transmitted equally in all directions. 8. Brakes: Brake is used to stop or slow down the motion of the tractor. It is mounted on the driving axle and operated by two independent pedals. Each pedal can be operated independently to assist the turning of tractor during field work or locked together by means of a lock. Types of brakes — a) Mechanical brake b) hydraulic brake. 9. Power Take Off: It is a part of tractor transmission system. It consists of a shaft, a shield and a cover. The shaft is externally splined PTO shaft PTO on a tractor to transmit tortional power to another machine. A rigid guard fitted on a tractor covers the power take-off shaft as a safety device. The guard is called power take off shield. 10. Belt pulley: All tractors are provided with a belt pulley. The function of the pulley is to transmit power from the tractor to stationary machinery by means of a belt. It is used to operate thresher, centrifugal pump, silage cutter, and several other machinery. The pulley is located either on the left , right or rear side of the tractor. Pulley drive is engaged or disengaged from the engine by means of a clutch.11.Control board or dash board: The control board of a tractor generally consists of 1. Main switch 2. Throttle 3. Decompression lever 4. Hour meter 5. Light switch’ 6. Horn button 7. Battery charging indicator 8. oil pressure indicator 9. Water temperature gauge. 1.4 Types of Engine used in tractor Internal-combustion engines are used for tractors. The power of a tractor engine depends on the class of the tractor and may range from 14.8 to 368 kilowatts (kW), or 20 to 500 hp, at 800-2,500 rpm. The most common dieseis are four-cylinder and six-cylinder water-cooled engines; air-cooled diesels with a power of up to 74 kW (100 hp) are also used. Diesels more powerful than 147 kW (200 hp) may have a V-shaped cylinder arrangement, and they may also have turbosupercharging. Diesel tractor engines have low specific fuel consumption (70 kg per joule, or 185 g per hp-hr) and high reliability and durability (more than 500 hr of operation before overhaul). 1.5 Human factors in tractor design Riding comfort Visibility Loading and arrangement of control Ease of operating controls Design for thermal control, and Sound control eee eee1.6 Application of tractor It is used in farms for ploughing, cutting, thressing, pumping etc. It is used for plantation. It is used to carry goods. To push or pull. 1.7 Basic trends in tractor design i) Power generation system i.e., IC Engine ji) Chassis design iii) Hydraulic system iv) Traction improvement v) comfort and safety vi) Levers and switch vii) GPS/ Navigation 1.8 Forces Acting On a tractor on move It is a general case where the tractor is going up a gradient is non uniform motion and the implement is attached to its drawbar. i) Trailing ii) Mounting 1.Trailing: to pull or be pulled along behind the tractor. ¢ Weight of tractor: the weight of the tractors supposed to working at its Centre of gravity (CG) in vertically downward direction. It can be resolved in two forces which are; WtCos © 1 DOM HERE, DOM= DIRECTION OF MOTIOWtSin © 11 DOM Drawbar: it is the forces by which the implement is pulling the tractor against its movement. Then it can be resolved as; PdrCosa Il DOM PdrSina 1 DOM Due to non- uniform motion of tractor inertia forces is applied at its center of gravity parallel to direction of motion. Normal reaction: Due to weight of the tractor normal reaction on front wheel are applied normal to the soil plane . where Rf is reaction at front wheel acting at a distance of x from the center of front wheel plane.Rolling resistance: it is the resistance due to friction between the tractor wheel and soil. It act against the direction of motion. Pr= pWtCos © Tractor efforts: it is applied by the engine at the traction wheel (rear wheel) which is sufficient wheel to propell the tractor. Pt= PR + Pdr Cosa 2.Mounting: if the implement mounting on the vehicle of the tractor than the following forces come into play In addition to the above forces. Weight of implement (Wimp): Its works on the center of gravity of implement in vertically downward direction. Inertia of implement (Pimp): It is the force working on the implement due to its non-uniform motion. Soil Resistance (Rump): It is due to the resistance offered by the soil and its acts at the implement against the direction of motion . Load wheel Reaction (Row): This forces acting at the land wheel normal to the soil plane. Tractive effort: the force in pounds exerted by powered equipment (as a locomotive) as measured for statistical purposes at the rim of the driving wheels.Chapter 2 TRACTOR CHASSIS2.1 Introduction: Chassis is called the base or frame of a tractor. The frame consist of different components like engine, transmission, tires, steering system etc. 2.2 Types of clutch used in tractor 1. Friction clutch a) Disc plate clutch 1. Single plate clutch 2. Multi plate clutch b) cone clutch Il. Dog clutch HL. Fluid clutch