SEMINAR

SUBMITTED TO: DR. SHUMAILA

SUBMITTED BY: UZMA BATOOL
REGISTRATION NO: UW-16-BIS-BS-028
TOPIC: MICROBES
 Microbes
A microorganism, or microbe, is a microscopic organism, which may exist in its single-
celled form or in a colony of cells.
Microorganisms include all unicellular organisms and so are extremely diverse. Of
the three domains of life identified by Carl Woese, all of the Archaea and Bacteria are
microorganisms. These were previously grouped together in the two domain
system as Prokaryotes, the other being the eukaryotes. The third
domain Eukaryota includes all multicellular organisms and many
unicellular protists and protozoans. Some protists are related to animals and some
to green plants.
They live in almost every habitat from the poles to
the equator, deserts, geysers, rocks and the deep sea. Some are adapted to extremes such
as very hot or very cold conditions, others to high pressure and a few such
as Deinococcus radiodurans to high radiation environments. Microorganisms also make
up the microbiota found in and on all multicellular organisms
Microbes are important in human culture and health in many ways, serving to ferment
foods, treat sewage, produce fuel, enzymes and other bioactive compounds. They are
essential tools in biology as model organisms and have been put to use in biological
warfare and bioterrorism. They are a vital component of fertile soils. In the human
body microorganisms make up the human microbiota including the essential gut flora.
They are the pathogens responsible for many infectious diseases and as such are the
target of hygiene measures.
Classification and structure:
Microorganisms can be found almost anywhere on Earth. Bacteria and archaea are almost
always microscopic, while a number of eukaryotes are also microscopic, including
most protists, some fungi, as well as some micro-animals and plants. Viruses are
generally regarded as not living and therefore not considered as microorganisms,
although a subfield of microbiology is virology, the study of viruses.
Evolution:
Carl Woese's 1990 phylogenetic tree based on rRNA data shows the domains
of Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryota. All are microorganisms except some eukaryote
groups.

Single-celled microorganisms were the first forms of life to develop on Earth,

approximately 3–4 billion years ago.Further evolution was slow
Microorganisms tend to have a relatively fast rate of evolution. Most microorganisms can
reproduce rapidly, and bacteria are also able to freely exchange genes
Archaea
Bacteria
Eukaryotes
Protists
Fungi
Plants
Ecology:
Microorganisms are found in almost every habitat present in nature, including hostile
environments such as the North and South poles, deserts, geysers, and rocks. They also
include all the marine microorganisms of the oceans and deep sea. Some types of
microorganisms have adapted to extreme environments and sustained colonies; these
organisms are known as extremophiles. Many types of microorganisms have
intimate symbiotic relationships with other larger organisms; some of which are mutually
beneficial (mutualism), while others can be damaging to the host organism (parasitism).
If microorganisms can cause disease in a host they are known as pathogens and then they
are sometimes referred to as microbes. Microorganisms play critical roles in
Earth's biogeochemical cycles as they are responsible for decomposition and nitrogen
fixation.
In soil:
The nitrogen cycle in soils depends on the fixation of atmospheric nitrogen. This is
achieved by a number of diazotrophs. One way this can occur is in the root
nodules of legumes that contain symbiotic bacteria of the
genera Rhizobium, Mesorhizobium, Sinorhizobium, Bradyrhizobium, and Azorhizobium.
The roots of plants create a narrow region known as the rhizosphere that supports many
microorganisms known as the root microbiome.
Symbiosis:
A lichen is a symbiosis of a macroscopic fungus
with photosynthetic microbial algae or cyanobacteria.
Application:
Microorganisms are useful in producing foods, treating waste water, creating biofuels and
a wide range of chemicals and enzymes. They are invaluable in research as model
organisms. They have been weaponised and sometimes used in warfare and bioterrorism.
They are vital to agriculture through their roles in maintaining soil fertility and in
decomposing organic matter.
Food production:
Microorganisms are used in a fermentation process to
make yoghurt, cheese, curd, kefir, ayran, xynogala, and other types of food. Fermentation
cultures provide flavour and aroma, and inhibit undesirable organisms. They are used
to leaven bread, and to convert sugars to alcohol in wine and beer. Microorganisms are
used in brewing, wine making, baking, pickling and other food-making processes.
Some industrial uses of Microorganisms:

Product Contribution of Microorganisms

Growth of microorganisms contributes to ripening and flavor. The

Cheese flavor and appearance of a particular cheese is due in large part to
the microorganisms associated with it.

yeast is used to convert sugar, grape juice,or malt-treated grain

Alcoholic
into alcohol. other microorganisms may also be used; a mold
beverages
converts starch into sugar to make the Japanese rice wine, sake.

Certain bacteria are used to convert alcohol into acetic acid, which
Vinegar
gives vinegar its acid taste.

Certain fungi are used to make citric acid, a common ingredient of

Citric acid
soft drinks and other foods.

Vitamins Microorganisms are used to make vitamins, including C, B2 , B12.

Antibiotics With only a few exceptions, microorganisms are used to make

 antibiotics.

