sustainability

Article
Assessment of the Properties of Rapeseed Oil
Enriched with Oils Characterized by High Content of
α-linolenic Acid
Agnieszka Sagan 1 , Agata Blicharz-Kania 1, * , Marek Szmigielski 1 , Dariusz Andrejko 1 ,
Paweł Sobczak 2 , Kazimierz Zawiślak 2 and Agnieszka Starek 1
1 Department of Biological Bases of Food and Feed Technologies, University of Life Sciences in Lublin,
20-612 Lublin, Poland; agnieszka.sagan@up.lublin.pl (A.S.); marek.szmigielski@up.lublin.pl (M.S.);
dariusz.andrejko@up.lublin.pl (D.A.); agnieszka.starek@up.lublin.pl (A.S.)
2 Department of Food Engineering and Machines, University of Life Sciences in Lublin, 20-612 Lublin, Poland;
pawel.sobczak@up.lublin.pl (P.S.); kazimierz.zawislak@up.lublin.pl (K.Z.)
* Correspondence: agata.kania@up.lublin.pl; Tel.: 81-531-96-46




Received: 25 September 2019; Accepted: 11 October 2019; Published: 13 October 2019


Abstract: Functional foods include cold-pressed oils, which are a rich source of antioxidants and
bioactive n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids. The aim of this study was to assess the quality of
rapeseed oils supplemented with Spanish sage and cress oils. Seven oil mixtures consisting of 70%
of rapeseed oil and 30% of sage and/or cress oil were prepared for the analyses. The oil mixtures
were analyzed to determine their acid value, peroxide value, oxidative stability, and fatty acid
composition. In terms of the acid value and the peroxide value, all mixtures met the requirements
for cold-pressed vegetable oils. The enrichment of the rapeseed oil with α-linolenic acid-rich fats
resulted in a substantially lower ratio of n-6 to n-3 acids in the mixtures than in the rapeseed oil. The
mixture of the rapeseed oil with the sage and cress oils in a ratio of 70:10:20 exhibited higher oxidative
stability than the raw materials used for enrichment and a nearly 20% α-linolenic acid content. The
oils proposed in this study can improve the ratio of n-6:n-3 acids in modern diets. Additionally,
mixing the cress seed oils with rapeseed oil and chia oil resulted in a reduction in the content of erucic
acid in the finished product. This finding indicates that cress seeds, despite their high content of
erucic acid, can be used as food components. The production of products with a positive effect on
human health is one of the most important factors in the sustainable development of agriculture.

Keywords: cold-pressed oils; functional food; oxidative stability; rapeseed oil; Spanish sage seed oil;
cress seed oil

1. Introduction
The results available from health and nutrition research increase public awareness of the
relationship between health and diet. Therefore, functional food is becoming increasingly popular
among consumers. The idea of functional food originates from Japan, where a national program of
studies on the relationship between food science and medicine was introduced in 1984. Functional
food is defined as follows: “a food can be regarded as ‘functional’ if it is satisfactorily demonstrated to
affect beneficially one or more target functions in the body, beyond adequate nutritional effects, in
a way that is relevant to either an improved state of health and well-being and/or reduction of risk
of disease. Functional foods must remain foods and they must demonstrate their effects in amounts
that can normally be expected to be consumed in the diet: these are not pills or capsules, but part of a
normal food pattern” [1–3]. The production of such food may be one of the most important aspects of

Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638; doi:10.3390/su11205638 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 2 of 11