IV. Dual clutch. Clutch: Clutch is a device, used to engage and disengage the tractor engine from the transmission gears and drive wheels. Clutch transmits power by means of friction between driving members and driven members.ar clateh is engaged Fig. 10.1: Clnteh (Source: http://www.motorera.com/dietionary/pics/c/coil-spring_clutch.jpg) Single plate clutch:- This may be called single disc clutch. It consists of: 1. Pressure plate 2. Clutch plate 3. Springs 4. Release fingersThe single disc clutch is a plate type of clutch in which a single thick iron plate is coated with friction material on both sides. The clutch plate is pressed against the flywheel of the engine by the spring loaded pressure plate. The pressure produced by a number of springs, located between the pressure plate and the housing, which is bolted to the flywheel, holds the friction surfaces firmly in contact. When the pedal of the clutch is depressed, the pressure plate is pushed back by the release fingers. This releases the pressure from the clutch plate and disengages the clutch. Then the clutch plate stops rotating but the fly wheel continues to rotate. When the clutch pedal is released, the pressure plate forces them to turn together as one unit. Thus the power of the engine goes to the gear box for onward transmission to rear wheels. This type of tractor clutch plate is usually foot operated. 2.3 Types of transmission boxes The automobile transmission gear boxes can be classified into different categories based on the method in which the gears are meshed and speed ratios selected. Gear boxes used for transmission systems are classified into: + Sliding Mesh Gear Box + Constant Mesh Gear Box + Synchromesh Gear BoxFinal drive:- Final drive is a gear reduction unit in the power trains between differentials and drive wheels. Final drive transmits the power finally to the rear axle and the wheels. The tractor rear wheels are not directly attached to the half shafts but the drive is taken through a pair of spur gears. Each half shaft terminates in a small gear which meshes with a large gear called bull gear. The bull gear is mounted on a shaft, carrying the tractor rear wheel. The device for final speed reduction, suitable for tractor rear wheels is known as final drive mechanism. Reduction gear:- A reduction gear is an arrangement by which an input speed can be lowered for a requirement of slower output speed, with same or more output torque. Reduction gear assembly consists of a set of rotating gears connected to a wheel work. The high speed incoming motion from the wheel work is transmitted to the set of rotating gears, wherein the motion or torque is changed. The number of gears used in the reduction gear assembly depends on the output speed requirement of the application. The reduction gear assembly is usually known as reduction gear box. 2.4 Tractor brake system The braking system is an important system in the tractors used to slow down or stop the tractor motion. It is also used to prevent the tractor from moving when it is stationary. During field operations it helps in taking sharp turns by applying differential brakes on the two rear wheels. The brakes use the financial force to reduce the motion of the wheels. Friction is used to convert the kinetic energy into heat.Principle of brakes:- Brake works on the principle of friction. When a moving clement is brought into contact with a stationary element, the motion of the moving element is affected. This is due to frictional force, which acts in opposite direction of the motion and converts the kinetic energy into heat energy. Classification of brakes:- Brake can be classified as: (1) Mechanical brake and (2) Hydraulic brake. Mechanical brake can be: (a) Internal expanding shoe type (b) External contracting shoe type and (c) Disc type. (d) Hydraulic brake. Internal expanding brake: Two brake shoes made of frictional material fitted on the inside of the brake drum are held away from the drum by means of springs. One end of each shoe is fulcrum whereas the other jis free to move by the action of a cam which in turn applies force on the shoes. The movement of the cam is caused by the brake pedal through the linkage. The drum is mounted on the rear axle whereas the shoe assembly is stationary and mounted on the back plate. External expanding brake: This type of brake system is normally available on crawler tractors. The brake band directly surrounds the drummounted on the drive axle. When the pedal is depressed, the band tightens the drum. Disc brake: Two actuating discs have holes drilled in each disc in which stee/ balls are placed. When the brake pedal is depressed, the links help to move the two discs in opposite directions. This brings the stee! balls to shallow part of the holes drilled in the disc. As a result, the two discs are expanded and braking discs are pressed in between the discs and the stationary housing. The braking discs are directly mounted on the differential shaft, which ultimately