2009

CAMBODIAN WILDLIFE: A survey of

primates and nocturnal mammals in
Phnom Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary,
Cardamom Mountains.

Camille
Coudrat
Lara Rogers
Social Sciences & Law
Oxford Brookes University
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Cambodia is home to a large variety of biodiversity (Smith, 2001),

however the full extent of plant and mammal density is largely unknown
for most areas. Previous researchers working in the Cardamom Mountains
have focused on large diurnal mammals and conducted most of their
surveys in evergreen forests at higher elevations (Daltry & Momberg
2000). Their findings suggested the habitats were largely intact and the
mammal populations were thriving (Momberg, Daltry & Appleton 2000). In
this study we chose to focus on the nocturnal mammals and diurnal
primates of the Samkos basin as these groups are understudied and their
relative densities virtually unknown.

This project was made possible with the collaboration of the Ministry of
Environment (MoE) and Fauna and Flora International (FFI). It was
conducted in the Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary during five weeks in the rainy
season between May and June 2009, a protected forest area situated in
the Cardamom Mountains of north west Cambodia, encompassing
3338km2 (Daltry & Momberg, 2000). The research was based in a lowland
area inside the Samkos WS called the ‘Samkos Basin’ (Webb, 2005). The
Samkos basin contains the majority of the last unlogged lowland forest in
Cambodia (Webb, 2005).

The findings of this study paint a different picture to that of the last
biodiversity report published in 2000. A total of seven nocturnal mammal
species were encountered during the study period including the Bengal
slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis), common palm civet (Paradoxurus
hermaphroditus), masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), lesser mouse deer
(Tragulus kanchil), northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), giant flying
squirrel (Petaurista spp) and red spiny rat (Maxomys surifer). One leopard
cat (Prionailurus bengalensis) was seen and one fishing cat (Prionailurus
viverrinus) was heard outside of survey times. All mammals occurred in
low densities except for the common palm civet, which appeared to be at
similar density reported for other study sites (Datta et al 2008).
In addition, we confirmed the occurrence of four diurnal primates from
visual identification. The Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus
germaini) was the species the most seen followed by the pileated gibbon
(Hylobates pileatus), the long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis) and
the pig-tailed macaque (M. leonina). Only the stump-tailed macaque (M.
arctoides) was not confirmed to be present, which is consistent with the
previous surveys in the area (Long & Swan, 2000). Animals showed an
overall preference for the lowland evergreen forest except for the Bengal
slow loris, which inhabited the dry dipterocarp forest and the grassland
adjacent to it.

The Samkos basin exhibits large negative effects from anthropogenic

activities such as logging, agriculture, burning and non-timber forest
product collection. Since this project, illegal logging activities in the area
have risen dramatically. These factors are extremely threatening to the

ii
remaining wildlife inhabiting the Samkos basin and as the population of
the surrounding villages increases so will the threats to the wildlife.

There is a pressing need for continued research into the densities of

mammals in and around the Samkos WS, and into the behaviour and
ecology of these species in order to compile an action plan for their
conservation. A burning cycle plan needs to be put into effect and strictly
followed to preserve the evergreen forest that is left and to halt the
conversion of dry dipterocarp forest into grassland.

iii
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We would like to extend our thanks and gratitude to all whose help, guidance and
support has made this project possible:

This project could not have succeeded without our supervisor Dr. Anna Nekaris;
we thank her for her determination, passion, and precious advices and guidance.
Our thanks go as well to all other lecturers of the MSc Primate Conservation
program who provided us valuable knowledge on conservation matters and
supported us in the completion of the project; in particular Dr. Vincent Nijman,
Dr. Simon Bearder and Dr. Giuseppe Donati.

The present research was conducted with the collaboration of Fauna & Flora
International (FFI) Cambodia Program in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary, Cardamom
Mountains, southwest Cambodia. We are grateful to FFI’s staff for recognising the
potential in this project and facilitated the logistic process with authorisations
from the government and permissions to access the study site. I would
specifically like to thank Oliver Nelson, Emily Woodfield, Tim Wood, Neang Thy,
Choun Phirom and especielly Toby Eastoe for answering our numerous requests
throughout the writing up of the present document.

We greatly thank the Ministry of Environment who allowed access to the study
site and helped during the project.

We thank Eam Sam Un for helping us with logistics at the beginning of the
research.

We would like to extend a special thank you to Carly Starr who provided endless
information for the achievement of the project and for sharing her research
equipment.

We are extremely thankful to various contributors who offered us pertinent

information and comments, in no particular order: Ben Rawson, Roth Bunthoeun,
Tom Evans, Will Duckworth, Jula Zimmermann, Andrew Maxwell and Khou Eang
Hourt.

iv
We want to express gratitude to Primate Conservation Inc. for providing funding
for the fieldwork of this project.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE
PAGE...........................................................................................
........................................i
EXECUTIVE
SUMMARY....................................................................................
..........................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS..................................................................
...........................................iii
TABLE OF
CONTENTS...................................................................................
.............................iv
LIST OF
TABLES........................................................................................
...................................v
LIST OF
FIGURES......................................................................................
...................................vi
LIST OF
PLATES........................................................................................
...................................vii
LIST OF
ABBREVIATIONS...........................................................................
..............................viii

CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK...............................................................................
1
1.1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................
............................................1
1.2 STUDY
SITE................................................................................................................
...................................1
1.2.1
Cambodia......................................................................................................
..............................................1
1.2.2 Cardamom Mountains and Samkos Wildlife
Sanctuary.........................................................3

CHAPTER 2: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF THE NOCTURNAL

MAMMALS

v
OF THE SAMKOS BASIN IN THE CARDAMOM MOUNTAINS,
CAMBODIA ......................6
2.1
INTRODUCTION..............................................................................................
.............................................6
2.2 RESEARCH
METHODS......................................................................................................
.........................6
2.2.1 Survey
method..........................................................................................................
...............................6
2.2.Behaviour
sampling........................................................................................................
...........................7
2.2.3 Statistical
analysis..........................................................................................................
.........................8
2.3.
AIMS………………………………………………………………………………................
...................................8
2.4
RESULTS........................................................................................................
.................................................8
2.5
DISCUSSION...................................................................................................
.............................................12
2.6
RECOMMENDATIONS.....................................................................................
........................................14

CHAPTER 3: CAMBODIAN PRIMATES : AN UPDATE ON THE

OCCURRENCE
OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN SAMKOS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,
CARDAMOM
MOUNTAINS………………………………………………………………………………
…………...................15
3.1 INTRODUCTION
…………………………………………………………………………………………..........
15
3.2
METHODS......................................................................................................
..............................................18
3.2.1Survey
methodology..................................................................................................
..........................18
3.2.2Data
analysis..........................................................................................................
..................................18
3.3
RESULTS........................................................................................................
...............................................19

vi
3.4
DISCUSSION...................................................................................................
.............................................21
3.5
RECOMMENDATIONS…………………………………………………………................
............................25

CHAPTER 4:
REFERENCES……………………………………………………………………..........
……..27

APPENDICES................................................................................
...................................................31
APPENDIX 1.VEGETATION
SAMPLING……………………………………………...........................33
APPENDIX 2. PRIMATE SIGHTINGS DURING THE WHOLE STUDY PERIOD.
…………………38

vii
LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Ethogram: Descriptions of behavioural categories at first

contact...................7

Table 2.2 Relative abundance and density estimates for all species
encountered across the study area in Samkos Wildlife
Sanctuary....................9

Table 3.1 Priority status for primate species of conservation concern in

Cambodia....................................................................................
....................24

Table A.1 Species richness and density estimates for the two different
habitat
types..........................................................................................
.....................34

Table A.2 Complexity, connectivity and connectivity levels for the two
habitat
types...........................................................................................
.....................35

Table A.3 Percentage of small medium and large trees (measured by

height)
within the two different
habitats....................................................................35

Table A.4 List of trees sampled in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary including

number encountered, Khmer name and Latin name where
possible. Trees are listed in alphabetical order of Khmer
name....................36

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Figure1.1 Map of Cambodia showing the Mekong River, which flows from
north to south, the Tonle Sap lake in the centre and
mountainous
areasto the north and south
west.....................................................................2

Figure1.2 Location of Samkos wildlife Sanctuary within the Cardamom

Mountains and locality in
Cambodia.................................................................4

Figure 2.1 Map of the position of Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary within

Cambodia
(inset right), The location of the study site within Samkos WS
(right)
and sightings of nocturnal mammals on transects within the
study area
(left).................................................................................................9

Figure 2.2 Percentage occurrence in lowland evergreen forest and dry

dipterocarp forest for individual
species.........................................................10

Figure 2.3 Percentage of time individuals spent in specific behaviours

at the point of first
contact.............................................................................11

