The Grammar of Clause

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1. Subordination and dependent clauses
○ coordination, subordination, ellipsis: aspects of grammar that
enable us to elaborate, combine, and reduce the structure of
clauses.
○ Dependent clause: it functions as an adverbial in the main
clause.
○ Subordination: one dependent clause is embedded as part of
another clause.
⇒ Signals of subordination
a. an overt link: a subordinator or wh-word
b. a non-finite VP: infinitive, -ing participle, -ed participle

ex. Leaving the road, they went into the deep darkness of the trees.
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○ Clause Patterns

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Ellipsis and structural condensation

○Ellipsis is the omission of elements which are recoverable from

the linguistic context or the situation.

a. initial: He squeezed her hand but <he> met with no response.

b. medial: He and his mate both jumped out, he <jumped out>
to go to the women, his mate <jumped out> to stop other
traffic on the bridge.
c. final: Perhaps, as the review gathers steam, this can now
change. It needs to <change>.

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d. Ellipsis in comparative clauses:
▪ She looks older than my mother <does>.
▪ One result was that older people made greater head
movements than younger people <did>.

e. Ellipsis in question-answer sequences:

A: Have you got an extra exam on Monday?
B: <I've got> Two exams <on Monday>.

f. Ellipsis in noun phrases

▪ How's everyone's champagne? Tommy do you want some
more __?

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g. Pronoun:
▪ We borrowed the tennis racquets when Bonnie and Steve
were here. And we used them twice I think.

h. other pro-forms:
A: Who took that picture?
B: I did.
i. non-finite clauses, which usually omit the subject and auxiliary
verb.
▪ I don't know what to write about. <non-finite clause>
▪ I don't know what I should write about. <finite clause>

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2. Major Types of Independent Clauses

▪ All independent clauses are finite: they contain a finite verb form
which specifies tense or modality.

▪ Independent clauses are used to perform speech-act functions.

▪ There is a general correspondence between four basic speech-act

functions and the four structural types of independent clauses,
shown in Table 8.3.

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√ A statement gives information and expects no specific response
from the addressee.

√ A question asks for information and expects a linguistic response.

√ A directive is used to give orders or requests, and expects some

action from the addressee.

√ An exclamation expresses the strong feelings of the speaker, and

expects no specific response.

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√ Structure and speech-act function do not always agree, and it is
therefore useful to distinguish between the two.

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2.1 Declarative Clauses
▪ they can also serve other speech act functions.
ex. SV order is occasionally used in asking a question

√ the question status being signaled in speech by rising

intonation or in writing by a question mark.

A: So he's left her?

B: She left him.

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2.2 Interrogative Clauses
▪ three main types of independent interrogative clause: wh-
questions, yes/no-questions, and alternative questions.
▪ Their basic uses are:
√ to elicit missing information (wh-questions)
√ to ask whether a proposition is true or false (yes/no questions)
√ to ask which of two or more alternatives is the case (alternative
questions)

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2.3 Alternative Clauses

2.4 Question tags

▪ Although question tags are not independent clauses, it is

convenient to deal with them here.

▪ A question tag consists of operator + pronoun subject, and is

used to seek confirmation of the statement the speaker has just
uttered

▪ These positive-positive question tags are similar in their effect to

declarative questions: they seek confirmation of a previous
statement.

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2.5 Imperative Clauses
▪ An imperative typically urges the addressee to do something (or
not to do something)
▪ A special type of imperative clause contains the verb let followed
by us (usually contracted to 's) to express a suggestion involving
both the speaker and the addressee.
ex. a. Get off the table.
b. Let's catch up with Louise.

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3. Dependent Clauses
3.1 Finite dependent clauses

[1] Complement Clauses

▪ Complement clauses are controlled by a preceding verb, adjective,

noun, or preposition.
▪ Finite complement clauses are introduced by the subordinator
that or by a wh-word.
ex. a. He was [aware that a Garda Inquiry was being conducted].
b. There is [a fear that such rules will be over-bureaucratic].
c. Be [very careful what you tell me].
d. She was [afraid of what might happen if Chielo suddenly
turned round and saw her].
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[2] Adverbial Clauses

▪ Adverbial clauses are used as adverbials in the main clause.

a. If you go to a bank, they'll rip you off.
b. There's a term and a half left before he moves in.
c. When the houses were ready, prices of up to 551,000 were
quoted.
d. Most ions are colorless, although some have distinct colors.
e. The conclusion, it seems, is intolerable.
f. He was at a tough football camp in Arkansas I guess.

▪ Most adverbial clauses belong to the class of circumstance

adverbials, expressing meanings like time, reason, and
condition.

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[3] Relative Clauses

▪ A relative clause is a postmodifier in a noun phrase, serving to

expand the meaning and specify the reference of the head noun.
▪ It is introduced by a relativizer, which has a grammatical role
(e.g. subject or direct object) in the relative clause, in addition
to its linking function.

Ex. a. He warned the public not to approach [the men, who are
armed and dangerous].
b. A system is [that part of the world which we are interested
in and which we are investigating].

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[4] Comparative Clauses

▪ Comparative clauses are complements in an adjective phrase

or an adverb phrase, with a gradable word as head.
▪ Comparative forms of adjectives, adverbs, pronouns, and
determiners (e.g. bigger, more carefully, less, fewer) require a
basis of comparison.

Ex. a. Maybe Henry would realize she was not [as nice as she
pretended to be].
b. She fled these Sunday afternoons [earlier than she should
have].

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3.2 Nonfinite Clauses
▪ four major types of non-finite clause: infinitive clauses, ing-
clauses, ed-participle clauses, and verbless clauses.

[1] Infinitive Clause

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[2] –ing Clauses

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[3] Ed-participle Clauses

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[4] Verbless Clauses

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1. a. I wanted the doctor to examine the boy.
b. I wanted the boy to be examined by the doctor.
c. *The doctor was wanted to examine the boy.
d. The farmers want the hens to lay eggs.
e. *The farmers want to lay eggs.
f. *The hens want the farmers to lay eggs.

√ I wanted [the doctor to examine the boy].

2. a. I persuaded the doctor to examine the boy.
b. The doctor was persuaded to examine the boy.
c. I persuaded the boy to be examined by the doctor.
d. I persuaded John to play the piano.
e. *I persuaded the piano to be played by the John.

√ I persuaded the doctor the boy [the boy to be

examined by the doctor].
3. a. I believe the doctor to have examined John.

b. The doctor is believed to have examined John.

4. a. I expect to examine John.

b. I expect the doctor to examine John

c. I expect John to be examined by the doctor.

d. The doctor was expected to examine John.

5. a. I promised to meet Mary.

b. I promised John to meet Mary.

c. *John was promised to meet Mary.

d. !I promised Mary to be met by John.

6. a. John seems to like Mary.

b. Mary seems to be liked by John.

c. He seems to have seen her.