transfers the traveling effect to the differential shaft. Hydraulic brake:- Hydraulic brake system is based on the principle of pascal's law. The brake fluid, which is usually a mixture of glycerin and alcohol, is filled in the master cylinder. When the pedal is depressed, the piston of the master cylinder is forced into the cylinder and the entire system turns to a pressure system. Immediately, the piston of the wheel cylinder slides outward which moves the brake shoes to stop the rotating drum. When the pedal is released, the return spring of the master cylinder moves the piston back to its x WHEEL CYLINDER RETRACTION \ SPRING \ BRAKE PEDAL Vp PISTON Master Cylinder ROPBrake efficiency: High braking efficiency is required as on many occasions the brakes are required to stop the vehicle in emergency. However higher brake efficiency not only leads to stopping in a shorter time, may also cause injury to the driver operator due to high decelerating forces and dislodging of loads in the trolley. Higher braking efficiency also causes rapid wear of the brakes and there is more risk of losing control of the vehicle. Braking efficiencies of the order of 50-80% enable to stop within reasonable distance. However the stopping distance varies with the type of road conditions and condition of the tyres. 2.5 Operator seat design It is generally recognised that to minimise discomfort, fatigue and the possible damage to the back while seating. The spinal column should maintain normal curvature. Therefore, seat characteristics such as; seat length, width and tilt, back rest height, Angle and slopes needs to be design. Three aspects are used to operator seat design, 1. Orthopedic aspects 2. Muscular aspects 3. Biomechanical aspectA no. Of principle followed for seat design; 1.types and dimension of seat are related to the reason of seating. 2. The dimension of the seat should be fit the seater. 3. Seat should design to provide support and stability for the operator. 4. Seat should design to allow the operator to vary is posture. 5. Seat height should be from 40cm to 50cm and weight approx. 75kg. Seat width To as sure driver comfort and convenience posture . the seat width should be wider than buttock. Seat depth In tractor seat design, operator should be assest to his work in front of him. Back rest height, width, angle A space between 12.5cm to 20cm is required its should be simple and easy to operate and see back. It should be more than 105°.Chapter 3 SUPPLEMENTRY SYSTEM 3.1 Power Take Off Shaft (PTO Shaft) It is a part of tractor transmission system. It consists of a shaft, a shield and a cover. The shaft is externally splined to transmit tortional power to another machine. A rigid guard fitted on a tractor covers the power-take-off shaft as a safety device. The guard is called power take off shield. As per ASAE standards PTO speed is 540+ 10 rpm when operating under load. In order to operate 1000 rpm PTO drive machine, a new standard has been developed.Types of PTO shaft 1. Transmission drive PTO shaft 2. Independent drive PTO shaft 3. Continuous drive PTO shaft Transmission drive PTO Shaft: In this type of drive the power is given to the PTO shaft directly from the transmission shaft with the help of a pair of a gear. The gearbox transmission shatt is situated behind the clutch. The PTO shaft rotate whenever the clutch is engage and engine is running. Independent drive PTO shaft: In this type of drive the power to PTO shatt is transmitted by a pair of gear fitted between engine and main clutch. There is another clutch called PTO shaft. This clutch is operated by a lever called PTO shaft is independent of running of transmission shaft. Whenever the PTO shaft have been run the PTO clutch is engage otherwise it is disengage is such PTO can be run tractor In motion or standing still as in the process of being standard or stop. Continuous drive PTO shaft: In this arrangement the power of PTO shaft is transmitted through the pair of gear fitted on transmission shaft. There is another clutch called transmission clutch. On the transmission shaft near to the transmission box. Whenever the clutch is engage the PTO shaft rotates to change the gear without instructing to PTO the transmission clutch is used. So, machining and implement can be operated. Whenever tractor is in motion or stand steel or it is in the process of being started or stop 3.2 Drawbar a heavy bar, often made of steel, attached to the rear of a tractor and used as a hitch for pulling machinery, as a plow or mower.Types of drawbar Three types of drawbar; i) Fixed type, ji) _ Swinging type, iii) Three point linkage type drawbar. Fixed drawbar: i) extend backward or forward ji)two or three position possible with pin movement. iii) must be adjusted pto. Swinging type drawbar: i) — Swinging in direction tractor turns. ji) Must be secured in fixed position to travel on the road or when using PTO iii) Can be locked in position to be used as a fixed type. Three point linkage drawbar: i) | Drawbar fitted on crossbar of 3 point linkage. ji) Can be fitted in any hole of crossbar, provide horizontal movement. iii) Vertical movement due to lift arm operation. 