Figure 3.1 Primates sighted in the study area in Samkos WS in May

2009 including sightings during census time and opportunistic
sightings. Start and end of each ten transects are represented
with a blue circle. Each primate species is represented with
a different symbol (see
legend).......................................................................21

ix
LIST OF PLATES

Plate 1.1 Dry dipterocarp

grassland……………………………………………………………………………3

Plate 3.1 Indochinese silvered langur infant caught for primate

trade, Pramoy village, April
2009....................................................................20

Plate 3.2 Illegal logging during a patrol in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary,

August
2009.....................................................................................................
22

x
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ADP Asia Development Bank

a.s.l Above sea level

BUAV British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection

CBH Circumference at Breast Height

CI Conservation International

DBH Diameter at Breast Height

DD forest Dry dipterocarp forest

FFI Fauna Flora International

IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature

LE forest Lowland evergreen forest

MAFF Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries

MoE Ministry of Environment

MLMUPC Ministry of Land Management Urban Planning and Construction

NIS National Institute of Statistics

UNEP United Nations Environmental Programme

SBCA Seima Biodiversity Conservation Area

WA Wildlife Alliance

WCS Wildlife Conservation Society

WS Wildlife Sanctuary

WWF World Wildlife fund

xi
CHAPTER 1: CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

1.1. INTRODUCTION
‘The global decline of biodiversity is now recognised as one of the most
serious environmental issues facing humanity’ (Smith, 2001pp. iii.).
Biodiversity plays an important role in supporting local communities, by
providing for their economic, ecological and cultural needs. The full scale
of the biodiversity of Cambodia is still unknown, however it is thought to
contain high diversity due to its tropical location and low population
density with large areas of natural forests still intact (Smith, 2001).

Cambodia has recently emerged from years of violent conflict that have
prevented any scientific exploration of its natural areas. As the situation
has stabilised (Long & Swan, 2000) more research is being carried out and
a clearer picture of the diversity of flora and fauna is appearing.

War has varying effects on the natural resources of a country and can be
both negative and positive. The war in Cambodia has had disastrous
effects on both human livelihoods and the ecosystems on which they
depend (McNeely, 2003), especially in terms of the illegal logging trade
promoted both by military commanders and by the government who view
the forest as a supplemental source of income. Logging in the forests is
proceeding at a rate that the Asian Development Bank say could, within
five years, clear all the forests of economically useful timber (McNeely,
2003). The cessation of war in Cambodia saw a large repopulation of
many areas by returning refugees (Smith, 2001). This influx of people is
putting strains on areas that were previously uninhabited as they clear
land for housing and farms (Long, Swan & Masphal, 2000).

Conversely, war has managed to keep many areas of Cambodia’s forest

intact (Momberg, Daltry & Appleton, 2000); a 52.9% forest coverage for
the country overall makes Cambodia one of the most forested countries of
the Indo-China bioregion (Tani et al, 2007). The Cardamom Mountains are
one such area that has been preserved through the actions of war. As this
area was a stronghold for the Khmer Rouge (Webb, 2005) it was heavily
mined along roads, rivers and boundaries of areas deemed important
(Daltry & Momberg,2000). Mines have resulted in a lack of human
encroachment, which has allowed much of the biodiversity to remain
intact. The Cardamom Mountains have been recognised by The Royal
Cambodian Government and many International organisations as a
primary area to preserve Cambodia’s flora and fauna (Smith, 2000). In
their Cardamom Mountains biodiversity report, Long, Swan & Masphal
(2000) confirm the high proportion of Cambodia’s wildlife, including a
large percentage of Cambodia’s endemic plant species (Momberg &
Daltry, 2000) and a large number of globally threatened taxa.

1.2. STUDY SITE

1.2.1. Cambodia
Cambodia is a tropical country located in Southeast Asia. The country
consists of 24 provinces (NIS, 2008) and shares borders with Thailand to
the west and north, Laos to the north, Vietnam to the north and south and
the Gulf of Thailand to the west. The total landmass of Cambodia is
181,035 km2 (ADB, 2000), which makes it the second smallest country in
Asia (Smith, 2001). The major geographical features of Cambodia include
the Mekong river, which flows from north to south and provides a
zoogeographical boundary, Boeng Tonle Sap (Great Lake), their floodplains
and some mountainous areas to the southwest and the north (ADP, 2000;
Lawrence, 2004; Traeholt et al, 2005) (Figure 1.1). Cambodia’s forest
cover is higher than any other in the Indo-china bioregion and is currently
estimated at around 52.9%. The country is unique in still having forest in
the lowland plains (Tani et al, 2007).

Figure 1.1: Map of Cambodia showing the Mekong River, which flows from north
to south, the Tonle Sap lake in the centre and mountainous areas to the north
and south west.

13
The total population of Cambodia is 13,388,910 people (NIS, 2008), the
majority of the population is ethnic Cambodian (90%) with the rest made
up from Vietnamese, Chinese and other minority groups (Traeholt et al,
2005). The population is slowly extracting itself from many years of war,
isolation, genocide and hardship during which well over 1.5 million people
died and many more fled the country (Zimmer & Kim, 2002). One of the
most significant effects of the war was the devastation of forests and the
wildlife that inhabits it (Le Billon, 2000). McKenny et al. (2004) claimed
that forest cover has decreased dramatically since the 1960s due to
uncontrolled logging during the war (as sited in: Momberg & Weiler,1999)
and the legal and illegal logging that continues today at approximately
seven times the sustainable level (Smith, 2001). After the war there was a
massive repopulation of the country by refugees who had fled to
neighbouring countries. The majority of these refugees returned to their
own villages in the rural areas. The rural areas still account for 90% of the
total population and many have no access to suitable or sustainable water
resources (Turton, 2000).

The rural communities living in and around the forests are almost wholly
dependent on the forest for their food, fodder, fuel, shelter and medicine
(Heng & Key, 1995). Encroachment on the forests by these villagers is
significant and extremely damaging to the natural ecosystem. Indeed,
agriculture is the most dominant sector for villagers who clear patches of
forest for farming (rice is the principal crop) and for cattle grazing (ADB,
2000; Turton, 2000). Hunting of animals from the forest is low in
comparison to that in other neighbouring countries; however, with the
growing trade in illegal wildlife, the trend is rapidly increasing (ADB, 2000;
Daltry & Momberg, 2000).

Cambodians rely heavily on traditional medicine (Smith, 2001).

Cambodians have one of the world’s lowest rates of use of their health
care system due to it being inaccessible to most of the population
(Walston & Ashwell, 2008). Most villages have access to western
medicines, however these are extremely expensive in comparison to
traditional medicines, which are also more easily accessible and widely
trusted (Walston & Ashton, 2008). Cambodians utilize up to 931 different
species in traditional medicine of which 576 are plants and at least 49 are
animal species (Walston & Ashwell, 2008; Starr et al., in press).

1.2.2 Cardamom Mountains and Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary

14
The Cardamom Mountains are one of the most dominant geographical
features of Cambodia, consisting of three mountain complexes: Mount
Samkos, Central Cardamom Mountains and Mount Aural (Momberg &
Weiler, 1999). Mount Samkos reaches 1717 m a.s.l. and Mount Aural,
which is the highest point in Cambodia, reaches 1771 m a.s.l. (Long &
Swan, 2000). Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary (Samkos WS) and Phnom Aural
Wildlife Sanctuary were recognised through a Royal Decree in November
1999 establishing them as National Protected Areas (Lawrence et al,
2004).
Plate 1.1: Dry dipterocarp grassland

The study was carried out in Samkos WS, a protected forest area situated
in the Cardamom Mountains of south west Cambodia (Figure 1.2). Samkos
WS encompasses 3338 km2 (Daltry & Momberg, 2000). The study was
based in a lowland area which has been called the ‘Samkos Basin’ (Webb,
2005): the camp site was at 12°21’N and 103°07’E measured by GPS

(Garmin eTrex Vista HCx).

15
Figure 1.2: Location of Samkos wildlife Sanctuary within the Cardamom
Mountains and locality in Cambodia. © FFI

The dominant vegetation type in this area is dry dipterocarp forest, which,
through years of selective logging and over burning (Webb, 2000), has
deteriorated into grassland in some areas (Plate 1.1). Semi-evergreen and
evergreen forests occur but are by no means as prevalent. Temperatures
range between 14-34°C (Eastoe, pers.comm.), with lower temperatures
being characteristic at night. Long & Swan (2000, pp. 13) state that the
Cardamom Mountains are the ‘rainiest place in Cambodia’, with an annual

16
average annual rainfall between 3,000 and 4,000 mm (Daltry & Momberg,
2000; and Rollet, 1972).This study was conducted just after the onset of
the rainy season.

17
CHAPTER 2: A PRELIMINARY SURVEY OF
THE NOCTURNAL MAMMALS OF THE SAMKOS
BASIN IN THE CARDAMOM MOUNTAINS,
CAMBODIA

Lara Rogers, D.