strategies for sustainable development. The essence of the sustainable development of food production
is the production of products with a positive effect on human health [4].
Functional foods include cold-pressed oils, as they are a rich source of antioxidants such
as tocopherols and polyphenols, and hence exhibit high antioxidant activity. These also contain
polyunsaturated fatty acids from the n-3 and n-6 groups as well as sterols, which exert a bioactive
effect [5,6]. Seeds or fruits of plants that are traditionally regarded as oil-bearing species, e.g., rape,
soybean, sunflower, olives, etc., are used for pressing oils. Also, oils pressed from unusual plant
materials such as nuts and sage or garden cress seeds are gaining popularity.
Rapeseed oil is one of the most frequently consumed vegetable oils, and it is one of the most
valuable edible fats, mainly due to the high content (approx. 90%) of 18-carbon unsaturated acids. It is
produced from rapeseed varieties with a low level of erucic acid and is characterized by the presence
of fatty acids that are desirable in human and animal diets and are present in ratios that are similar to
those in the most valuable oils, e.g., olive oil. Furthermore, it is rich in many bioactive compounds,
whose presence in food is the current focus of attention. These are primarily antioxidant compounds.
The oil is also a source of essential unsaturated fatty acids from the n-6 and n-3 groups. The content
of linoleic and α-linolenic acids in rapeseed oil is usually approx. 20% and 10%, respectively [7,8].
It also exhibits good oxidative stability, which is better than that of soybean and sunflower oils [9].
The oxidative stability of rapeseed oil can be improved by supplementation with natural antioxidants
contained in spices (dried rosemary, oregano) and in resin from trees of the Burseraceae family [10,11].
Research was also conducted on the stability of mixtures of rapeseed oil with linseed oil. Mixtures of
rapeseed oil with 25% and 50% linseed oil were found to have the best properties [12].
It is important to maintain an appropriate n-6:n-3 ratio of polyunsaturated fatty acids. Most
reports in the literature indicate that the n-6:n-3 ratio should range from 1:1 to 4:1. However, modern
diets usually contain up to 20-fold higher levels of n-6 than n-3 fatty acids [13]. Therefore, in terms
of sustainable development strategies, it is vital to enrich food with n-3 acids, e.g., α-linolenic acid,
which originates from vegetable oils such as Spanish sage or garden cress oils [14,15]. The production
of products that have a positive effect on human health is one of the most important element in the
sustainable development of agriculture.
Seeds of Spanish sage (Salvia hispanica L.) contain large amounts of fat (30%–40%), which is rich in
essential fatty acids, in particular α-linolenic acid. This may account for 68% of all fatty acids [14,16].
Sage seeds are also characterized by a high level of antioxidants, which may be helpful in preventing
diseases related to oxidative DNA damage [17,18].
Garden cress (Lepidium sativum L.) is a good source of n-3 fatty acids. It is an annual plant from
the family Brassicaceae (Cruciferae). Its seeds contain large amounts of fat (28%). Its main fatty acids
are oleic acid (30%) and α-linolenic acid (32%) representing the n-3 group. Cress seeds also contain a
high level of polyphenols and are a source of bioactive glycosides [15,19]. It has been found that the
isoflavone glycoside isolated from L. sativum seeds can improve liver function and the serum lipid
profile. It can also reduce the generation of free radicals through induction of an antioxidant defense
mechanism and acts as a potential antioxidant against paracetamol poisoning [20].
Polyunsaturated fatty acids from the n-3 group enhance the nutritional value of food products
but also increase the susceptibility to fat oxidation. Spanish sage seeds are rich in essential fatty acids;
yet, the low oxidative stability of the oil pressed from this raw material is a shortcoming. Additionally,
the nutritional value of cress seed oil may be reduced by the elevated content of erucic acid.
The aim of this study was to verify the quality of a composition of rapeseed oil supplemented
with oils from Spanish sage and cress seeds in various proportions.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 3 of 11

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Research Material

The research material included seven different oil mixtures based on rapeseed oil. Seeds of winter
oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.), Spanish sage (Salvia hispanica L.), and garden cress (Lepidium sativum
L.) were used to obtain the experimental oils. The seeds were analyzed for moisture [21] and fat
content [22]. The moisture contents were approximately 7% and the fat contents were typical for the
seeds of the plants (Table 1).

Table 1. Humidity and fat content in the seeds used for oil pressing and pressing yields.

Seeds Humidity (%) Fat Content (%) Pressing Yield (%)

Rape 6.97 a ± 0.01 38.40 b ± 0.06 79.0
Spanish sage 7.11 b ± 0.01 36.59 a ± 0.31 60.7
Garden cress 7.61 c ± 0.03 20.53 c ± 0.01 41.9
abc —Statistically significant differences in columns (p ≤ 0.05). The results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).