Water treatment:
These depend for their ability to clean up water contaminated with organic material on
microorganisms that can respire dissolved substances. Respiration may be aerobic, with a
well-oxygenated filter bed such as a slow sand filter. Anaerobic
digestion by methanogens generate useful methane gas as a by-product.
Energy:

Microorganisms are used in fermentation to produce ethanol. and in biogas reactors to

produce methane. Scientists are researching the use of algae to produce liquid fuels, and
bacteria to convert various forms of agricultural and urban waste into usable fuels.
Chemicals, enzyme:
Microorganisms are used to produce many commercial and industrial
chemicals, enzymes and other bioactive molecules. Organic acids produced on a large
industrial scale by microbial fermentation include acetic acid produced by acetic acid
bacteria such as Acetobacter aceti, butyric acid made by the bacterium Clostridium
butyricum, lactic acid made by Lactobacillus and other lactic acid bacteria, and citric
acid produced by the mould fungus Aspergillus niger.
Microorganisms are used to prepare bioactive molecules such as Streptokinase from the
bacterium Streptococcus, Cyclosporin A from the ascomycete fungus Tolypocladium
inflatum, and statins produced by the yeast Monascus purpureus.
Science:
Microorganisms are essential tools in biotechnology, biochemistry, genetics,
and molecular biology. The yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Schizosaccharomyces
pombe are important model organisms in science, since they are simple eukaryotes that
can be grown rapidly in large numbers and are easily manipulated. They are particularly
valuable in genetics, genomics and proteomics. Microorganisms can be harnessed for
uses such as creating steroids and treating skin diseases. Scientists are also considering
using microorganisms for living fuel cells, and as a solution for pollution.
Human health
Human gut flora:
Microorganisms can form an endosymbiotic relationship with other, larger organisms.
For example, microbial symbiosis plays a crucial role in the immune system. The
microorganisms that make up the gut flora in the gastrointestinal tract contribute to gut
immunity, synthesize vitamins such as folic acid and biotin, and ferment complex
indigestible carbohydrates. Some microorganisms that are seen to be beneficial to health
are termed probiotics and are available as dietary supplements, or food additives.
Disease:
Microorganisms are the causative agents (pathogens) in many infectious diseases. The
organisms involved include pathogenic bacteria, causing diseases such
as plague, tuberculosis and anthrax; protozoan parasites, causing diseases such
as malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery and toxoplasmosis; and also fungi causing
diseases such as ringworm, candidiasis or histoplasmosis. However, other diseases such
as influenza, yellow fever or AIDS are caused by pathogenic viruses, which are not
usually classified as living organisms and are not, therefore, microorganisms by the strict
definition. No clear examples of archaean pathogens are known, although a relationship
has been proposed between the presence of some archaean methanogens and
human periodontal disease Numerous microbial pathogens are capable of sexual
processes that appear to facilitate their survival in their infected host.
Hygiene:
Hygiene is a set of practices to avoid infection or food spoilage by eliminating
microorganisms from the surroundings. As microorganisms, in particular bacteria, are
found virtually everywhere, harmful microorganisms may be reduced to acceptable levels
rather than actually eliminated. In food preparation, microorganisms are reduced
by preservation methods such as cooking, cleanliness of utensils, short storage periods, or
by low temperatures. If complete sterility is needed, as with surgical equipment,
an autoclave is used to kill microorganisms with heat and pressure.

Cell ctructure and function:

Prokaryotic cells:
Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack organelles or other internal membrane-
bound structures. Therefore, they do not have a nucleus, but, instead, generally have a
single chromosome: a piece of circular, double-stranded DNA located in an area of
the cell called the nucleoid.
External structures of bacterial cells or prokaryotes
Glycocalyces:
Some cels have a gelatinous, sticky substance that surrounds the outside of the cel. This
substance is known as a glycocalyx, which literally means sweet cup. The glycocalyx
may be composed of polysaccharides, polypeptides,or both. These chemicals are
produced inside the cell and are extruded onto the cells surface
When the glycocalyx of a bacterium s composed of organized repeating units of organic
chemicals firmly attached to the cells surface, the glycocalyx is called a capsule
A loosw, water soluble glycocalyx is called a slime layer
Flagella:
A cells motility may enable it to flee from a harmful environment or move toward a
favorable environment, such as one where food or light is available. The most notable
structures responsible for such bacterial movement are flagella bacterial flagella are long
structures that extend beyond the surface of a cell and its glycocalyx and propel the cell
through its environment. Not all bacteria have flagella, but for those that do, the flagella
are very similar in composition, structure and development.
A flagellum  is a lash-like appendage that protrudes from the cell body of
certain bacteria and eukaryotic cells termed as flagellates. A flagellate can have one or
several flagella. The primary function of a flagellum is that of locomotion, but it also
often functions as a sensory organelle, being sensitive to chemicals and temperatures
outside the cell. The similar structure in the archaea functions in the same way but is
structurally different and has been termed the archaellum.
Flagella are organelles defined by function rather than structure. Flagella vary greatly.
Both prokaryotic and eukaryotic flagella can be used for swimming but they differ
greatly in protein composition, structure, and mechanism of propulsion. The
word flagellum in Latin means whip.
An example of a flagellated bacterium is the ulcer-causing Helicobacter pylori, which
uses multiple flagella to propel itself through the mucus lining to reach the
stomach epithelium. An example of a eukaryotic flagellate cell is the mammalian sperm
cell, which uses its flagellum to propel itself through the female reproductive tract.
eukaryotic flagella are structurally identical to eukaryotic cilia, although distinctions are
sometimes made according to function or length. Fimbriae and pili are also thin
appendages, but have different functions and are usually smaller.
Structure:
Bacterial flagella are composed of three parts:
A long, thin filament, a hook and a basal body
The hpllow shaft, about 20 nm in diameter, that extends out into the cells environment. It
composed of many identical globular molecules o a protein called flagellin.
Flagellar arrangement schemes

Examples of bacterial flagella arrangement schemes:

(A) monotrichous;
(B) lophotrichous;
(C) amphitrichous;
(D) peritrichous.
Different species of bacteria have different numbers and arrangements of flagella.
Monotrichous bacteria have a single flagellum (e.g., Vibrio cholerae).
Lophotrichous bacteria have multiple flagella located at the same spot on the bacterial
surfaces which act in concert to drive the bacteria in a single direction. In many cases, the
bases of multiple flagella are surrounded by a specialized region of the cell membrane,
called the polar organelle.
Amphitrichous bacteria have a single flagellum on each of two opposite ends (only one
flagellum operates at a time, allowing the bacterium to reverse course rapidly by
switching which flagellum is active).
Peritrichous bacteria have flagella projecting in all directions (e.g., E. coli).
Bacterial cell wall:
Bacterial cell walls

Illustration of a typical gram-positive bacterium. The cell envelope comprises a plasma

membrane, seen here in light brown, and a thick peptidoglycan-containing cell wall (the
purple layer). No outer lipid membrane is present, as would be the case in gram-negative
bacteria. The red layer, known as the capsule, is distinct from the cell envelope.
Around the outside of the cell membrane is the bacterial cell wall. Bacterial cell walls are
made of peptidoglycan (also called murein), which is made from polysaccharide chains
cross-linked by unusual peptides containing D-amino acids. Bacterial cell walls are
different from the cell walls of plants and fungi which are made of cellulose and chitin,
respectively. The cell wall of bacteria is also distinct from that of Archaea, which do not
contain peptidoglycan. The cell wall is essential to the survival of many bacteria,
although L-form bacteria can be produced in the laboratory that lack a cell wall. The
antibiotic penicillin is able to kill bacteria by preventing the cross-linking of
peptidoglycan and this causes the cell wall to weaken and lyse. The lysozyme enzyme
can also damage bacterial cell walls.
There are broadly speaking two different types of cell wall in bacteria, called gram-
positive and gram-negative. The names originate from the reaction of cells to the Gram
stain, a test long-employed for the classification of bacterial species.
Gram-positive bacteria possess a thick cell wall containing many layers of peptidoglycan
and teichoic acids. In contrast, gram-negative bacteria have a relatively thin cell wall
consisting of a few layers of peptidoglycan surrounded by a second lipid membrane
containing lipopolysaccharides and lipoproteins. Most bacteria have the gram-negative
cell wall and only the Firmicutes and Actinobacteria (previously known as the low G+C
and high G+C gram-positive bacteria, respectively) have the alternative gram-positive
arrangement. These differences in structure can produce differences in antibiotic
susceptibility, for instance vancomycin can kill only gram-positive bacteria and is
ineffective against gram-negative pathogens, such as Haemophilus
influenzae or Pseudomonas aeruginosa.

Gram positive bacteria

In the Gram-positive Bacteria, the cell wall is thick (15-80 nanometers), consisting of

several layers of peptidoglycan. In the Gram-negative Bacteria the cell wall is relatively
thin (10 nanometers) and is composed of a single layer of peptidoglycan surrounded by
an outer membrane.

Gram negative cell wall:

Gram-negative Bacteria the cell wall is composed of a single layer of peptidoglycan
surrounded by a membranous structure called the outer membrane. ... Sandwiched
between the outer membrane and the plasma membrane, a concentrated gel-like matrix
(the periplasm) is found in the periplasmic space.m negative cell wall
Bacterial cytoplasmic membrane:
The bacterial cytoplasmic membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and proteins
and encloses the contents of the bacterial cell. Hydrophobic in nature, it acts as a barrier,
preventing the leakage of the hydrophilic cytoplasmic constituents and protecting the
inside of the cell from environmental insult.

Cytoplasm - The cytoplasm, or protoplasm, of bacterial cells is where the functions for

cell growth, metabolism, and replication are carried out. It is a gel-like matrix composed
of water, enzymes, nutrients, wastes, and gases and contains cell structures such as
ribosomes, a chromosome, and plasmids.

The three major elements of the cytoplasm are

the cytosol, organelles and inclusions.
Cytosol
The cytosol is the portion of the cytoplasm not contained within membrane-bound
organelles. Cytosol makes up about 70% of the cell volume and is a complex mixture
of cytoskeleton filaments, dissolved molecules, and water. The cytosol's filaments
include the protein filaments such as actin filaments and microtubules that make up the
cytoskeleton, as well as soluble proteins and small structures such
as ribosomes, proteasomes, and the mysterious vault complexes.The inner, granular and
more fluid portion of the cytoplasm is referred to as endoplasm.
Due to this network of fibres and high concentrations of dissolved macromolecules, such
as proteins, an effect called macromolecular crowding occurs and the cytosol does not act
as an ideal solution. This crowding effect alters how the components of the cytosol
interact with each other.
Organelles:

Organelles (literally "little organs"), are usually membrane-bound structures inside the
cell that have specific functions. Some major organelles that are suspended in the cytosol
are the mitochondria, the endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi
apparatus, vacuoles, lysosomes, and in plant cells, chloroplasts.
Cytoplasmic inclusions:
The inclusions are small particles of insoluble substances suspended in the cytosol. A
huge range of inclusions exist in different cell types, and range from crystals of calcium
oxalate or silicon dioxide in plants to granules of energy-storage materials such as starch,
glycogen, or polyhydroxybutyrate. A particularly widespread example are lipid droplets,
which are spherical droplets composed of lipids and proteins that are used in both
prokaryotes and eukaryotes as a way of storing lipids such as fatty
acids and sterols. Lipid droplets make up much of the volume of adipocytes, which are
specialized lipid-storage cells, but they are also found in a range of other cell types.

Eukaryotic cells:
Eukaryotic cells are cells that contain a nucleus and organelles, and are enclosed by a
plasma membrane. Organisms that have eukaryotic cells include protozoa, fungi, plants
and animals.