2.1. INTRODUCTION

Most research on the biodiversity of the Cardamom Mountains to date has

focused on the large diurnal mammals (Long, Swan & Masphal, 2000).
There are over 4500 mammal species across the globe and Cambodia is
thought to have at least 100 terrestrial mammal species (Smith, 2001).
Research suggests that the Cardamom Mountains could have up to 50
different mammals with species from all families (Momberg & Daltry,
2000).

The number of large mammals in an area is a good indicator of how

healthy that ecosystem is (Momberg & Dalty, 2000), as large mammals
are extremely vulnerable to habitat loss. This feature is one factor
contributing to a bias towards the study of large mammals to the
exclusion of others (Chetana & Ganesh, 2007). Indeed, in the Cardamom
Mountains, excellent population estimates for the large felids, bovines and
elephants are available (Momberg et al 2000).

Small mammals, too, play a hugely important role in the forest

communities, contributing to energy flow and nutrient cycling. They also
provide an important prey base for the larger carnivores in the area.
Despite their importance, no study to date has quantified the abundance
of small mammals in the Cardamom Mountains. We therefore aimed to
estimate abundance and ecological correlates of those smaller bodied
nocturnal mammals that were identifiable without the aid of trapping.

2.2 RESEARCH METHODS

2.2.1 Survey method

The nocturnal mammal survey was carried out by one researcher and one
guide with the use of red filtered Petzl Zoom 4.5v headlamps (Petzl,
Crolles, France). Observers were spaced at least 10 m apart, moving at a
speed of 500-1000 m/hr. All levels of the vegetation were scanned to
detect animals visually from their eyeshine (Tapetum lucidum). A red
filter was used as previous studies of nocturnal mammals (Duckworth,
1998), other prosimians (Charles-Dominique and Bearder,1979) and
lorises (Nekaris, 2003; Nekaris & Jayewardene, 2004; Streicher, 2004;

18
Nekaris et al., 2008) have found greater numbers using red rather than
white light, as these lights are far less disturbing to the animals. A total of
ten randomly selected transects, each 1 km long were walked twice, once
between 19:00 and midnight and two weeks later between midnight and
04:00.

On location of an animal the following data were recorded: transect

length, number of individuals sighted, perpendicular distance of animal
from transects, habitat type, and behaviour at first contact (Table 2.1).
Transects 1-4 were in lowland evergreen forest (LE forest) and transects 5-
10 were placed in an area which was mostly dry dipterocarp forest (DD
forest).

The indices used for assessing the relative abundance of nocturnal

mammals were the linear encounter rate per kilometre and density (the
number of animals encountered per square kilometre. Density (D) was
estimated following the formula D=n/2wl, where (w) is the strip width
determined by the furthest observations on either side of the transect line
and (l) is the length of the transect and (n) is the number of loris observed
(Sutherland, 2002).

2.2.2 Behaviour sampling

Systematic data collection took place between May and June 2009 using
focal animal sampling (Altmann, 1974) and instantaneous point sampling
with data recorded at the end of five minute intervals (c.f. Nekaris, 2001;
Nekaris & Rasmussen, 2003). Lorises were oportunistically sampled
(Abernethy, 2000) from searches along transects and the main road using
a combination of red and white light, observations were only conducted
with red lights. Catagories of behaviour were adapted from Gursky, 2003;
Nekaris, 2001 and are detailed in Table 2.1.

Table. 2.1: Ethogram: Descriptions of behavioural categories at first contact

(adapted from Nekaris, 2001; Gursky, 2003).

Activity Description
Resting Body immobile and not involved in activity
Assume specific position for sleep ‘Schlafkügel’ and is not alert to
Sleeping
environmental changes
Moving Any mobile activity
Separated from resting as animal is distracted/ concentrating by/on
Alert
factors in the environment
Feeding Consumption of animal or plant matter
Less frequent behaviours such as grooming, social interaction and
Other vocalization were grouped into one category.

19
When feeding events were observed on an instantaneous sample point,
data were collected on the food item consumed, feeding behaviour and
tree species fed on if food was vegetation. Tree species that lorises were
found in were identified on site or flagged for later identification if
unknown.

During the study period the sun set by 19:30 and began to rise at 04:20.
As Bengal slow lorises are fully nocturnal, observations took place
between 20:00 to 04:00 hours.

2.2.3. Statistical Analyses

All data were tested for normality with a Komolgorov-Smirnov test. We
analysed Data not meeting the criteria for normality with non-parametric
tests, and present medians and interquartile ranges. For normal data,
when means are presented they are coupled with standard errors rather
than standard deviations due to the relatively small sample size.

2.3 AIMS

I. To document the distribution and density of the Bengal slow loris and all
other nocturnal mammals in Samkos WS.
II. To gain knowledge about the activity budget of the species and
understanding of their habitat use.
III. To assess whether or not Samkos WS as a centre of importance for
conservation of mammal species.

2.4 RESULTS

A total of seven different species were encountered during the survey. The
mammals encountered belong to four different orders and six separate
families (in brackets); Artiodactyla (Cervidae, Tragulidae), Carnivora
(Viverridae), Primates (Lorisidae), Rodentia (Muridae, Sciurridae). Species
included Northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis), lesser mouse deer
(Tragulus kanchil), common palm civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus),
masked palm civet (Paguma larvata), Bengal slow loris (Nycticebus
bengalensis), giant flying squirrel (Petaurista spp) and red spiny rat
(Maxomys surifer). All species are classified Least Concern except for the
Bengal slow loris which is classified as Vulnerable (IUCN, 2008). On one
occasion, not during the survey, a leopard cat (Prionailurus bengalensis),
was seen in a tree in the dipterocarp forest and a fishing cat (Prionailurus
viverrinus) was heard (identification by guides) at the river behind camp.
Both are from the order Carnivora, family Felidae. Animals were observed
randomly along all transects (Figure 2.1).

20
Figure 2.1: Map of the position of Samkos WS within Cambodia (inset right),
The location of the study site within Samkos WS (right) and sightings of nocturnal
mammals on transects within the study area (left)

Lesser mouse deer:

Tragulus kanchil was the most commonly seen species
of the survey. The relative abundance of lesser mouse
deer at Samkos WS was 0.80/km (Table 2.2). Tragulus
kanchil was observed in both LE forest and DD forest
but showed preference for LE forest (63%) (Figure 2.2).
Lesser mouse deer were always observed in dense undergrowth showing
no concern for the observers who could ©WCS
regularly approach to within 2 m. On one occasion two lesser mouse deer
were seen foraging together (social interaction); the rest of the contact
records were relatively equally distributed between moving feeding and
resting (Figure 2.3).

Table 2.2 : Relative abundance and density estimates for all species
encountered across the study
area in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary.
No.
Distance Linear Density
Animals
walked encounter (animals/
encounte
(km) rate /kma km2)a
red
Lesser mouse
20 14 0.8±0.26 33.33±5.64
deer
Common palm
20 7 0.35±0.17 14.58±3.49
civet
Giant flying 20 3 0.15±0.08 6.25±1.59

21
 squirrel
Northern red
20 1 0.05±0.05 2.08±1.04
muntjac
Red spiny rat 20 2 0.15±0.07 4.17±1.39
Masked palm
20 1 0.05±0.05 2.08±1.04
civet
Bengal slow loris 20 9 0.45±0.08 18.75±8.48
Nb. All encounter rates and density estimates are rounded 2 degrees of freedom.
a
Means with standard error.
Common palm civet:
A total of seven common palm civets were
encountered during the survey producing a
mean linear encounter rate of 0.35/km
(Table 2.2). Paradoxurus hermaphroditus
was observed in both LE forest and DD
forest, but were most often encountered (86%) in LE forest (Figure 2.2).
©WCS The civets were encountered in
trees most of the time apart from on two occasions when they were seen
walking on the ground. Behaviour at first contact varied with the most
common being alert due to being disturbed by the observers (Figure 2.3).
On one occasion they were seen feeding on fruit from an unknown tree
species. All other behaviours observed were moving and resting (Figure
2.3).

Giant flying squirrel.

22
Three giant squirrels (Petaurista spp) were encountered during the study
period, producing a mean linear encounter rate of 0.15/km (Table 2.2). It
was impossible to determine the species due to the extreme height of the
trees in which they were found (15, 17, 19 m). They occurred mainly in
the DD forest (67%) (Figure 2.2) and were either feeding on what was
presumed to be fruit (67%) or resting (33%) (Figure 2.3).

Northern red muntjac.

One northern red muntjac (Muntiacus vaginalis) was
encountered in the LE forest and was feeding at the time of
contact. Nightly throughout the study they were heard
‘barking’ and were often seen out of survey time, in both LE
forest and DD forest suggesting the density could be much
higher than the 0.05/km (Table 2.2) recorded during the study period.
Future studies ©WCS should consider employing a triangulation
method of density estimation for this highly vocal species.