3.3 Three point hitch systemThree point hitch system is the only hitch system now available for all implements except trailers and combines. Thus, information will be restricted to three point hitch system. Three types of hitching possible with three point hitch system are free float (towed), semi-mounting, and Table 14.1: Major functions of various components of a hitch system ci ent |N@ i Somponent | ued | Functions U Basic component of hitch system. Connects implement to Ai tee 1 Wwactor, Transfers hitching forces of tractor tg implement . and of implement to tractor Lower ee. 2 2) Cink -do- 3,| Lateral Litnits the travel of implement int horizontal plane “| Limiters |* thereby inhibits the horizontal sway Lifts the implements and supports the implement in 4.| LiftLink |2 transport position, It provides laceral stability and lateral levelling to the implement. It provides lateral stability. it lifts implement by giving 3.) LiftArm [2 needed force and motion to Lift Link and supports implement in transport position. [Rocking | It connects cylinder and rockshaff. It converts linear *| Arm motion of cylinder into rotation, 7.| Rockshaft |1 Tc ansmits the rotatiag motion of rocking arm to lift arm. 8.| cylinder |1 Kis source of power for lifting implement. It gives linear motion lo rocking arm, fully mounting. The components of a three point hitch system and their functions along with numbers required are given in TableBenefits of three point hitch system 1.it transfer the weight and résistance of an imOlement to drive wheel of the tractor. 2. It gives tractor more usable traction. 3. Provide more power 4. Distribute weight of implement 5. Use fuel consumption 6. Easy to handle.Chapter 4 TRACTOR WHREL AND TYRES 4.1 Salient features of wheels Features of wheel; * The wheel strong enough to withstand the weight of the vehicle. + Flexible to absorb the road shocks. + Able to grip the road surface. + Light and easily remarkable. Features of tyres; + Tyre should not skill or slip on the road surface. + Tyre should be able to carry the vehicle load. * Tyre should be balanced dynamically and as well as statically. Features of wheel base / Wheel track; + Wheel base should be better flotation. + Wheel base should be smoother ride on rough field. + More stability on hillside and able to maintain traction. + Easier implement hook up.4.2 Important terms connected with tractor Wheel base Wheel base is the horizontal distance between the front and rear wheels of a tractor. Ground clearance: It is the height of the lowest point of the tractor from the ground surface, the tractor being loaded to its permissible weight. Track: Track in the distance between the two wheels of the tractor on the same axle., measured at the ground contact. Turning space: It is the diameter of the smallest circle , described by the outer most point of the tractor, while moving at a speed not exceeding 3 km/hr with the steering wheels in full lock. Cage wheels: It is a wheel or an attachment to a wheel with spaced cross bars for improving traction of the tractor in a wet field. It is generally used in paddy field. 4.3 Classification of tractor tyres The different types of Tractor Tires being used | farm tractor, Lawn Tractors, Automobiles etc. nowadays are: » High Pressure - Low Pressure - Extra Low PressureHigh pressure tyres: This tire type was mostly used in cars and trucks but later on these were used only in trucks. The reason was that due to high pressure, road shocks cannot be absorbed fully. In cars, comfortable drive is very important. Due to the comfortable driving environment, low pressure tyres were preferred. Low pressure tyres: These types of tires are used in cars and small automobiles. The small road shocks are easily managed by small tyres themselves. The steering assembly design has been changed with the passage of time. Extra pressure tyres: They have bigger width and are aptly called balloon tyres. Their application areas are sandy or slushy environments. Their biggest advantage is that they do not slip on sharp turns. This feature makes them suitable for racing cars. This type of tractor tires are used in Tractors and Heavy Earth Moving Machines also. 4.4 Specification of wheel and tyres oe ‘Specification of tyresSpecification of wheels; * Wheel side : 15x6 * PCD : 4x100/108.5x100/114.3 * Off Set : 32 4.5 Tread tyres and their application The tread is the part of the tyre that makes contact with the surface of the road. Tread design VAVAVAV AV AV AVAVAVAVAT A AUUTIAOAOUOTEAT AVAVAVAVAVANAVAVAVANAY wt mi HNN DARA AAAAAAAAAARARA RAAT y ” AAAPPLICATIONS OF TREAD TYRES; i) Excellent handling in snow and mud, ii) Very good road holding and speed, iii) High curve stability, iv) Good grip in wet condition, v) High protection against aquaplaning. 