4 types:
The Protists. Protists are one-celled eukaryotes. ...
The Fungi. Fungi can have one cell or many cells. ...
The Plants. All of the roughly 250,000 species of plants -- from simple mosses to
complex flowering plants -- belong to the eukaryotes. ...
The Animals.
Cell wall:
A cell wall is a structural layer surrounding some types of cells, just outside the cell
membrane. It can be tough, flexible, and sometimes rigid. It provides the cell with both
structural support and protection, and also acts as a filtering mechanism.Cell walls are
present in most prokaryotes (except mollicute bacteria),
in algae, fungi and eukaryotes including plants but are absent in animals. A major
function is to act as pressure vessels, preventing over-expansion of the cell when water
enters.

Properties:
Rigidity of cell walls:
In most cells, the cell wall is flexible, meaning that it will bend rather than holding a
fixed shape, but has considerable tensile strength. The apparent rigidity of primary plant
tissues is enabled by cell walls, but is not due to the walls' stiffness. Hydraulic turgor
pressure creates this rigidity, along with the wall structure. The flexibility of the cell
walls is seen when plants wilt, so that the stems and leaves begin to droop, or
in seaweeds that bend in water currents. As John Howland explains
The apparent rigidity of the cell wall thus results from inflation of the cell contained
within. This inflation is a result of the passive uptake of water.
In plants, a secondary cell wall is a thicker additional layer of cellulose which increases
wall rigidity. Additional layers may be formed by lignin in xylem cell walls,
or suberin in cork cell walls. These compounds are rigid and waterproof, making the
secondary wall stiff. Both wood and bark cells of trees have secondary walls. Other parts
of plants such as the leaf stalk may acquire similar reinforcement to resist the strain of
physical forces.
Permeability:
The primary cell wall of most plant cells is freely permeable to small molecules including
small proteins, with size exclusion estimated to be 30-60 kDa. The pH is an important
factor governing the transport of molecules through cell walls.

Cell membrane:
The cell membrane (also known as the plasma membrane (PM) or cytoplasmic
membrane, and historically referred to as the plasmalemma) is a biological
membrane that separates the interior of all cells from the outside environment (the
extracellular space) which protects the cell from its environment. Cell membrane consists
of a lipid bilayer, including cholesterols (a lipid component) that sit
between phospholipids to maintain their fluidity under various temperature, in
combination with membrane proteins such as integral proteins, and peripheral
proteins that go across inside and outside of the membrane serving as membrane
transporter, and loosely attached to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane
acting as several kinds of enzymes shaping the cell, respectively. The cell
membrane controls the movement of substances in and out of cells and organelles. In this
way, it is selectively permeable to ions and organic molecules. In addition, cell
membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as cell adhesion, ion
conductivity and cell signalling and serve as the attachment surface for several
extracellular structures, including the cell wall, the carbohydrate layer called
the glycocalyx, and the intracellular network of protein fibers called the cytoskeleton. In
the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be artificially reassembled.

Composition:
Cell membranes contain a variety of biological molecules, notably lipids and proteins.
Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the
environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically,
the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this
change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages.
Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of
mechanisms:
Fusion of intracellular vesicles with the membrane (exocytosis) not only excretes the
contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the
cell membrane. The membrane may form blebs around extracellular material that pinch
off to become vesicles (endocytosis).
If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then
material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously.
Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable
membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules
between the lipid and aqueous phases.
Lipids:
 Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and
glycolipids: phosphatidylcholine (PtdCho), phosphatidylethanolamine (PtdEtn), phosphat
idylinositol (PtdIns), phosphatidylserine (PtdSer).
The cell membrane consists of three classes
of amphipathic lipids: phospholipids, glycolipids, and sterols. The amount of each
depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most
abundant, often contributing for over 50% of all lipids in plasma membranes. Glycolipids
only account for a minute amount of about 2% and sterols make up the rest.
In RBC studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of
eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half
proteins by weight.
Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles
Lipid vesicles or liposomes are approximately spherical pockets that are enclosed by a
lipid bilayer. These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in
cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into
cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending
a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through sonication, resulting in a
vesicle. By measuring the rate of efflux from that of the inside of the vesicle to the
ambient solution, allows researcher to better understand membrane permeability.
Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle
with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution.
Carbohydrates:
Plasma membranes also contain carbohydrates, predominantly glycoproteins, but with
some glycolipids (cerebrosides and gangliosides). Carbohydrates are important in the role
of cell-cell recognition in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where
they recognize host cells and share information, viruses that bind to cells using these
receptors cause an infection. For the most part, no glycosylation occurs on membranes
within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the
plasma membrane. The glycocalyx is an important feature in all cells,
especially epithelia with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in
cell adhesion, lymphocyte homing and many others. The penultimate sugar
is galactose and the terminal sugar is sialic acid, as the sugar backbone is modified in
the Golgi apparatus. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to
charged particles.
Proteins:

Type Description Examples

Integral proteins Span the membrane and have a Ion channels, proton

or hydrophilic cytosolic domain, which interacts with internal pumps, G protein-
 molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that
anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic
transmembrane
extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. coupled receptor
proteins
The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a
combination of α-helices and β sheet protein motifs.

Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules;

Lipid anchored hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor
G proteins
proteins the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the
membrane.

Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with

peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend Some
Peripheral
to have only temporary interactions with biological enzymes, some
proteins
membranes, and once reacted, the molecule dissociates to hormones
carry on its work in the cytoplasm.