Individual batches of seeds were cold pressed in a Farmet DUO screw press (Czech Republic)
with a capacity of 18–25 kg·h−1 , engine power 2.2 kW, and screw speed 1500 rpm equipped with a
10-mm diameter nozzle. Before starting, the press was heated to 50 ◦ C. After pressing, the oil was
left for natural sedimentation for 5 days in refrigerated conditions (10 ± 1 ◦ C) and then decanted.
The pressing efficiency was calculated based on the weight of the seeds used for the process, the fat
content of the seeds, and the weight of the pressed oil. The following formula was used to calculate
the pressing efficiency (W):
mo ·104
W= (%) (1)
f ·ms
where:

mo —weight of oil (kg),

ms —weight of seeds (kg),
f —fat content in seeds (%)

The highest yield of 79% was obtained from the rapeseeds, whereas the lowest value, i.e.,
approximately 42%, was noted for the cress seeds (Table 1).
The acid value (AV), peroxide value (PV), oxidative stability, and fatty acid composition in the
pressed oil were also determined.

2.2. Research Methods

The oils were mixed in 500-ml amber glass bottles at appropriate weight ratios. Seven mixtures of
oil marked from M1 to M7 were prepared for the analyses with 70% of rapeseed oil (R) and 30% of
Spanish sage and/or cress oils. The proportions of the individual oils and the symbols denoting the
individual mixtures are presented in Table 2. The oil mixtures were analyzed for their acid value (AV),
peroxide value (PV), oxidative stability, and fatty acid composition.

Table 2. Experimental setup.

Proportions of the Individual Oils in the Mixtures (%)

Oil
M1 M2 M3 M4 M5 M6 M7
Rapeseed oil 70 70 70 70 70 70 70
Spanish sage seed
- 5 10 15 20 25 30
oil
Cress seed oil 30 25 20 15 10 5 -
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 4 of 11

The acid value was determined with the titration method using a cold solvent and expressed in
mg KOH per 1 g oil [23]. The peroxide value was estimated by titration with iodometric determination
of the end point and expressed in mmol O2 per 1 kg of oil [24]. Oxidative stability was assessed in the
Rancimat accelerated oxidation test [25]. The test was carried out using a Metrohm 893 Professional
Biodiesel Rancimat device. Oil samples (3.00 ± 0.01 g) were weighed, placed in a measuring vessel,
and exposed to air at a flow rate of 20 l/h at 120 ◦ C. The results were expressed as the induction time
determined from the curve inflection point using the StabNet1.0 software provided by the manufacturer.
The fatty acid composition was determined using gas chromatography (a Bruker 436GC chromatograph
with an FID detector) following the relevant standards [26,27]. Fatty acid methyl esters were separated
on a BPX 70 capillary column (60 m × 0.25 mm, 25 µm) with nitrogen as the carrier gas.

2.3. Statistical Analysis

All determinations were made in triplicate. The arithmetic mean of the replicates was assumed as
the result. The results were analyzed statistically using the StatSoft Polska STATISTICA 10.0 program.
The significance of differences between the mean values of the determined parameters was verified
using Tukey’s test. The calculations were made at the significance level α = 0.05.

3. Results and Discussion

The determined acid and peroxide values, which determine the quality of pressed oils, are
presented in Table 3.

Table 3. Chemical properties of the analyzed oils.

Acid Number Peroxide Number

Oil Induction Time (h)
(mg KOH·g−1 ) (mmol O2 ·kg−1 )
Rapeseed oil 0.66 a ± 0.02 1.85 a ± 0.25 4.40 a ± 0.09
Spanish sage seed oil 4.77 b ± 0.02 1.00 b ± 0.01 0.65 c ± 0.07
Cress seed oil 0.64 a ± 0.03 1.24 ab ± 0.07 2.67 b ± 0.04
abc —Statistically significant differences in columns (p ≤ 0.05). The results are expressed as mean ± SD (n = 3).