Red spiny rat.

Two red spiny rats (Maxomys surifer) were encountered
during the study, producing an abundance estimate of 0.15/
km (Table 2.2), one in LE forest and one in DD forest (Figure
2.2). On the point of contact they were both moving
(Figure 2.3); they were not necessarily startled by the observers as they

23
moved around the dense undergrowth and did not flee.
©antbase.net

Masked palm civet.

One masked palm civet (Paguma larvata) was
encountered producing a relative abundance of
0.05/km (Table 2.2). The civet was found in LE
forest (Figure 2.3), high in a tree where it was
making considerable noise as it moved around.
©WCS

Bengal slow loris.

Nycticebus bengalensis was the second must abundant
nocturnal mammal encountered at Samkos WS; the
linear encounter rate for this species was 0.45/km (Table
2.2). Nycticebus bengalensis were mainly encountered
in the DD forest habitat (67%) (Figure 2.2) with a large
proportion of them occurring in the grasslands
connected to the DD forest. All three observations of the
loris in LE forest were in the later surveys between midnight and 3am.
The behaviour at first contact ©Charlotte Packman
records showed the lorises spend most of their time resting (56%) and
then equal amounts of time being alert or moving (33%) (Figure 2.3). It is
important to note that this species was the main focus of the research at
Samkos WS, which could have negatively affected encounter rates of other
mammals.

2.5 DISCUSSION

Densities of all nocturnal mammals were low in the basin of Samkos WS,
except for the common palm civet, which was seen to occur at average
densities of 33.3/km2. Similar densities were observed in another study of
six civet species (Datta et al 2008). We propose that the relatively low
densities of nocturnal mammal species are due to the abundance of DD
forest and grassland over the Samkos Basin, which reflect a change of
habitat from the evergreen forest that used to predominate.

Lorises are presumed to inhabit areas with continuous canopy which is

thought to be essential for their smooth movement through the trees and
could also be an important factor in determining primate abundance
(Nekaris et al, in press). The vegetation in evergreen forest and dry
dipterocarp forest in Samkos WS are therefore ideal. A large proportion of
the lorises however were found in dipterocarp grassland. The habitat has
trees with either minimal or no connectors and there are no lianas or
saplings to aid movement around them. The lorises in this area were
regularly observed moving from tree to tree via the thick grass: this
suggests that there is not a need for continuous canopy but for continuous
cover or substrate on which to grasp, be it the canopy or grass.

24
There are a number of possible explanations for the Bengal slow loris
moving out to this habitat, one being the greater abundance of flying
insects during the earlier parts of the evening, which they were observed
catching. There is an increase in light availability, which attracts insects
and enables this active prey to be more easily caught. Another
explanation could be a decrease of predators in the area. Lorises are
presumed to be predated on by reptiles such as snakes (Wiens &
Zitzmann, 1999), civets and owls (Bearder, et al 2002). Of all the civet
sightings, not one was in the DD forest. Other studies have found that
civets prefer evergreen forests and put this occurrence down to a lower
abundance of known food items in the DD forest (Rabinowitz, 1991).
Studies of lesser mouse deer in Cambodia have found them to be entirely
absent from DD forests especially in areas that are regularly burnt
(Timmins et al, 2009). In our study lesser mouse deer were found on
transects deemed DD forest, however they only inhabited extremely thick
patches of forest.

Cambodia is unique in still having forest in the lowland plains (Tani et al,
2007). These areas are at greater risk from human encroachment than
any in the Cardamom Mountains. There is a high probability that many of
the areas that are now DD forest used to be semi evergreen forests
(Smith, 2001), and have developed due to human habitation and
excessive burning. Dipterocarp forest varies from closed canopy to very
sparse grassland, which is a result of too frequent fires (Webb, 2005).
Further increases in the population of Cambodia could pose a drastic
threat to the DD forest and LE forest in this area and to the species that
inhabit it. Villagers in Cambodia rely heavily on non-timber products for
survival especially during times when the rice yield is poor (Lawrence et
al., 2004). Roughly 100,000 people living around forested areas make a
living from resin tapping of Dipterocarp tree species such as Choeuteal
(Dipterocarpus alutus). Villagers could put excessive strain on the forest
areas around Samkos WS and could begin to harvest timber and non-
timber forest products at an unsustainable level.

Since the end of our research in Samkos WS there has been a large
increase in illegal logging activity in the area (Eastoe, pers.comm.). Illegal
logging in Cambodia poses a threat to all forest habitats. Areas with easy
access and close to human settlements are more at risk (Lawrence et al,
2004). Samkos WS has an unpaved road, which provides access to
vehicles through the wildlife sanctuary via Pramaoy (village) to the Thai
boarder and is surrounded by settlements (Daltry & Momberg, 2000). The
legal logging extraction is approximately 250,000m3/year and, combined
with illegal logging at about the same rate, puts the extraction for
Cambodia almost seven times above the sustainable rate (Smith, 2001).
Logging poses serious threats to mammal species as it affects the
dispersal of food available resources (Johns,1986) and in the worst cases
leads to complete habitat loss, which, in turn, has disastrous effects on
small mammal populations (Entwistle & Stephenson 2000).

25
A knock on effect of illegal logging is the increase in hunting. There are
three different scales of hunting occurring in Cambodia: subsistence,
sideline and organized. Within areas of illegal logging it is the sideline
hunting that increases. Loggers carry guns for protection and loan them
to villagers to assist in the hunting of wildlife. They may also hunt wildlife
themselves (Lawrence et al., 2004). Hunting is low in Cambodia compared
to other countries (Smith, 2001), however it is on the increase. With the
spread of the wildlife trade, Cambodia has shifted from a local market to
an international one, due to increased access from logging tracks that
allow transport of a larger mass of wildlife (Lawrence, 2004) that can be
sold to neighboring countries as well as locally. All species of mammal
found in this survey, bar the red spiny rat, have been found in the markets
either dead or alive and have been confiscated by TRAFFIC (Walston &
Ashwell 2008). By far the most prevalent of these species is the Bengal
slow loris, which is used in Cambodia for traditional medicine. Due to the
high off-take rates of slow loris and their ongoing popularity in traditional
medicine within and around Cambodia they were recently transferred from
Appendix II to Appendix I of CITES (Nekaris & Nijman, 2007). The lesser
mouse deer and the northern red muntjac have been shown to be adept at
surviving in areas of very heavy hunting (Timmins et al, 2009 a; Timmins et
al, 2009b). However, even small-scale hunting can result in a dramatic
decrease in numbers because they already occurring low densities (Datta
et al., 2008).

Large mammals have been the focus of most of the research conducted in
Samkos WS. What little effort that has gone into studying the smaller
nocturnal mammals had suggested that the populations were thriving
(Daltry and Momberg, 2000). This study shows that this is an area where
we should be worried, at least in the Samkos basin where the densities are
low and the human impact high. Large mammals appeal to the general
public, making them useful flagship species (Brodie, 2009). Smaller
species, however, may have more specific habitat needs that are not
catered for (Nekaris et al, 2008) in the conservation plan of the more
charismatic flagship species. Conservation is proving successful for these
high profile endangered species but lack of similar attention may result in
higher extinction risks for less popular species (Entwistle & Stephenson,
2000).

2.6. RECOMMENDATIONS

• More detailed surveys of the density of nocturnal mammal

populations need to be undertaken over a larger area of the Samkos
basin, especially in newly logged areas, to determine the extent of
the impact on existing species
• Produce a burning cycle for the dry dipterocarp forest and ensure
that the villagers adhere to it. Too much burning in this area could
decrease the amount of lowland evergreen forest and turn dry
dipterocarp forest into more extensive grassland. This could have a

26
 detrimental effect on the remaining nocturnal
mammals that show preference for the LE forest

CHAPTER 3: CAMBODIAN PRIMATES: AN UPDATE

ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIURNAL PRIMATES IN
SAMKOS WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, CARDAMOM
MOUNTAINS.

Camille Coudrat, N. Z.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

In this chapter we give an update on the presence of diurnal primates in

the Cardamom Mountains. The last survey of all primate taxa in the area
was carried out a decade ago (Long & Swan, 2000). A more recent study
focussed on gibbons and portrayed grave results; using VORTEX
simulation, the gibbon population in Samkos WS was estimated to decline
drastically in the next 40-50 years if “habitat loss were to continue at a
similar level as between 1997-2002” (Traeholt et al., 2005 p.31).