4.6 Differential locks A locking differential, differential lock, diff lock or locker is a variation on the standard automotive Differential. A locking differential may provide increased traction compared to a standard, or “open” differential by restricting each of the two wheels on an axle to the same rotational speed without regard to available traction or differences in resistance seen at each wheel. Differential lockChapter 5 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM 5.1 Principle of hydraulic system The hydraulic system works on the principle of Pascal’s law which says that the pressure in an include fluid is uniform in all the direction. As the pressure is same in all the direction, the smaller piston feels the smaller force and a large piston feels the large force. F,xA,=RxA,Function of hydraulic systrm i) Power generation li) Remove contaminants iii) Lubrication and protection iv) Sealing and v) Heat transfer. 5.2 Layout of hydraulic system Gear Pump Unit (Fluid Source) = ) é Foe 5.3 Attaching implement to 3 point hitch 1. Be sure drawbar will not interfere, if necessary drawbar ahead, or remove it. Check for another problem interface. 2. Slip draft (lower) links over implement hitch point (B) and retain with quick pins. 3. To Centre link from transport hook, lift center link looking clip (C), and rotate tab (D) to rear of center link clip. 4. Attach center link to implement to top most.5. Adjust center links and lift link as necessary. 6. Using rockshafts position control lever (E ), lower and raise implement slowly and check for any interface . 5.4 Various control system Draft control: Jn this system, the working depth of any implement can be controlled continuously without the need for a depth wheel on the implement. The hydraulic contro! valve reacts to changes in the loading in either the top or lower links which arc due to changes in the draft or pull required by the implement. Position control: In this system, constant depth of ploughing is maintained by automatic adjustment of draft of tractor. In this system the control valve can be operated directly by the driver to raise Jower or hold an implement, mounted on the linkage at any chosen height. APPLICATIONS OF HYDRAULIC SYSTEMS © Indneelal: Plastic proesing machineries, steel mvikirg and primy applications. autor Tieders, emchos, 143 vextmer ioe ind astiaes, Tene ramon + Mobile hydrauli gation system. carthmovirg cot, material Bandling eyuipme: al vetivles, anel boring equipment, il equipment, buildieg acd corstruction meckincrics and drilling rigs ctc. + Automobiles: [: is uscd it the systems like Sreaks, shock absorbers, steering system, swind shield, lift and clearing ete. + Marine applicattans: Tr mostly envers ceran going vessels, fishing boats and ravel ‘equapmen: + Aerospace equipment: There. are cquipment and systems used for mcder control, Inne ing ‘gear, breaks, flight control and transmission etc. which are used in airplanes, rockets amc spuces hipsChapter 6 TRACTOR OPERATION, MAINTENANCE AND OPERATION 6.1 Common control and safety lever The most common controls and safety levers used when operating a modern agricultural tractor are: Stop button or key This is the most important control mechanism on the tractor. Before starting the engine locate the stop button or key and test how it works. Most stop buttons work by pulling them out. In many new tractors, the stop button has now been replaced by stopping the engine through turning off the start key.Brakes Most tractors are fitted with 2 independent brake pedals that can be locked together. When using the tractor in transport mode the brake pedals must be locked together for safety purposes. During field operation, they should be disengaged to enable the operator to push either the Jeft or right pedal to aid steering and improve the turning radius of the tractor. Clutch pedal The clutch is used to disengage the drive train from the engine and change gears. It is always good practice to depress the clutch before starting and stopping the engine. The clutch is also used to engage or disengage the power-take-off drive. Throttle The hand and foot throttle are used to contro! the engine speed. The hand throttle should always be used when using the tractor in the field. The foot throttle can be used when driving the tractor on a roadway but should not be used in the field. Gear lever Most tractors have 2 gear levers to contro/ ground speed. The first lever will be a high and low range lever and the second lever will normally have 3-4 forward and | reverse gear. Some tractors may have a forward and reverse lever and one gear lever to contro! ground speed . Others may have a hydrostatic or automatic gear box with up to 18 forward gears and 2 reverse gears. Light switches and warning lights Most tractors will have head lights for working at night and they may have indicators and stop lights for travelling on roadway. The indicator light may also be used as hazard lights or used especially for road travel. Warning