The highest acid value (4.77 mg KOH·g−1 fat) was determined for the chia seed oil. This value
was only slightly higher than the requirements specified for this parameter (LK ≤ 4 mg·g−1 ) in the
Codex Alimentarius [28]. As demonstrated by Krygier et al. [29], the acid value of oil depends on the
quality of seeds used for pressing and increases with the increasing amounts of damaged seeds, which
is explained by the authors by the greater activity of lipolytic enzymes present in such material.
The peroxide value, which reflects the amount of primary oxidation products, ranged from 1.00 to
1.85 mmol O2 ·kg−1 in the analyzed oils and did not exceed the maximum value of 10 mmol O2 ·kg−1
specified in the Codex Alimentarius [28].
Sample gas chromatograms of each oil are shown in Figure 1. The analyzed rapeseed oil had a
typical fatty acid composition [30]. The content of unsaturated fatty acids exceeded 91% (Table 4).
Oleic acid was the main fatty acid (55.22%). The rapeseed oil contained the highest amount of
linoleic acid (24.24%) and the lowest level of α-linolenic acid (10.34%). The ratio of n-6 to n-3 acids of
2:3 was equally low.
The Spanish sage oil had a high level of unsaturated fatty acids (89.43%), which is consistent with
results reported by other authors [31,32]. The main acids were represented by α-linolenic acid (63.40%)
followed by linoleic acid (20.80%). Such a high amount of α-linolenic acid resulted in a very low ratio
of n-6 to n-3 acids in chia seed oil, i.e., 0.3.
The cress seed oil exhibited the greatest variety of fatty acids. Palmitic acid (9.02%), stearic acid
(3.06%), and arachidonic acid (3.64%) represented saturated fatty acids. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids
were represented by oleic acid (20.68%) as well as eicosenoic acid (13.8%) and erucic acid (5.98%). The
 Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 5 of 11

content of essential unsaturated fatty acids (linoleic and linolenic) accounted for 9.08% and 30.03%
of the sum of fatty acids, respectively. The lower content of linoleic acid than that determined in the
other oils resulted in a low ratio of n-6 to n-3 acids, as in the Spanish sage oil (0:3). Additionally, there
were small amounts of eicosadienoic, eicosatrienoic, lignoceric, and nervonic acids, which were not
present in the other oils. The results obtained in the present study are similar to those reported by
other authors investigating cress seeds [33,34], although the analyzed oil had almost two-fold higher
content of erucic acid than the value determined by Moser et al. [34]. Due to its properties, erucic acid
is classified
Sustainability 2019, 11,as an anti-nutritional
x FOR PEER REVIEW compound. The presence of erucic acid in cress oil is a drawback
6 of 11 and
limits the application of cress seeds as a raw material for oil pressing.

Figure 1. Typical gas chromatogram of: A—rapeseed oil, B—Spanish sage seed oil, C—cress seed oil.
Figure 1. Typical gas chromatogram of: A—rapeseed oil, B—Spanish sage seed oil, C—cress seed
oil.

The oils used in the analyses had different values of oxidative stability (Table 3). The longest
induction time was recorded for the rapeseed oil (4.40 h). It was similar to values reported by other
authors [30,35]. The oxidative stability of vegetable oils is determined by the fatty acid composition:
the greater the number of unsaturated bonds, the greater the susceptibility to oxidation. The chia seed
oil exhibited the highest content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (over 84%) and hence the lowest
oxidative stability (0.65 h).
The chemical properties of the oil mixtures are shown in Figures 2–4 and Table 5. The oils
differed in their acid value and oxidative stability. The acid value ranged from 0.79 to 2.00 mg∙g-1 and
increased with higher amounts of the Spanish sage oil.
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 6 of 11

Table 4. Fatty acid composition of the oils (% of FA sum).