27
As habitat loss should affect all primate species, monitoring of this
important conservation area is critical, as it is said to harbour six of eleven
Cambodian primate taxa. We thus aimed to provide an update to the last
primate survey in the Cardamom Mountains, and to assess the present
status and distribution of these species in Cambodia. In order to reach
these aims, two objectives were fixed before the study:
• To conduct a survey on foot of primate species in Samkos WS
• To evaluate potential threats that primate species are facing in the
area

To date, nine diurnal taxa of primates are confirmed to occur in Cambodia,

of which eight are in danger of extinction (IUCN, 2008). We present in the
next section the global status of each species occurring in Cambodia.
Because of a lack of knowledge on Cambodian primates, a definitive status
and distribution at a national level is not yet available. National range
presented in the following section is based on the most recent confirmed
records.

All wildlife species considered as “rare and endangered” are protected by

law in Cambodia (Anon, 2002 in Walston & Ashwell, 2005 p.16). In
addition, the forestry law “ensures the sustainable management of forests
for their social, economic and environment benefits, including
conservation of biological diversity and cultural heritage” (MLMUPC
Cambodia, 2002 Article 1: p.1). Global status Categories and Criteria of
each species follow the classification of IUCN (2008). Global range is
retrieved from Brandon-Jones et al. (2004). We follow the last classification
from Groves (2001) and from Roos et al. for Trachypithecus genus.

Since the last primate survey, phylogenetic and field surveys have
increased Cambodian primate species to 11. A new phylogenetic analysis
suggests that two different species belong to the genus Trachypithecus in
Cambodia: the Indochinese silvered langur, T. germaini being confined
west of the Mekong River, and the Annamese silvered langur, T. margarita,
restricted east of the Mekong River (Roos et al., 2008; Nadler et al., 2007).
In 2008, Rawson and Roos (2008) reported the presence of a red-shanked
douc langur (P. nemaeus) in Ratanakiri Province, northeast of Cambodia
(Rawson & Roos, 2008). As these species were not Red Listed for
Cambodia, conservation action plans need to be set.

In previous reports, pig-tailed macaques occurring in Cambodia were

considered as Macaca nemestrina synonym of M. leonina. However, M.
nemestrina and M. leonina are now separated at the species level: the
Sundaland pig-tailed macaque, M. nemestrina occurs in Brunei, Indonesia
(Kalimantan), Malaysia (Peninsular Malaysia, Sabah) and Thailand
(Richardson et al., 2008) whereas the Northern pig-tailed macaque, M.
leonina occurs in Bangladesh, Cambodia, China, India, Lao PDR, Myanmar,
Thailand and Viet Nam (Boonratana et al., 2008). Similarly, the Bengal
slow loris, Nycticebus bengalensis, was previously synonymous with N.

28
coucang, making it the second of two loris species in Cambodia (with N.
pygmaeus) – see previous Chapter..

In the last primate survey report, the rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta)
and the grey-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix cinerea) were considered as
potentially occurring in Cambodia although no record had been made
proving their occurrence. To date, their presence is still not confirmed in
Cambodia. Thus, we did not include them in our report. The presence of
new species is however considered.

Slow loris (Nycticebus bengalensis)

Global range: Bhutan, Burma, Cambodia, Southern China,
Northeastern India, Laos, Thailand (north of the
Isthmus of Kra), Vietnam
National range: West of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains,
Samkos WS (Rogers, Unpublished data; Long & Swan,
2000; Boonratana, 1999).
East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri
Provinces (reported from local people: Long, Swan &
Marshal, 2000), but never seen by Starr (Starr, pers.
comm.)
Global conservation status: Vulnerable A2acd+3cd+4acd (IUCN, 2008)

Pygmy slow loris (Nycticebus pygmaeus)

Global range: Eastern Cambodia, Southern China, Laos, Vietnam
National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri province (Long
& Swan, 2000; in SBCA: Starr, 2009; Starr et al., in
review).
Global conservation status: Vulnerable A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

Northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina)

Global range: Eastern Bangladesh, Burma, Cambodia (inferred),
China (Southestern Yunnan), India (Eastern Assam
and Meghalaya), Southern Laos, Thailand (to the
Isthmus of Kra), Southern Vietnam
National range: East of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains
(Boonratana, 1999).
West of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (in
SBCA: Pollard et al., 2007).
Global conservation status: Vulnerable A2cd+3cd+4cd (IUCN, 2008)

Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis)

Global range: Indonesia (Java, Kalimantan, Sumatra, Lesser Sunda
Islands from Bali to Timor), Brunei, Cambodia,
Southern Laos, Malaysia, Southcentral Philippines,
Southern Thailand, Southern Vietnam, and many
smaller islands associated with these land masses.
National range: East of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountain (Long
& Swan, 2000).

29
 West of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (in
SBCA: Pollard et al., 2007; Long & Swan, 2000).
Global conservation status: Least Concern (IUCN, 2008)

Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides)

Global range: Eastern Bangladesh, Northern Burma, Cambodia,
Southwestern China, Eastern India (southeast of the
Brahmaputra river), Laos, northern & western
Malaysia, Thailand.
National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (in
SBCA: Pollard et al., 2007).
West of the Mekong River: no confirmation of its
presence in the Cardamom Mountain; one sighting in
Kirirom National Park by WCS, 2000 (Eastoe, pers.
comm.)
Global conservation status: Vulnerable A3cd+4cd (IUCN, 2008)

Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini)

Global range: Unclear – Western Cambodia (Roos et al., 2008)
National range: West of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains
(Long & Swan, 2000)
Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

Annamese silvered langur (Trachypithecus margarita)

Global range: Unclear – Eastern Cambodia (Roos et al., 2008)
National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri Province (Phan,
pers. comm.; Pollard et al., 2007).
Global conservation status: Not listed (IUCN, 2008)

Black-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nigripes)

Global range: Eastern Cambodia, Southwest Vietnam
National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri
Province (Rawson, 2004, Pollard et al. 2007; Rawson
& Roos, 2008; Phan, pers. comm.).
Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

Red-shanked douc langur (Pygathrix nemaeus)

Global range: Southern Laos, Central Vietnam
National range: Possibly East of the Mekong River: Ratanakiri
Province (Rawson & Roos, 2008).
Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd+3cd+4cd (IUCN, 2008)

Pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus)

Global range: Western Cambodia, Southwestern Laos, Southeastern
Thailand
National range: West of the Mekong River: Cardamom Mountains
(Long & Swan, 2000; Traeholt et al., 2005).
Global conservation status: Endangered A4cd (IUCN, 2008)

30
Yellow-cheeked gibbon (Nomascus gabriellae)
Global range: Southern Laos, Southern Vietnam, Eastern Cambodia
National range: East of the Mekong River: Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri
Province (Pollard et al., 2007; Rawson, 2004; Traeholt
et al., 2005; Phan, pers. comm.).
Global conservation status: Endangered A2cd (IUCN, 2008)

3.2 METHODS

3.2.1 Survey methodology

We conducted fieldwork for a total of five weeks, from the 22nd of April to
the 31st of May. We concentrated our effort using foot surveys. We used
the traditional line transect walk, in addition, with the purpose of
enhancing our animal detection given the time constraints, we explored
the forest without following any transect (tracking) in areas where
primates were known to occur according to our local guide. We cut ten
straight transects measuring 1 to 1.5 km randomly selected within our
study site (approximately 466 ha) and covering the two main forest types
of the area. We walked each transect twice as slowly and quietly as
possible: two transects were walked every morning for five days
consecutively and two transects were walked every afternoon for five
more days. For eight days, tracking was carried out for 4 to 6 hours
successively from 8h00 a.m. The rest of the time was devoted to cut the
transects and to vegetation sampling. Animals sighted during this time
were also included in the records. A small team of two people, the
observer and one guide, carried out each survey (tracking and line
transect). At each sighting, the following data were recorded: species id
using binoculars (Luger DA 10x42), date, time, GPS coordinates (Garmin

eTrex Vista HCx) of the location, weather condition, habitat, distance of
the first individual seen from observer or from the transect measured with
a range finder, estimated group size and general behaviour whenever
possible.

3.2.2 Data analysis

For each species we calculated a detection using the encounter rate

biodiversity assessment technique (c.f. Sutherland, 2000) from the
sightings made during census period (tracking and line transect). We used
estimated species group size from our observations or from the literature
when we failed to make group counts. For each primate species we give
information on time of the day when they were sighted, weather condition,
habitat type, average distance from the observer and some behavioural
observations.

3.3 RESULTS

31
We confirmed the presence of four diurnal primate species in the
Cardamom Mountains out of five thought to occur in the area. Unlike the
last primate survey, visual sightings were made to confirm the presence of
each species (see Figure 3.1). Details of each primate sighting are
compiled in Annexe 2. We report the details of nocturnal primate sightings
in the previous chapter.

Northern pig-tailed macaque (Macaca leonina)

Pig-tailed macaques were observed on four occasions.
They were always sighted in the morning (between 6h50
and 10h00), in the lowland evergreen forest and during
sunny days at an average of 20 m from the observer.
We failed to estimate group size because of poor
visibility and used Caldecott’s (1986) (in Rowe, 1996)
estimation of 27.50 individuals per group. Encounter
rate of pig-tailed macaque was estimated at 0.05 groups per hour, and
1.38 individuals per hour. One male was observed feeding on the same
tree where a group of Indochinese silvered langur had just fled from.