The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane
volume These proteins are important for the cell because they are responsible for various
biological activities. Approximately a third of the genes in yeast code specifically for
them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.Membrane
proteins consist of three main types: integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-
anchored proteins.
Function:
The cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm of living cells, physically separating
the intracellular components from the extracellular environment. The cell membrane also
plays a role in anchoring the cytoskeleton to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to
the extracellular matrix and other cells to hold them together to
form tissues. Fungi, bacteria, most archaea, and plants also have a cell wall, which
provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of larger molecules.
The cell membrane is selectively permeable and able to regulate what enters and exits the
cell, thus facilitating the transport of materials needed for survival. The movement of
substances across the membrane can be either "passive", occurring without the input of
cellular energy, or "active", requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The
membrane also maintains the cell potential. The cell membrane thus works as a selective
filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell
employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes:
1. Passive osmosis and diffusion: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as
carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2), can move across the plasma membrane by
diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier
for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides
of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high
concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered
a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the
concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane. Such a concentration
gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an osmotic flow for the water.
Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable
membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration
gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can
also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.
signaling molecules to communicate between cells.
2. Transmembrane protein channels and transporters: Transmembrane proteins
extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the
membrane to transport molecules across it. Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must
enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can
diffuse passively through protein channels such as aquaporins in facilitated diffusion or
are pumped across the membrane by transmembrane transporters. Protein channel
proteins, also called permeases, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and
transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance.
Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell-surface receptor, which allow cell
3. Endocytosis: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing
them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination,
in which the substance to be transported is captured.This invagination is caused by
proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into
depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the
cytosolic side of the membrane. The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on
the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is
a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or phagocytosis), small
molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or pinocytosis), and macromolecules. Endocytosis
requires energy and is thus a form of active transport.
4. Exocytosis: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation
of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane,
extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis.
Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in
by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a
substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the
undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from Golgi
apparatus, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The
vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of
the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage
is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell.
Cellular organelles:
Endoplasmmic reticulum
Golgi apparatus
Cytoskeleton
Nucleus
Microbial metabolism:
Microbial metabolism is the means by which a microbe obtains the energy and nutrients
(e.g. carbon) it needs to live and reproduce.
Types of microbes:
All microbial metabolisms can be arranged according to three principles:
1. How the organism obtains carbon for synthesising cell mass:
autotrophic – carbon is obtained from carbon dioxide (CO2)
heterotrophic – carbon is obtained from organic compounds
mixotrophic – carbon is obtained from both organic compounds and by fixing carbon
dioxide
2. How the organism obtains reducing equivalents used either in energy conservation or
in biosynthetic reactions:
lithotrophic – reducing equivalents are obtained from inorganic compounds
organotrophic – reducing equivalents are obtained from organic compounds
3. How the organism obtains energy for living and growing:
chemotrophic – energy is obtained from external chemical compounds
phototrophic – energy is obtained from light

Etiology:
Etiology: The study of causes, as in the causes of a disease. The form aetiology is
generally used in the UK.
Medicine:
the cause, set of causes, or manner of causation of a disease or condition.
"the importance of sunlight in the aetiology of melanoma
"The word is derived from the Greek αἰτιολογία, aitiología, "giving a reason for" ( aitía,
"cause"; and -logía). More completely, etiology is the study of the causes, origins, or
reasons behind the way that things are, or the way they function, or it can refer to the
causes themselves. The word is commonly used in medicine (pertaining to causes of
disease) and in philosophy, but also in physics, psychology, government, geography,
spatial analysis, theology, and biology, in reference to the causes or origins of various
phenomena.

In the past, when many physical phenomena were not well understood or when histories
were not recorded, myths often arose to provide etiologies. Thus, an etiological myth, or
origin myth, is a myth that has arisen, been told over time or written to explain the origins
of various social or natural phenomena. For example, Virgil's Aeneid is a national myth
written to explain and glorify the origins of the Roman Empire. In theology, many
religions have creation mythsexplaining the origins of the world or its relationship to
believers.
Psychological etiology refers to the scientific investigation into the origins of a disorder
that cannot be explained biologically. Etiology is complicated by the fact that most
disorders have more than one cause. Early etiological theories were the Freudian and
post-Freudian psychoanalytic beliefs.
Beneficial microbes in the gut; effects on antibiotic resistant strains
In the gut lies a community of beneficial microorganisms that have carved a niche and
have evolved with humans over several generations—collectively known as the gut
microbiota. Microorganisms that make up the gut microbiota include members of
bacteria, fungi, viruses, archaea, and protists. Before the advent of next-generation
sequencing technologies, very little was known about the composition and functions of
this microbial community, and as such were not thought as agents to be considered in
health and disease. Now, we are just beginning to scratch the surface of the potentials of
this novel ‘organ’, and its implication in the overall health of humans. It is referred to as
an ‘organ’ because the gut microbiome (the gut microbiota, gut microbial genomes, and
the living environment) is made of millions of bacterial cells that collectively weigh
about 1.5 kg, possesses about 150 times more genes than human genes, and contribute
significantly to human health. As a result of advances in research, scientists are beginning
to appreciate the beneficial roles of gut microbes, and their symbiotic relationship with
us, their host. Although previously thought to be responsible for the production of
essential vitamins B and K alone, the gut microbiota has been discovered to be implicated
in various aspect of human health, and its effects extend beyond the gastrointestinal tract
through the release of biosynthesized metabolites (by the gut microbes) from the gut into
the systemic circulation. For example, the response of immune cells to inflammation is
modulated by the gut microbiota The effect of these metabolites extends even to the
central nervous system where they influence behavior, mood, and emotions.
In the gastrointestinal tract, the gut microbiota protects the gut against invading
pathogens by competing with them for nutrients and attachment site. Most of the
antibiotic-resistant disease-causing infectious agents that invade the gastrointestinal tract
are food-borne or water-borne, and they include Salmonella, Shigella, Campylobacter,
and Listeria monocytogenes. On the other hand, the gut microbiota is dominated by
members of the Firmicutes, Bacteroidetes, Proteobacteria, and Actinobacteria. Other less
dominant bacterial phyla include the Fusobacteria, Tenericutes, Spirochaetes
(differentially abundant in the gut of hunter-gatherers and rural individuals who consume
plant-based foods), Elusimicrobia, and Verrucomicrobia. Prevotella—a member of the
phylum Bacteroidetes—has also been found to be more abundant in individuals whose
lifestyle resembles those of the Paleolithic (such as the hunter-gatherers) and Neolithic
(such as the subsistence agriculturalists) era. Conversely, Bacteroides—another member
of Bacteroidetes—is more abundant in populations that practice a westernized lifestyle,
characterized by high-fat, low-fiber diet. Many of the gut commensals such
as Eubacterium, Ruminococcus, Roseburia, and Faecalibacterium are members of the
Firmicutes that produce short-chain fatty acids (such as butyrate, acetate, and propionate)
as a product of microbial fermentation (the breakdown of complex polysaccharides), and
these acids diminish diarrhea and gastrointestinal inflammation. These short chain fatty
acids (SCFA) also create a harsh environment for the colonization of invading
gastrointestinal pathogens by the reduction of intestinal pH. Other pathogen-inhibiting
metabolites produced by gut commensals include phenols, ammonia, bacteriocins, and
ammonia
Current applications
The beneficial role played by bacteria in ingested fermented foods was linked to
increased longevity in Balkans The administration of probiotics has also reduced the
shedding of a pathogenic serotype of E. coli (E. coli O157: H7) by farm animals, thereby
reducing the spread of these resistant strains from animals to humans who handle them
regularly Also, there is hope that probiotics wills soon replace antibiotics in the
veterinary field to treat diseases of farm animals while enhancing the growth of these
farm animals. This way, antibiotic-resistant zoonotic pathogens do not re-emerge and
enter the food chain. Also, the cost of production and maintenance of livestock will drop
significantly if probiotics are being utilized rather than antibiotics.