lights may also displayed on the dashboard to warn the operator of malfunctioning components and overheating.Power take off lever This lever activates the tractors PTO shaft, which is used to power the equipment attached to tractor like mowers, rotary tillers, and pumps. The PTO shaft is located behind the differential of the tractor and between to 2 rear wheels. Front wheel engagement lever lever This is used to engage the front axle of tractor to improve traction. This may work in conjunction with an indicator light when engaged. Draft control lever This activates the rockshaft (lift arm) to lift and lower the implement automatically as the draft load changes when the control lever is set at the sensitive position. However, the rockshaft will remain stationary in the pre-set position if the draft control is set in the non-sensitive position. Position or height control lever This lever determines the depth of penetration of a soil engaging too! below ground level, or the height of the clearance above the ground of other types of implements such as 3pt linkage carry alls. External hydraulic control lever This is used to activate the external hydraulic system to raise or lower drawbar attached implements such as plows, trailers and buckets on mounted on the front of tractors. Drop valve This controls the speed of drop of the implement attached to the tractor. Excessive speed of the drop may cause damage or injury. Adjust the speed of drop slow enough for safe operation.6.2 Tractor indicators Engine RPM This means an allowable rpm drop of no more than 10% of the full non loaded engine speed when operating at ground speeds of 7- 8km/hr. For example, if the full throttle unloaded engine speed is 2500 rpm, then the loaded speed should not drop below 2300 rpm. If the engine speed drops by more than 200 rpm select a lower gear or lighten the Joad. Smoke Whilst excessive black or blue smoke coming from the exhaust is not always indicative of overloading, in general the load should be reduced. If this situation arises continuously then the tractor checked for excessive oil or fuel usage. Fuel consumption The fuel usage of a well maintained and operated engine can be easily calculated. Fuel consumption should not exceed the rated engine power (kW) x 0.25. This means a 30kw ( 40 hp) tractor should not use more than 7 liters / hour or a 12kW stationary engine should not use more than 3i/hr.Wheel slip levels for all wheel tractors operating in the dry farming conditions should fall in the range of 8-15%. In wet paddy situation obviously these figures will be higher and whee! slip is often used for puddling the soil when cage wheels are fitted. Tyre wear Excessive tire wear especially on front wheel assist tractors may indicate poor set up and operation. Tire wear is increased when tire pressures are not set correctly. 6.3 Safe tractor operating procedure 1. Check the tractor and implement before going to the field. Ensure that the implement is securely hitched and that tires are properly inflated. Check the oil, water and fuel level and air cleaner condition. 2. Lock the rear wheel brakes together for traveling so the wheels cannot brake separately. Do not go too fast and plan ahead especially for stoppages and when driving in congested or built up areas. 3. Upon reaching the work area, check if the field conditions are suitable for the assigned task. 4. At the field, unlock the brake pedals so wheels can brake separately for improved turning ability . 5. Do not change gears when the tractor is moving. 6. Ensure the PTO shaft is covered . Uncovered PTO shafts are a major cause of tractor accidents.7. When operating a 4-wheel drive tractor engage the front drive in the field. Do not drive on the highway with all 4 wheels driving as this may cause “wind up “which could damage the transmission. 6.4 Maintenance checks before starting the engine A maintenance check should always be undertaken before starting a_ tractor or machine. A simple way to conduct a systematic check of the different systems on a tractor is to remember WOGAM. These initials stand for water, oil, grease, air and miscellaneous. Water Check the coolant level in the radiator. Do not remove radiator cap unless the engine is cool. To check before removing the radiator cap,squeeze the radiator hose. If the hose can be easily squeezed this means that the system is not pressurized and it should be safe to remove the radiator cap. If the engine is hot turn the cap slowly to the “first stop” position and release the pressure before removing the cap. If in doubt use a rag to cover the cap and top of the radiator to stop hot water spray The water level in the battery should also be checked. Check battery electrolyte level carefully and in some instances it may be necessary to wear eye protection and rubber gloves when doing so to prevent eye and skin injury. Oil. The tractor should be parked on a level surface and the engine oil checked via the dip stick on the side. The hydraulic