Long-tailed macaque (Macaca fascicularis)

Long-tailed macaques were observed on two occasions
in the afternoon (14h02 and 17h00), in lowland
evergreen forest on sunny days at an average distance
from the observer of 7.50 m. On one occasion we
observed a group of >10 individuals for approximately
30 minutes. The group was composed of many
juveniles, infants, females and males. Individuals were
engaged in grooming, playing, resting, moving, and eating. They were
aware of the presence of the observer and showed curiosity but did not
flee. The encounter rate of the species was of 0.02 groups per hour, and
with an average group size of 12.50 individuals estimated from our
observations, of 0.21 individuals per hour.

Stump-tailed macaque (Macaca arctoides)

We failed to confirm the presence of the stump-tailed
macaque (M. arctoides) despite its distribution
thought to reach the Cardamom Mountains (Rowe,
1996; Baker et al., 2002). This could be explained by
its very low density, which is the case in Seima
Biodiversity Conservation Area, Mondulkiri Province
(Pollard et al., 2007), by the fact that we did not cover
sufficient area, although this species is known to inhabit forest type that
we surveyed, or ©WCS
by its absence in Samkos WS, or in the whole Cardamom Mountains.
Indeed, none of the previous biodiversity surveys conducted in the area
confirmed the presence of this species. Only one record, to our knowledge,
was made in 2000 in Kirirom National Park (Eastoe, pers. comm.). Pfeffer
(1969) has been mistakenly cited by Walston (2001) as evidence of the

32
presence of the species west of the Mekong, although it was recorded on
the east side of the River.

Indochinese silvered langur (Trachypithecus germaini)

The Indochinese silvered langur was sighted a total of
eight times. All observations were made in the lowland
evergreen forest on sunny days at an average of 23.50 m
from the observer. Five detections were made in the
afternoon (ranging from 12h58 to 15h50), while three
others were made in the morning (from 5h30 to 11h00).
On one occasion we observed a group with infants,
juveniles, males and females by our camp (21st May 2009,
5h30 a.m.) for forty minutes. The group was spread over
approximately 25 m, individuals were engaged in various behaviours
(playing, eating, moving, and resting); they did not seem aware of the
presence of the observer at the beginning until a male made an alarm call
to demonstrate it had detected our presence though the group did not run
away. However, the species fled on every other occasion we saw them and
following a group was difficult in this terrain. We estimated their
encounter rate at 0.08 groups per hour, and using an estimation of 12.50
individuals per group, at 1.04 individuals per hour. In Parmoy village on
the 22nd of April 2009 before the field study, one infant was observed,
probably for sale as a pet (Plate 3.1).

Plate 3.1: Indochinese silvered langur infant caught for primate

trade, Pramoy village, April 2009. © Camille Coudrat.

Pileated gibbon (Hylobates pileatus)

Pileated gibbons were recorded on four occasions from
sightings, although they were heard nearly every day between 9
a.m. and 10 a.m. Each detection was made on sunny days and in
lowland evergreen forest at an average distance of 13.13 m from
the observer. Twice they were observed in the morning (9h17

33
and 10h02) and the two other times in the afternoon (13h17 and 12h33).
Each time we observed a group of five individuals with one male, one
female and three juveniles; they were observed moving, resting and
playing. Groups observed are likely to correspond to a single group given
its same composition and approximate locality. On one occasion we
observed a vocal agonistic interaction between the male of a group of
pileated gibbons and a male of a group of long-tailed macaques. The
interaction stopped when the gibbons fled. We estimated an encounter
rate for the species at 0.07 groups per hour, and 0.33 individuals per hour.

Figure 3.1 : Primates sighted in the study area in Samkos WS in May

2009 including sightings during census time and opportunistic sightings.
Start and end of each ten transects are represented with a blue circle.
Each primate species is represented with a different symbol (see legend).
The map was prepared by FFI Cambodia Program.

3.4 DISCUSSION

At the rate non-human primates are declining in Southeast Asia

(Mittermeier et al., 2007) surveys of this kind are essential to assess the
status of primate species. Cambodian primates are amongst the least
known in Southeast Asia with their distribution and status still ambiguous,
demonstrating the relevance of our study.

The Cardamom Mountains cover a large region and contain a wide variety
of vegetation types, landforms, elevation and geology and are thus home
to a rich biodiversity (Webb, 2005). Even though the forest in the
Cardamom Mountains remains widespread, illegal activity exist in the
area, major threat to wildlife and in particular for primate species

34
inhabiting the lowland evergreen forest. The population of pileated
gibbons in the Cardamom Mountains is thought to be the most important
globally (Traeholt et al., 2005). The conservation of the Indochinese
silvered langur should also be considered as a priority in the Cardamom
Mountains given its new classification. The Cardamom Mountains should
be considered globally valuable for primate conservation.

We concentrated our effort exclusively using foot survey. Although we

succeeded to enhance our detection using the tracking method, this
technique did not allow us to give abundance of each species. Because of
time constraints, we walked only ten transects; more transects permit
more accurate abundance estimations. Our study was completed during
rainy season; poor weather conditions made visibility difficult and
detection less likely; all of our sightings occurred on sunny days. It is
important for future researchers to conduct surveys throughout the year
for comparison. We did not cover all forest types present in the Cardamom
Mountains. Our effort concentrated on the lowland evergreen and the dry
dipterocarp forest. The hill evergreen was not covered although it might
be an important habitat for non-human primate species. We still confirmed
the presence of five primate species; only the presence of the stump-
tailed macaque was not confirmed.

Ten years ago the pileated gibbon (H. pileatus) was classified as
Vulnerable (IUCN: Baillie & Groombridge, 1996). Today, the species is
listed as Endangered (IUCN, 2008). Its population in the whole Cardamom
Mountains is estimated at up to 20,000 individuals. In Samkos WS its
estimated density is 1.32 groups per km2, where the population is
predicted to decline in the near future. Populations in Thailand, Malaysia
and Laos have decreased dramatically and are now, all combined, half the
size of the Cambodian population (Traeholt et al., 2005), which makes the
latter a priority for its conservation. The Indochinese silvered langur (T.
germaini) is classified as Endangered (IUCN, 2008). The Cambodian
population of the species is thought to be confined west of the Mekong
River (Roos et al., 2008), which suggests the critical importance of the
Cardamom Mountains for the conservation of the species. The taxonomy
and distribution of this species require further investigation in order to
establish its status in Cambodia as well as globally.

Legal and illegal logging represent major threats to primates in the

Cardamom Mountains; this is associated with the development of roads,
and human settlements. Local people target specific endangered species
(IUCN, 2008) for housing (Afzelia xylocapcapa, Dipterocarpus costatus,
Anisoptera costata, Shorea obtuse, Hopea odorata etc.) (Thy, pers. comm.)
of which some are found in primate habitats (Coudrat, 2009 present
study). Wood trade with neighbouring countries is also of economic
importance to the area; in Vietnam the species Dalbergia conchinchinensis
represents one of the most expensive woods, which leads to heavy logging
of it in the Cardamom Mountains (Thy, pers. comm.). During the time of
the study, illegal logging was witnessed. In some areas in the Cardamom
Mountains, lowland evergreen forests are allocated to commercial logging

35
concessions (Long & Swan, 2000). At the moment, the situation of illegal
logging is dramatically increasing (pers. obs.; Eastoe, pers. comm.) (see
Plate 3.2). Primate species are likely to be highly threatened by habitat
destruction if trends in deforestation continue to increase.

Plate 3.2: Illegal logging during a patrol in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary,

August 2009. © Toby Eastoe.

Hunting of wildlife in the Cardamom Mountains is frequent and is directed

towards a variety of species (Thy, pers. comm.; Long et al., 2000). Wildlife
is hunted for national and international trade for food, traditional
medicine, trophies and furs, pet trade or biomedical industry (BUAV, 2008;
Walston & Ashwell, 2005; Long et al., 2000). All primate species seem to
be hunted in the Cardamom Mountains, yet the extent of hunting in the
area is yet to be established. During previous surveys in the Cardamom
Mountains, hunted specimens of pig-tailed macaques, silvered langurs,
pileated gibbons, and slow lorises were observed in villages (Long et al.,
2000). Primate species are also largely appreciated by local people and
neighbouring countries as pets, as was confirmed during the study for the
Indochinese silvered langur with observation of a caught infant in Pramoy
village (Plate 3.1). In Samkos WS, Traeholt and colleagues (2005)
observed a sex ratio biased towards single males rather than pairs of
pileated gibbons; likely the result of hunting which targets females with
infants to capture the latter. The presence of the slow loris in the open dry
dipterocarp forest and its easy detection at night time with flash lights
make the species highly vulnerable to humans. This species is principally
used in traditional medicine. In Cambodia, entire troops of macaques are

36
 often captured for the biomedical industry and exported internationally
(BUAV, 2008).