Fatty Acids Rapeseed Oil Spanish Sage Seed Oil Cress Seed Oil
Myristic acid 14:0 0.25 ± 0.01 - -
Palmitic acid 16:0 6.06 ± 0.18 7.46 ± 0.02 9.02 ± 0.17
Palmitoleic acid16:1 0.28 ± 0.01 0.15 ± 0.01 0.18 ± 0.01
Stearic acid 18:0 2.08 ± 0.09 2.79 ± 0.01 3.06 ± 0.05
Oleic acid 18:1 55.22 ± 0.85 4.71 ± 0.02 20.68 ± 0.02
Linoleic acid18:2 24.24 ± 1.13 20.80 ± 0.03 9.08 ± 0.01
α- linolenic acid 18:3 (n-3) 10.34 ± 0.91 63.40 ± 0.02 30.03 ± 0.25
γ- linolenic acid18-3 (n-6) - 0.19 ± 0.01 -
Arachidic acid 20:0 0.27 ± 0.01 0.32 ± 0.01 3.64 ± 0.01
Eicosaenoic acid 20:1 1.00 ± 0.03 0.18 ± 0.01 13.83± 0.11
Eicosadienoic acid 20:2 - - 0.54 ± 0.01
Eicosatrienoic acid 20:3 - - 0.75 ± 0.01
Behenic acid 22:0 0.23 ± 0.01 - 1.11 ± 0.03
Erucic acid 22:1 0.03 ± 0.01 - 5.98 ± 0.12
Lignoceric acid 24:0 - - 0.58 ± 0.01
Nervonic acid 24:1 - - 1.52 ± 0.08
ΣSFA 1 8.89 10.57 17.41
ΣMUFA 2 56.53 5.04 42.19
ΣPUFA 3 34.58 84.39 40.40
n-6/n-3 2.3 0.3 0.3
1 SFA—saturated fatty acids; 2 MUFA—monounsaturated fatty acids; 3 PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids.

The oils used in the analyses had different values of oxidative stability (Table 3). The longest
induction time was recorded for the rapeseed oil (4.40 h). It was similar to values reported by other
authors [30,35]. The oxidative stability of vegetable oils is determined by the fatty acid composition:
the greater the number of unsaturated bonds, the greater the susceptibility to oxidation. The chia
seed oil exhibited the highest content of polyunsaturated fatty acids (over 84%) and hence the lowest
oxidative stability (0.65 h).
The chemical properties of the oil mixtures are shown in Figures 2–4 and Table 5. The oils differed
in their acid value and oxidative stability. The acid value ranged from 0.79 to 2.00 mg·g−1 and increased
with higher2019,
Sustainability amounts of PEER
11, x FOR the Spanish
REVIEW sage oil. 7 of 11

Figure 2.2.Comparison
Figure Comparisonof of
thethe
acidacid
value of rapeseed
value oil (R) and
of rapeseed oil mixtures
oil (R) and oil (abc—statistically significant
mixtures (abc—statistically
differences, p ≤ 0.05).
significant differences, p ≤ 0.05).

Since the oils used to prepare the mixtures did not differ significantly in their peroxide value,
the values of this parameter were similar in the oil mixtures as well (1.73–1.91 mmol O2∙kg-1). All
mixtures met the requirements of acid and peroxide values for cold-pressed vegetable oils [28].
 Figure 2. Comparison of the acid value of rapeseed oil (R) and oil mixtures (abc—statistically
significant differences, p ≤ 0.05).

Since the oils used to prepare the mixtures did not differ significantly in their peroxide value,
the values of this parameter were similar in the oil mixtures as well (1.73–1.91 mmol O2∙kg-1). All
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 7 of 11
mixtures met the requirements of acid and peroxide values for cold-pressed vegetable oils [28].