Nitrogen fixing cycle

Nitrogen is an element required for growth by all biological systems. While extremely
common (80% by volume) in the atmosphere, dinitrogen gas (N2) is generally
biologically inaccessible due to its high activation energy. Throughout all of nature, only
specialized bacteria and Archaea are capable of nitrogen fixation, converting dinitrogen
gas into ammonia (NH3), which is easily assimilated by all organisms. These
prokaryotes, therefore, are very important ecologically and are often essential for the
survival of entire ecosystems. This is especially true in the ocean, where nitrogen-fixing
cyanobacteria are often the only sources of fixed nitrogen, and in soils, where specialized
symbioses exist between legumes and their nitrogen-fixing partners to provide the
nitrogen needed by these plants for growth.
Nitrogen fixation can be found distributed throughout nearly all bacterial lineages and
physiological classes but is not a universal property. Because the enzyme nitrogenase,
responsible for nitrogen fixation, is very sensitive to oxygen which will inhibit it
irreversibly, all nitrogen-fixing organisms must possess some mechanism to keep the
concentration of oxygen low. Examples include:
heterocyst formation (cyanobacteria e.g. Anabaena) where one cell does not
photosynthesize but instead fixes nitrogen for its neighbors which in turn provide it with
energy
root nodule symbioses (e.g. Rhizobium) with plants that supply oxygen to the bacteria
bound to molecules of leghaemoglobin
anaerobic lifestyle (e.g. Clostridium pasteurianum)
very fast metabolism (e.g. Azotobacter vinelandii)
The production and activity of nitrogenases is very highly regulated, both because
nitrogen fixation is an extremely energetically expensive process (16–24 ATP are used
per  N2  fixed) and due to the extreme sensitivity of the nitrogenase to oxygen.

Diseases caused by microbes

Microbial Pathogenesis
1.Pathogenesis:
Pathogenesis is the progression of processes of cellular lineage, maturation, and
migration, and eventual morphogenesis of both individual cells and their architecture in
forming a tissue or organ.
Types of Pathogenesis:
There are four main types of pathogenesis in the human body;
Inflammation is the swelling of tissue in the body as a problem is dealt with and infected
tissue is replaced.
Malignancy is the abnormal development of cell reproduction as often found in cancers.
Tissue breakdown or necrosis is the death of cells outside the normal cellular cycle.
Infection occurs when cells are infected by bacteria, viruses of fungi spores.

Microbial Pathogenesis:
Microbial pathogenesis is the process by which a microorganism causes a disease.
Microorganisms capable of microbial pathogenesis include bacteria, fungi and viruses.
Forms of these organisms that cause diseases are called pathogens. Microbial
pathogenesis tracks the origin and cause of the disease, how it manifests itself in the body
and how the body reacts to it.