We followed the categories of priority status described by Long & Swan

(2000) to assess conservation priority for each species (Table 3.1). Priority
status for future conservation work are defined as follow, information in
brackets is added to the definition of Long & Swan (2000):

Priority I: Species specific conservation efforts are required. These

should involve distribution surveys, active hunting patrols, trade
restrictions and awareness programmes. [Taxonomic research is
required for some species].
Priority II: More information is required to assess the threats facing
the species accurately. [National distribution maps of the species
are needed; GIS modelling may be a first step to identify priority
survey areas]. Conservation goals can be achieved in the context
of protected area management, law enforcement and trade
restrictions if primate specific activities are initiated.
Priority III: Distribution surveys, population monitoring, control of hunting
and awareness programmes should be sufficient to ensure the
long-term survival of the species.

Table 3.1: Priority status for primate species of conservation concern in

Cambodia.
Priorit Species Justification
y
I Pygathrix nigripes Restricted range; globally Endangered; largest global
population east of the Mekong in SBCA (Pollard et al., 2007)

Pygathrix nemaeus Restricted range; globally Endangered; presence in

Cambodia (Ratanakiri province) is yet to be confirmed
(Rawson & roos, 2008)
Hylobates pileatus Restricted range; globally Endangered; largest global
distribution in the Cardamom Mountains (Traeholt, 2005)

37
 Nomascus Restricted range; globallly Endangered; population in
gabriellae Mondulkiri Province could represent the largest global
population of the species; research on phylogenetic should
be made to assess relationships of the yellow-cheeked
gibbon populations from Mondulkiri Province and Virachey
National Park (Traeholt et al., 2005)
Trachypithecus Phylogenetic work needed to confirm the classification by
germaini Roos et al. (2008), if confirmed, the species has a restricted
range and the population in the Cardamom Mountains
should be considered as a priority; globally Endangered

Trachypithecus Phylogenetic work needed to confirm the classification by

margarita Roos et al. (2008) and assess the global status of the
species as well as its distribution; population eastern
Cambodia could represent the largest globally

Nycticebus relatively wide spread in Southeast Asia, but numbers low

bengalensis or absent in most places where they have been studied;
phylogenetic work needed; likely to be several species or
subspecies which will greatly impact conservation status;
trade demand high and unsustainable

II Nycticebus High and unsustainable trade demand principally for

pygmaeus traditional medicine in Cambodia, but throughout Asia, and
indeed elsewhere, as pets; numbers rapidly declining and
may move to Priority I

Macaca arctoides National and international distribution unclear, little studied

Macaca fascicularis Wide spread in Southeast Asia, ecological flexibility, high

trade demand principally for pet trade and biomedical
industry (BUAV, 2008; Walston & Ashwell, 2005)
III
Macaca leonina Wide spread in Southeast Asia, ecological flexibility, trade
demand

This report demonstrates the importance of regular nationwide surveys.

Primates in Cambodia are still facing important threats from human illegal
activity such as illegal logging and hunting. Although conservation efforts
in Cambodia have greatly increased in the last ten years through research
and law enforcement in protected areas, threats on wildlife persist.
Cambodia represents a country of priority for primate conservation. It
holds the largest population of both the Endangered pileated gibbon (H.
pileatus) and the Endangered black-shanked douc langur (P. nigripes), and
possibly of the yellow-cheeked gibbon (N. gabriellae) and the Indochinese
silvered langur (T. germaini). Research in the country is still at its
beginning and should continue and be encouraged nationally and
internationally, notably with the continuing involvement of internationally
renowned NGOs (e.g. FFI, WWF, CI, WCS, WA, TRAFFIC) and the
collaboration of the government (MoE, MAFF etc.). Next steps for primate
conservation in Cambodia should include (i) a national distribution map
compiling all primate records to date, (ii) an assessment of primate
species density in their habitat range, (iii) research on the ecology of the

38
different species, (iv) an environmental education program throughout the
country, (v) a law enforcement on and control of illegal activities.

3.5 RECOMMENDATIONS

• Local people education - Visits to local schools should be organised

to raise awareness of young public on primate pet and medicinal
trade. A country-specific and culturally sensitive education plan
should be developed to increase local people’s awareness on impact
of hunting, and deforestation on local wildlife using posters in
villages and organising workshops.
• Make the information on the Cardamom Mountains available on a
national and international level with aid of publications in peer-
reviewed journals. This will promote research in the area. The
development of a field school in the area would be advantageous to
promote research in the area with local or international students in
conservation.
• Develop study on primate species in the area. More extensive
surveys are needed to gain a comprehensive understanding of the
habitat types frequented and preferred by primates. Studies on the
abundance of each species in the area would be of great value; the
dry season may permit more access to an increased number of
transects in different habitat types. The use of occupancy modelling
surveys would be appropriate given the difficult terrain, and would
allow the cover of a larger area (Royles & Nichols, 2003). Detailed
behavioural ecological studies will aid in group estimation,
knowledge of reproduction patterns, and home range size in varying
habitat types. Research on feeding behaviour and habitat use of
primate species are recommended with the purpose of identifying
the impact of selective logging and deforestation. Research on
Indochinese silvered langurs in the area requires long- term studies
to habituate groups to human presence. They are very shy and tend
to flee when sighted. Shyness of other species seems less
pronounced.
• Assess to what extent hunting for food or medicine occurs in the
area and how wildlife is used by local people in order to establish if
alternatives can be used. Control on illegal hunting should be
increased.
• Controlling access to the protected area and organising regular
patrols inside it should be increased to prevent illegal logging and
should be accompanied with law enforcement. These measures have
need to have long-term effects to cease illegal logging both in
Cambodia and in other parts of Southeast Asia (UNEP/GRID-Arendal,
2009). Increase in patrol effort can successfully reduce illegal
activity; the protection of a large National park as a whole is only
possible if rangers are deployed at densities of at least one person

39
 per 20 km². Otherwise efforts should be concentrated on smaller
areas (Leader-Williams et al., 1990).
• Involve local rangers in the conservation of wildlife through
workshops on local wildlife biology and training on field techniques
(use of GPS, compass, species identification, census etc.).

40
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APPENDIX I: VEGETATION SAMPLING

Introduction

We conducted a preliminary assessment of vegetation in Samkos WS

during our study. Although our results can by no means be described as
comprehensive, we include them here as an Appendix to provide baseline
data for future researchers who embark on the daunting task of describing
the complex vegetation of the region.

Methods

Vegetation sampling was carried out by the two researchers: Coudrat, C

and Rogers, L. The belt transect method for vegetation sampling
(Ganzhorn 2003) was adapted to describe the different vegetation types
within the study area. Each belt transect (plot) was located along the line
transects and measured 4 m by 100 m. There were a total of two plots per

47
transect, spaced at least 500 m apart. Below we describe variables that
were collected in each plot, on trees with CBH > 30 cm (DBH> 10 cm). In
addition, tree height was measured with the aid of a clinometer and a tape
measure. Once tree heights were calculated they were converted into
tree height categories where small = 0-<10 m, medium = 10-<19 m and
large = 19m or larger. Five photographs of the canopy were taken at
random points within the plot and from these the percentage of sky
covered by the canopy was estimated. Categories included: 0-25, 26-50,
51-75 and 76-100 % cover.

• Trees were identified to species, first by obtaining a local Khmer

name from the guides, which were later translated into scientific
names where possible with the aid of a botanist.
• Connectivity was measured by the number of branches and vines
connecting it to the nearest tree (Nekaris et al in review), categories
included: 0 connectors, 1-2 connectors, 3-5 connectors and 5+
connectors.
• The horizontal density at the herb layer was measured by estimating
the complexity enclosed within a circle with a 1 meter radius around
the base of each tree (0-0.5 m above ground level), categories
included; 0-25, 26-50, 51-75 and 76-100 % cover (Stokes et al,
2004).
• Canopy cover was estimated by percentage density of canopy: 0-25,
26-50, 51-75 and 76-100%. This method was devised due to faulty
equipment in the field leaving us unable to measure radius and
therefore canopy size.

Measuring and marking the plots along the transects

For each transect the following parameters were calculated using the field
data collected methods were adapted from Bernard (2003):

Species richness: Total number of species per transect.

Density/ km2: No. of individuals per square kilometre.
Basal area: The area covered by the cross section of the stem of the
plants, girth was measured at breast height and basal area was calculated
using: Area= CBH2/4

48
The Shannon-Weiner Diversity Index was employed using the formula:
H = ∑pilnpi. We chose this index as it has low sensitivity to sample size
and has been widely used (Cao & Zhang, 1997) to determine amount of
tree diversity.