Figure 3. Comparison
Figure 3. Comparison of of the
the peroxide
peroxide value
value of
of rapeseed
rapeseed oil
oil (R)
(R) and
and oil
oil mixtures
mixtures (abc—statistically
(abc—statistically
significant differences, p ≤ 0.05).
significant differences, p ≤ 0.05).
Table 5. Fatty acid composition of the oil mixtures (% of FA sum).
The fatty acid profile of the prepared oil mixtures reflected their raw material composition (Table
5). The Oil Mixtures
Fattyhighest
Acids content of saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids (11.40% and 52.20%,
respectively) was determined for the M1 M1 mixture
M2 consisting
M3 ofM70%
4 of rapeseed
M5 oil
M6and 30% M7of cress
seed oil, which
Myristic was
acid 14:0reflected in it 0.13
showing 0.18
the highest0.18oxidative
0.18stability
0.18of all the
0.16oil mixtures.
0.18 The
induction time
Palmitic was
acid 16:0only 0.73 h shorter
7.01 than6.73
that of the
6.62rapeseed
6.85 oil. The
6.68content6.60
of α-linolenic
6.45 acid
in thePalmitoleic
oil mixtures ranged from 16.18%
acid16:1 0.28 to 23.02%.
0.28 0.27 0.26 0.26 0.26 0.27
Stearic acid 18:0 2.27 2.18 2.23 2.35 2.34 2.12 2.33
Oleic acid 18:1 44.94 44.05 43.37 42.36 41.59 40.93 40.15
Linoleic acid 18:2 19.83 20.31 20.74 21.40 22.07 22.65 23.02
α- linolenic acid 18:3 (n-3) 16.18 17.82 19.72 21.26 22.92 24.61 26.30
γ- linolenic acid 18-3 (n-6) - 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06
Arachidic acid 20:0 1.29 1.11 1.02 0.75 0.61 0.45 0.29
Eicosaenoic acid 20:1 4.62 4.30 3.52 2.80 2.09 1.44 0.77
Eicosadienoic acid 20:2 0.16 0.14 0.11 0.08 0.05 0.03 -
Eicosatrienoic acid 20:3 0.23 0.19 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.04 -
Behenic acid 22:0 0.52 0.46 0.36 0.32 0.25 0.22 0.16
Erucic acid 22:1 1.81 1.69 1.25 0.92 0.62 0.33 0.02
Lignoceric acid 24:0 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.03 -
Nervonic acid 24:1 0.55 0.40 0.32 0.23 0.14 0.08 -
ΣSFA 1 11.40 10.81 10.53 10.54 10.13 9.58 9.41
ΣMUFA 2 52.20 50.72 48.73 46.57 44.70 43.04 41.21
ΣPUFA 3 36.40 38.47 40.74 42.89 45.17 47.38 49.38
n-6/n-3 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.9
1 SFA—saturated fatty acids; 2 MUFA—mono-unsaturated fatty acids; 3 PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids.

Since the oils used to prepare the mixtures did not differ significantly in their peroxide value,
the values of this parameter were similar in the oil mixtures as well (1.73–1.91 mmol O2 ·kg−1 ). All
mixtures met the requirements of acid and peroxide values for cold-pressed vegetable oils [28].
The fatty acid profile of the prepared oil mixtures reflected their raw material composition (Table 5).
The highest content of saturated and mono-unsaturated fatty acids (11.40% and 52.20%, respectively)
was determined for the M1 mixture consisting of 70% of rapeseed oil and 30% of cress seed oil, which
was reflected in it showing the highest oxidative stability of all the oil mixtures. The induction time
was only 0.73 h shorter than that of the rapeseed oil. The content of α-linolenic acid in the oil mixtures
ranged from 16.18% to 23.02%.
 Lignoceric acid 24:0 0.18 0.15 0.12 0.09 0.07 0.03 -
Nervonic acid 24:1 0.55 0.40 0.32 0.23 0.14 0.08 -
ΣSFA1 11.40 10.81 10.53 10.54 10.13 9.58 9.41
ΣMUFA2 52.20 50.72 48.73 46.57 44.70 43.04 41.21
ΣPUFA3 36.40 38.47 40.74 42.89 45.17 47.38 49.38
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638
n-6/n-3 1.2 1.1 1.1 1.0 1.0 0.9 0.98 of 11
1 SFA—saturated fatty acids; 2 MUFA—mono-unsaturated fatty acids; 3 PUFA—polyunsaturated fatty acids.
The
The highest
highestvalue
valueforfor α-linolenic
α-linolenicacidacid
waswasdetermined
determinedfor the
forM7 mixture
the containing
M7 mixture 30% Spanish
containing 30%
sage oil. Enrichment with this acid resulted in a substantially smaller ratio of n-6
Spanish sage oil. Enrichment with this acid resulted in a substantially smaller ratio of n-6 to n-3 acids, to n-3 acids, i.e.,
in
i.e.,the
in range of 1.2
the range to 0.9,
of 1.2 in the
to 0.9, oiloil
in the mixtures
mixtures than inin
than thetherapeseed
rapeseedoil.
oil.As
Assuggested
suggested byby nutritional
nutritional
recommendations, there is a need to increase the intake of long-chain fatty
recommendations, there is a need to increase the intake of long-chain fatty acids from the n-3 acids from the n-3 group
groupin
the diet [36,37]. The oil mixtures proposed in this study can be used to enrich
in the diet [36,37]. The oil mixtures proposed in this study can be used to enrich food with this food with this component.
According
component.toAccording
the EU Commission Regulation ofRegulation
to the EU Commission 2014 [38], the maximum
of 2014 allowable
[38], the maximum level of eruciclevel
allowable acid
in vegetable oils and fats is 50 g·kg −1 , i.e., 5%. By-1mixing the cress seed oil (containing 5.98% of this
of erucic acid in vegetable oils and fats is 50 g∙kg , i.e., 5%. By mixing the cress seed oil (containing
acid)
5.98%with theacid)
of this rapeseed andrapeseed
with the Spanish andsageSpanish
oils, thesage
erucic acid
oils, thecontent wascontent
erucic acid reducedwasbelow 2% inbelow
reduced all of
the
2% in analyzed mixtures.
all of the analyzed mixtures.
The oxidative stability of the oils, which was expressed as the induction time ranged from 3.67
to 1.92 h and decreased with the increasing content of the Spanish sage oil. However, there were no
statistically significant differences in the values for this parameter between mixtures with 5 and and 10%,
10%,
15 and 20%, as well as 20 and 25% of the chia seed oil (Figure
25% of the chia seed oil (Figure 4). 4).