Bacterial disease, any of a variety of illnesses caused by bacteria. Until the mid-20th
century, bacterial pneumonia was probably the leading cause of death among the elderly.
Improved sanitation, vaccines, and antibiotics have all decreased the mortality rates from
bacterial infections, though antibiotic-resistant strains have caused a resurgence in some
illnesses. In the early 21st century, tuberculosis, which is caused by Mycobacterium
tuberculosis—several strains of which had developed resistance to one or more drugs
widely used to treat the infection—was among the deadliest infectious
diseases worldwide.
Bacteria cause disease by secreting or excreting toxins (as in botulism), by producing
toxins internally, which are released when the bacteria disintegrate (as in typhoid), or by
inducing sensitivity to their antigenic properties (as in tuberculosis). Other serious
bacterial diseases include cholera, diphtheria, bacterial meningitis, tetanus, Lyme
disease, gonorrhea, and syphilis.
Bacterial disease
 Bacteria.
 Infectious disease.
 Cholera.
 Leprosy.
 Tuberculosis.
 Plague.
 Syphilis.
 Anthrax.
Viral diseses
 Abalone shriveling syndrome-associated virus.
 Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma.
 Alcelaphine gammaherpesvirus 2.
 Aleutian disease.
 Ebola virus
 Anthrax
 Influenza
  Tuberculosis (TB)
 HIV
 Cholera
 Smallpox
 Animal Health Act 1981.
 Animal Health and Welfare Act 1984.
 Animal virus.
 Argentine hemorrhagic fever.

How we can disinfectant objects from microbes:

1. Wash hands, and then wash the item to be sterilized, using dish washing liquid and
warm water. Make sure the item is thoroughly cleaned.

2. Set the item inside the pan. Fill the pan with cold water. Place the pan on a stove
burner.

3. Heat the water in the pan to a rolling boil and then place the lid securely onto the top of
the pan. Reduce the heat to medium to prevent the water from boiling over.

4. Allow the water to boil for fifteen minutes. Remove the pan from the burner and let it
sit with the lid on for fifteen to thirty minutes, until the water has cooled.

5. Remove the item from the pan, using clean tongs. Set on a clean dish towel or drying
rack and allow to air dry completely.

Fungal Infections:
Fungal infections are common throughout much of the natural world. In humans, fungal
infections occur when an invading fungus takes over an area of the body and is too much
for the immune system to handle.Fungi can live in the air, soil, water, and plants. There
are also some fungi that live naturally in the human body.Like many microbes, there are
helpful fungi and harmful fungi. When harmful fungi invade the body, they can be
difficult to kill, as they can survive in the environment and re-infect the person trying to
get better.
Symptoms:
The symptoms of a fungal infection will depend on the type, but common symptoms
include the following:
skin changes, including red and possibly cracking or peeling skin
Itching
Types of Fungal Infections:
The following conditions are all common types of fungal infections.
1-Athlete’s foot:
Tinea pedis or athlete’s foot is a common fungal infection that affects the foot.
Athlete’s foot is commonly associated with sports and athletes because the fungus grows
perfectly in warm, moist environments, such as socks and shoes, sports equipment, and
locker rooms.
In reality, anyone may be affected by athlete’s foot. It is most common in warmer
climates and summer months, where it can quickly multiply.
Symptoms:
Athlete’s foot is a common infection where the fungus grows in warm and moist
environments.The symptoms of athlete’s foot may vary slightly from person to person.
Classic symptoms include:
redness or blisters on the affected area
the infected skin may be soft, or layers may start to break down
peeling or cracking skin
the skin may scale and peel away
itching, stinging, or burning sensations in the infected area

Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention:

Not all itchy feet are the result athlete’s foot. Doctors usually diagnose the infection by
scraping scaling skin off of a person and inspecting it under a microscope for evidence of
any fungus.There are a few different fungi that can cause athlete’s foot. The infection
may behave differently depending on the specific fungus that is infecting the skin.
Athlete’s foot is often treated with topical antifungal ointments, which are available to
purchase over-the-counter or online. Severe infections can require additional oral
medications as well. The feet will also need to be cared for and kept dry to help kill the
fungus.Prevention methods include allowing the feet plenty of air to breathe and keeping
them clean and dry. It is a good idea to wear sandals in public showers or locker rooms.
2-Yeast infection:
Vaginal yeast infections are a common form of Candida overgrowth in women, usually
caused by Candida albicans.
An overgrowth of Candida disrupts the normal balance of the bacteria and yeast in the
vagina. This imbalance of bacteria may be due to antibiotics, stress, and hormone
imbalances, or poor eating habits, among other things.Candida infections can also
commonly cause fungal toenail infections and diaper rash.
Symptoms:
Yeast infection may commonly cause fungal toenail infections.A rash may develop over
time in some cases. Yeast infections should be treated quickly, as the symptoms may
become severe if left untreated.
Symptoms of a yeast infection include:
itching and swelling around the vagina
burning sensations or pain during urination or intercourse
redness and soreness on and surrounding the vagina
unusual vaginal discharge, such as gray clumps that resemble cottage cheese or a very
watery discharge
Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention:
The classic symptoms of a yeast infection make them easy to diagnose. Doctors may ask
about the person’s medical history, such as any previous yeast infections or sexually
transmitted infections (STIs). They may also ask whether the person was recently taking
antibiotics.Doctors will then examine the vaginal walls and cervix for signs of infection,
taking cells from the vagina if necessary for proper diagnosis.
Treatment of yeast infections depends on their severity. Standard treatments include
creams, tablets, or suppositories, which are available via prescription, or over-the-counter
or online. Complicated infections may require complex treatments.
Avoiding yeast infections begins with a balanced diet and proper hygiene. Wearing
loose-fitting clothing made from natural fibers may also help prevent infection. Washing
underwear in very hot water and changing feminine products often can also help prevent
fungal growth.
Diagnosis, treatment, and prevention:
Other skin conditions may look like ringworm, so doctors will usually want to take a skin
sample to inspect for the fungus.After confirming a diagnosis, doctors will recommend a
treatment, depending on how severe the symptoms are.
Creams and medicated ointments are often sufficient to treat many cases of ringworm,
and may be purchased over-the-counter or online. Ringworm of the scalp or severe
ringworm may require a prescription.Basic hygiene can help treat and prevent ringworm
as well. Keeping the skin clean and dry can help avoid infection.Safety in public includes
wearing sandals into public showers or locker rooms and avoiding shared items and
towels.