Results

We sampled a total of 478 trees (DBH>10), representing 74 different

species. 47% of the trees could be identified to species level, 5% to genus
level and 46% could not be recognised from their Khmer name (Table A.4).
The transects in this study can be loosely divided into two habitat types.
Transect 1-4 were all lowland evergreen forest and for transects 5-10 the
forest type was predominantly dry dipterocarp interspersed with small
patches of lowland evergreen and moist evergreen forest.

Table A.1: Species richness and density estimates for the two
different habitat types.
Lowland Dry
evergreen dipterocarp
Species richness 21.75 21.17
2
Density / Km 53437.50 54791.67
Shannon Diversity -2.88 -2.81
Index
Mean basal area 2157.11 815.33

Table A.1 shows the species richness, density of trees per square
kilometre, and the Shannon Diversity index for the two habitats. Lowland
evergreen forest had slightly higher scores for species richness and
density, which is as expected, however the difference in diversity was not
as large as expected. The only notable difference in the diversity section
was in the mean basal areas, with lowland evergreen forest having a mean
basal area of 2157.11 compared with 815.33 for dry dipterocarp forest.

Table A.2: Complexity, connectivity and connectivity

levels for the two habitat types.
Lowlan
Dry
d
dipteroca
evergre
rp
en
Horizontal
0-25 0-25
density
Canopy
76-100 26-50
density
Canopy
76-100 50-75
cover
Connectivity 5+ 5+
Table A.3: Percentage of small medium and large trees

49
 (measured by height) within the two different habitats.
Dry
Lowland
dipterocar
evergreen
p
Small 26 30
Mediu
27 33
m
Large 47 37

For the complexity measures (Table A.2), there was no difference in the
mean horizontal density for the two habitat types (0-25% cover). However,
there was a significant difference between the two habitats’ horizontal
density at ground level, with DD forest having a larger amount of trees
with 75-100% ground cover (x2=21.53; df.=3; p≤0.001): no other analyses
showed any significant difference. The mean canopy density for each tree
shows a difference for the habitats. Evergreen forest had a dense canopy
with a median of 75-100% leaf cover whereas dry dipterocarp forest had
much lower canopy density with only a median of 26-50% leaf cover. Not
surprisingly the canopy sky cover for the evergreen forest was a median of
76-100% producing a closed canopy. Dry dipterocarp forest had a very
patchy forest canopy cover with a median result of 50-75%. Tree heights
also showed a difference between habitats (Table A.3). Lowland
evergreen forest had a much greater percentage of larger trees (47%)
than small (26%) and medium trees (27%), whereas dry dipterocarp forest
showed almost even abundance of small, medium and large trees (30, 33
and 37 % respectively)

Table A.4: List of trees sampled in Samkos Wildlife Sanctuary including number
encountered, Khmer name and Latin name where possible. Trees are listed in
alphabetical order of Khmer name.
No. of Family
trees Khmer Name Latin name
1 a tee a sal Ochna integerrima Ochnaceae
3 argmoaun Cananga latifolia Annonaceae
5 ba pro vieng Aglaia spectabilis Meliaceae
3 bada
10 bag doa Gardenia sp. Rubiaceae
1 bamboo clump Poaceae
beng boen loen
3 laong
3 bing ting eye
2 Bo biel kai Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae
2 Boel tamal

50
1 bowen
7 breim daup
6 bring Urgenia sp.
7 bru Garcinia schefferi Clusiaceae
6 but boa sat
7 chelli Terminalia alata Combretaceae
Dalbergia Leguminosae
17 ch-noul nigrescens
2 choeuteal Dipterocarpus alutus Dipterocarpaceae
17 ch-pong Tetrameles nudiflora Tetramelaceae
7 ch-ung wan
19 desay Heritiera littoralis Malvaceae
14 di-back
6 dralat Canarium album Burseraceae

2 drea Ficus sp. Moraceae

7 droi
1 du voun
8 duck dock prea
6 ga doet prea Phyllanthus emblica Phyllanthaceae
15 grote
8 gum rong
Antidesma
3 jeep dam ghaesembilla Euphorbiaceae
4 Kai try
1 Kao
7 Katoy-domray
Dipterocarpus Dipterocarpaceae.
3 klong tuberculatus.
12 knung Pterocarpus indicus Fabaceae
10 koh Castanopsis sp. Fagaceae
8 kok maou Diospyros bejaudi Ebenaceae
12 Kplier
10 kreil gluta laccifera
Diospyros Ebenaceae
8 la meng ehretioides
12 la mou
10 la mung Garcinia oliveri Clusiaceae
7 lavea prea Ficus hispida Moraceae
5 liang Shorea siamensis Dipterocarpaceae
1 laoka Bombax ceiba Malvaceae
11 luck neing Ficus altissima Moraceae
4 Mo kak prey Spondias pinnata Anacardiaceae
4 mba chaul
1 m'dail
Aporusa Euphorbiaceae
1 mean prey planchoniana
9 mein Aporusa sp. Euphorbiaceae
5 neow

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 4 pelang nut
2 pichuck Shorea obtusa Dipterocarpaceae
13 piou
3 plome wan
1 plong
9 po pun Baccaurea sp. Phyllanthaceae
3 pong domray
1 potril al
Terminalia Combretaceae
4 pro duc mucronata
Nepheilium Sapindaceae
4 semoan hypoleucum
1 smat
3 Som ra
Lagertroemia Lythraceae
38 sralao calyculata
12 stio
Mangifera Anacardiaceae
3 swai prea duperreana
4 tateil plat
Pterocarpus Leguminosae
3 tnung chim-wan macrocarpus
3 tom
4 koki Hopea odorata Dipterocarpaceae
19 Unkonwn
Total no.
478
trees
Total no.
73
Species

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 APPENDIX 2: PRIMATE SIGHTINGS DURING THE WHOLE STUDY PERIOD. (SHADED ZONE CORRESPONDS TO SIGHTINGS
MADE DURING CENSUS PERIOD (LINE TRANSECT AND TRACKING).
estimated
GPS
Date Trans Weath Animal- Sign of
# Time Species Habitat Longitude
ect er Observer presence
Latitude
distance
26 April Evergree 12,20480 103,07686
1 15h50 1 Silvered langurs Sunny 40 m Sighting
2009 n 6 1
4 may Evergree 12,20240 103,06240
2 10h00 2 Pig-tailed macaques Sunny 20 m Sighting
2009 n 205 82
7 may Long-tailed Evergree 12,20773 103,06557
3 17h00 4 Sunny 10 m Sighting
2009 macaques n 52 77
12 may Evergree 12,20613 103,06461
4 16h05 1 Silvered langurs Cloudy 13 m Sighting
2009 n 551 52
18 may Pig-Tailed Evergree 12,20041 103,06487
5 9h08 - Sunny 20 m Sighting
2009 macaques n 092 31
18 may Evergree 12,21512 103,06333
6 12h58 - Silvered langurs Sunny 20 m Sighting
2009 n 946 6
18 may Gibbons (5 Evergree 12,21559 103,06502
7 13h17 - Sunny 10 m Sighting
2009 individuals) n 583 28
18 may Long-tailed Evergree 12,21454 103,06924
8 14h02 - Sunny 5m Sighting
2009 macaques n 415 73
19 may Gibbons (5 Evergree 12,21402 103,06646
9 12h33 - Sunny 10 m Sighting
2009 individuals) n 456 18
21 may Evergree 12,20729 103,06582
10 5h30 - Silvered langurs Sunny 10-20 m Sighting
2009 n 859 42
21 may Evergree 12,20729 103,06582
11 6h50 - Pig-tailed macaques Sunny 10-20 m Sighting
2009 n 859 42
21 may Gibbons (5 Evergree 12,20922 103,06180
12 9h17 - Sunny 20-25 m Sighting
2009 individuals) n 2 6
22 may Pig-Tailed Evergree 12,20167 103,06627
13 9h04 - Sunny 25 m Sighting
2009 macaques n 835 79
22 may Evergree 12,21589 103,06295
13h48 - Silvered langurs Sunny 40 m Sighting
2009 n 339 01
14 (same group
22 may Evergree 12,21590 103,06342
14h01 - followed) Sunny 30-40 m Sighting
2009 n 672 66
23 may Gibbons (5 Evergree
15 10h02 - Sunny 10 m Sighting
2009 individuals) n

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 23 may Evergree 12,21451 103,06213
10h49 - Silvered langurs Sunny 25 m Sighting
2009 n 683 36
16 (same group
23 may Evergree 12,21464 103,06212
11h08 - followed) Sunny 25 m Sighting
2009 n 792 66
23 may Evergree 12,20859 103,06364
17 15h06 4 Silvered langurs Sunny 10 m Sighting
2009 n 527 44
25 may Evergree 12,20408 103,06658
18 11h00 7 Silvered langurs Sunny 25 m Sighting
2009 n 3 3

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