Figure 4. Comparison of the oxidative stability of rapeseed oil (R) and oil mixtures (abc—statistically
Sustainability 2019,differences,
significant 11, x FOR PEER
differences, ≤ REVIEW
pp ≤ 0.05). 9 of 11

Fat oxidation
Fat oxidation susceptibility
susceptibility increases proportionally to the number
number ofof unsaturated
unsaturated bonds
bonds in
in
individual fatty
individual fatty acids
acids [30].
[30]. The dependence of oxidative stability of the experimental oil mixtures
mixtures on
on
the content
the content of
of polyunsaturated
polyunsaturated fatty
fatty acids
acids is
is presented
presentedgraphically
graphically(Figure
(Figure5)
5)as
asaalinear
linearfunction.
function.

Figure 5. Correlation between the oxidative stability of the oil mixtures and the content of
Figure 5. Correlation between the oxidative stability of the oil mixtures and the content of
polyunsaturated fatty acids.
polyunsaturated fatty acids.

As shown by the equation, a 5% increase in the PUFA content in the oil mixtures reduces
oxidative stability by shortening the induction time by 0.65 h.

4. Conclusions
The oil mixtures proposed in this study are characterized by higher contents of n-3 fatty acids
Sustainability 2019, 11, 5638 9 of 11

As shown by the equation, a 5% increase in the PUFA content in the oil mixtures reduces oxidative
stability by shortening the induction time by 0.65 h.

4. Conclusions
The oil mixtures proposed in this study are characterized by higher contents of n-3 fatty acids
compared to rapeseed oil, and can therefore improve the n-6 to n-3 ratio in the modern diet. This is
beneficial in terms of consumers’ health and complies with the principles of sustainable development
of food production. The regression equation, developed using the study results, facilitates the precise
determination of the properties of rapeseed, cress, and chia oil mixtures. The results indicated that a
mixture of rapeseed, chia, and cress oils at a ratio of 70:10:20 exhibits higher oxidative stability than the
individual enrichment raw materials, and a nearly 20% level of α-linolenic acid.
Furthermore, the mixture of cress seed oil with rapeseed and Spanish sage oils ensured reduced
erucic acid content in the finished product. Hence, cress seeds, which are characterized by a high content
of erucic acid can be used in the food industry, which is important for the sustainable development of
agriculture and extensive use of its resources. This issue is also related to food security, which is one
of the specific objectives of the strategy for sustainable development of rural areas, agriculture and
fisheries for the years 2012–2020 in Poland. Within this objective, one of the priorities is the production
of high-quality, agri-food products, which are safe for consumers [39].

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, A.S. (Agnieszka Sagan), D.A. and K.Z.; methodology, A.S. (Agnieszka
Sagan), M.S. and D.A.; investigation, M.S., P.S. and A.S. (Agnieszka Starek); data curation, A.S. (Agnieszka Sagan),
A.B.-K. and M.S.; writing—original draft preparation, A.S. (Agnieszka Sagan), A.B.-K. and M.S.; writing—review
and editing, D.A., P.S. and K.Z.; visualization, A.S. (Agnieszka Sagan), A.B.-K. and A.S. (Agnieszka Starek);
supervision, D.A.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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