oil level should also be checked via the dip stick at the rear of the tractor either between the rear tires or on the side of the hydraulic housing. If the tractor incorporates an oil bath for cleaning the intake air to the engine, this should be changed when contaminated with soil or dust. Grease Lubricate standard tractor grease fittings regularly, especially when using the tractor in extremely wet and muddy or dusty conditions. Grease nipples will be found on the 3pt linkage arms, steering arms and wheel hubs Air Check tires daily for damage or low pressure. In two wheel drive tractor the front tires should be 25psi(175Kpa) and rear tires 14psi(100Kpa) while uneven 4 wheel drive should have 18psi (125Kpa) in the front tires and 14psi(100Kpa) in the rear tires. The radiator grill and must be kept screen clean. This prevents the engine from overheating and allows good air intake for the air cleaner.6.5 Selection criteria for tractor Selection of tractors depend up on following factors 1. Land holding: Under a single cropping pattern, it is normally recommended to consider 1 hp for every 2 hectare of land. In other words , one tractor 20-25 hp is suitable for 40 hectare farm 2. Cropping pattern: Generally 1.5 hectare/hp has been recommended where adequate irrigation facility are available and more than one crop is taken. So a 30-35 hp tractor is suitable for 40 hectare of land. 3. Soil condition: A tractor with less wheel base , higher ground clearance and low overall weight may work successfully in lighter soils buy will not be able to give sufficient depth in black cotton soils 4. Climatic condition: For very hot zone and desert area , air cooled engines are preferred over water cooled engines. Similarly for higher altitude air cooled engines are preferred because water cooled engines are liable to be frozen at high altitudes 5. Repair facilities: It should be ensured that the tractor to be purchased has a dealer at near by place with all the technical skills for repair and maintenance of the machine. 6. Running cost: Tractors with less specific fuel consumption should be preferred over others so that the running cost may be less. 7. Initial cost and resale value: While keeping the resale value in mind , the initial cost should not be very high, otherwise higher amount of interest have to be paid 8. Test report: Test report of tractors released from farm machinery testing stations should be consulted for guidance.Chapter 7 SPECIAL PURPOSE VEHICLE 7.1 Introduction The crux of equipment selection lies in finding the right too! for a given Job. It means ensuring that the given piece of equipment is configured in a manner that allows it to maximize its production potential as well as minimize downtime. As such, there are a number of basic considerations for selecting the right piece of equipment for any given task. 7.2 Earth moving machinery -Excaloadar - Bulldozer - wheel dozer - Traxcavator - wheel loader - Grader - Dump truck - Articulated dump truck - Rigid chassis dump truck- Scraper - Towed scraper - motor scraper1.1.1 Excaloader he (Digger-loader) Thedigger-loaderis probably themostutilised item of plant and is based on an agricultural tractor. A loading shovel ‘s mounted on the front, and a backhoe (excavator) mounted ‘on the rear. The digger loader s one of the most versatie machines used on site and can be fitted with a vast range of attachments to extend its Dasic functions. Digger loaders are used for loading materials and earth into dumpers etcand general excavations. 1.1.2 Bulldozer ey (Crawler dozer) The crawler dozer is a crawler tractor with a dozer blade fitted to the front. It is a tracklaying machine used for bul« earthmovinc, excavating, clearing scrub, spreading and levelling an also act as 2 prime mover for tewed equipment. Varicus blades can be fitted to suit @ particular application. 1.1.3 Wheel Dozer (Wheeled dozer) The wheeled dozer as the name implies is a dozer onwheels as opposed the tracks. The base machine is basically the same as the wheeled loader. Thewheeleddozerisused for bulkearthmoving, clearing scrub, spreading and leveliing etc. It is faster than the crawler dozer but has not the uitin tertieds in bait setts eines1.1.4 Traxcavator (Crawler loader) <~ Based on the crawler tractor the crawler loader is fitted with a loading shovel at the front. itis used to excavate and load in a relatively small area 1.1.5 Wheel loader (Wheeled loader) The wheeled loaders used to‘excavate (mainly from astock ple) and load vehicles or hoppers. Most modem whaelad loaders use articulated steering. Eater types: where rigid chassis wth rear wheal steering. 1.1.6 Grader (Motarised Grader) ‘The motorised graders used to finish surfaces, grade 10 fine limits, citcn cleaning and astting, cit road maintenance and various othertasks, The grader hasa Jong narrow chassis with four or six wheels. A blade (or mould board) \s fitted to an "A" frame located at the front of the chassis anc suspended at the md point by hydraulic cvinders. ‘The blade can be moved through a vast numberof positions to suit any task; up, down, left, right, rotated 360°, even at go” to the horizontal. Various other attachments can be fitted to improve its versatility1.1.7 Dump Truck gg The dump truck is used to hauland dump excavated materals. There are two main types ~ Articulated = Rigid chassis 1.1.8 Articulated Dump Truck The articulated dump truck is more manouvrabie and can be twin or triple avle design They can be used over rough terrain and on haul roads. 1.1.9 Rigid Chassis Dump Truck Rigid chassis dump trucks are normaly design and are used on well maintained haul reads They have limited rough terrain capability.1.1.10 Scraper Scrapers are used to excavate, haul and Spreac earth on large project where large amount of materia! has to be moved. ‘There are two main types of scrapers: “Towed scrapers Motorised scapers 1.1.11 Towed Scraper Thetowedscraper is towed behind acrawler tractor Ithesa large load carry ng bow! with a cutting edge ‘on the frant. The front wall of the bowl, called the apron, canbe raised or lowered allowing the cutting edge to penetrate the ground. The forward mation allows the excavated earth to flow into the bow! until Full, The apron 6 then lowered and the bow raised so that the materia! can be transported to the required place. To unload the scrapar the apron israised ard the rear ofthe bom (tailgate) s pushed or tilted to eject the material inan even ayer, The scraper is operated vie @ crawler tractor mounted winch essembly (called @ cable contro! unit) which operates the scraper functions vie steel wire rope and pulleys. Some towed scrapers are hydreulc pawered from the crawer tractor hydraulic system. Elevating Tractor Scraper1.1.12 Motor Scraper ‘The motorized scraper does the seme job as the towed scraper, but much fester. It consists of ¢ wheeled tractor unit at the front (usuelly single ade) coupled vie a kingpin or vertical hinge to the scraper unit. The scraper unit has the same basic componerts as the towed scraper with the various movements being powered hydraulically. The motonzed seraper is faster than the towed scraper but on some materials it has to beloaded withtheassistance of 2 crawler or wheeled dozer pushing at the rear (push-losdiing). Some scrapers ate single engine type with only one pritve over, other scrapers are twir engine, with a power unit at ‘vhe rear to drive the rear wheels. 1.1.13 Wheeled hydraulic Excavator ‘The wheeled hhydraulic excavator is used in many excavating operations and materials handling. As it can be driven along the public highway it dozs not recuire heavy transport to move it from site to site. Itis oot es stable as the tracked excavator anc is usually fitted with stabilizing legs. It is generally fitted out as a backhoe and the usper works rotates ‘through 350°. It can have various buckets and attachments fitted to improve its versatility. 1.1.14 Tracked hydraulic Excavator The upper part of this machine is basically the same as the wheeled hydraulic excavator and is mountad on a tracked chassis. It's used extensively for generel excavation werk. Ithas 9 slow travelling speed and requires heavy ‘transport to move it from site to site. Wheeled and Tracked hydraulic excavators use identical buckets and attachments1.1.15 Crawler Rope Excavator (Cragline} Crawler rope excavators have been used for many years and were once the baci bane of many large excavation projects. The machine is mounted on crawler tracks ang the uoper superstructure can rotate through 360°. The drive for the various excaveting arts is mechanical via winding drums (winches), chutches and brakes and is ‘transmitted to the front end equipment via scgel wire ropes. There are two main types of front end equipment; - Dragline Face shovel The Face Shovel excovates at 2 vertical face toloaddurptuds ‘The Dragiine is genzraliy used for large excavations, 1.1.16 Trenchers Tronchers are used to dig trenches over lorg distances to erable pipes, telephone cables, drainage end other services to De laid. The trencrer can be tracked or wheeled anc consists of a power unit, a continuous bucket or chain mounted on a boom. The boom Is rsised or lowered hydraulically. The buckets and chain are rotated eitner by mechanicalorhycravicdnve. Alexcavated soi ¢ dumped at cither side of the trench waa conveyor or auger. ‘The crive to the tracks or wheels may be mechenizal or rydiaulic.1.5 Materials handling - Fork lifts Handling building en¢ construction materials on sive by fork lifts is generally cone by two types af machine: = Rough Terrain Fork Lift = Telescopic Handler 1.5.1 Rough Terrain Fork Lift These machines are 2 common machine on site and are normally four wheel drive, rear wheel steer machines. They have e lifting capacity ranging from one to about ten tonnes and ere powered by a Cl engine with a mechanical, pawershift or hydrostatic drive. A wide range of attachments are available to improve the handling cape bilities