Ebola:
Ebola is one of the most lethal viruses to infect humans, with a mortality rate reaching 90
percent in some outbreaks. Ebola is one of two known filoviruses that cause severe
hemorrhagic fever in humans. Fruit bats are considered the natural host, but contaminated
wild meat may be the source of initial infection. The virus is spread through contact with
bodily fluids of infected people or animals.
Symptoms begin to show, the disease progresses rapidly, starting with fever, fatigue,
muscle pain, and headache, and ending with vomiting, diarrhea, internal bleeding, and
often external bleeding.
Anthrax:
Bacillus anthracis, which causes the disease known as anthrax, is a Gram-positive
sporulating bacteria that gets its name from the distinct coal-like, black tissue that is shed
from a skin infection (anthrakis is Greek for coal). It’s primarily associated with
infections of grazing animals spores can persist in the soil for decades.
Influenza:
The flu hits hard and fast, and can leave you with debilitating symptoms that last for
more than a week. The real flu is a serious illness with fever, headaches, and fatigue
lasting for many days. The flu is caused by the influenza virus and occurs seasonally
throughout the world.

Tuberculosis:
Tuberculosis (TB) is a global epidemic and a leading cause of morbidity and mortality
throughout the world. Each year, it infects up to 9 million people and is responsible for
over 1.5 million deaths. Mycobacterium tuberculosis, cause TB. Different types of
Antibiotics are used for treatment.

HIV:
The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infects immune cells.It’s these secondary
infections that cause problems for those infected with HIV — they become hard to treat
as the patient’s immune system deteriorates. Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome
(AIDS) applies to the most advanced stages of HIV infection where secondary infections
are often fatal.

Cholera:
Cholera is an acute diarrheal disease, caused by the waterborne bacterium Vibrio
cholerae. Every year, it affects 3 million to 5 million people and leads to up to 200,000
deaths. The rapid dehydration can be lethal within hours, but it can be effectively treated
with oral rehydration therapy.
Smallpox:
The smallpox virus, Variola major, has been a significant pathogen throughout human
history and has been responsible for major epidemics in the past. It’s particularly
noteworthy, however, because it represents a remarkable success story in the eradication
of infectious disease. Smallpox was the first and only major infectious human disease to
be eradicated from natural transmission.

Disease causes by Bacteria:

Drug Resistance:
Drug resistance is the reduction in effectiveness of a medication such as
an antimicrobial or an antineoplastic in treating a disease or condition. The term is used
in the context of resistance that pathogens or cancers have "acquired", that is, resistance
has evolved. Antimicrobial resistance and antineoplastic resistance challenge clinical care
and drive research. When an organism is resistant to more than one drug, it is said to
be multidrug-resistant.
Mechanism of drug resistance:
Mechanis Antimicrobial Mechanism of
Drug Action
m Agent Resistance

Binds to 30S
Plasmid encode
Ribosome
enzymes that
subunit,
chemically alter
inhibiting
the drug (e.g., by
protein
acetylation or
synthesis
phosphorylation)
Binds to
Aminoglycoside , thereby
penicillin-
Beta-lactam inactivating it.
binding
Destroy antibiotics Plasmid encode
proteins,
drug (penicillin and beta-lactamase,
Inhibiting
cephalosporin) which open the
peptidoglycan
Chloramphenicol beta-lactam ring,
synthesis
inactivating it.
Bind to 50S
Plasmid encode
ribosome
an enzyme that
subunit,
acetylate the
inhibiting
drug, thereby
formation of
inactivating it.
peptide bonds
 Binds to 30S
Ribosome
subunit,
inhibiting
protein
Bacteria make an
synthesis
altered 30S
Binds to
ribosomes that
penicillin-
does not bind to
binding
the drug.
proteins,
Bacteria make an
Inhibiting
altered
peptidoglycan
penicillin-
synthesis
binding proteins,
Bind to 50S
that do not bind
ribosome
Aminoglycoside to the drug.
subunit,
s Bacteria make a
inhibiting
Beta-lactam form of 50S
protein
antibiotics ribosome that
synthesis
Alters drug (penicillin and does not binds to
Binds to DNA
target cephalosporin) the drug.
topoisomerase
Erythromycin Bacteria make an
, an enzyme
Quinolones altered DNA
essential for
Rifampin topoisomerase
DNA
Trimethoprim that does not
synthesis
binds to the drug.
Binds to the
Bacteria make an
RNA
altered
polymerase;
polymerase that
inhibiting
does not binds to
initiation of
the drug.
RNA
Bacteria make an
synthesis
altered enzyme
Inhibit the
that does not
enzyme
binds to the drug.
dihydrofolate
reduces,
blocking the
folic acid
pathway
 Binds to
penicillin-
binding
Bacteria change
proteins,
shape of the
Inhibiting
outer membrane
peptidoglycan
porin proteins,
synthesis
preventing drug
Bind to 50S
from entering
ribosome
Inhibits cell.
Penicillin subunit,
drug entry New membrane
Erythromycin inhibiting
or removes transport system
Tetracycline protein
drug prevent drug
synthesis
from entering
Binds to 30S
cell.
Ribosome
New membrane
subunit,
transport system
inhibiting
pumps drug out
protein
of cell.
synthesis by
blocking
tRNA

Some examples of drug resistance:

1. Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)

Current/Emerging Infection Types Resistance Treatment Options

Resistant Bacteria Notes

Methicillin-resistant Sta Infections can MRSA has Antibiotics to treat

phylococcus range from skin become MRSA at home (i.e.,
aureus “staph” (MRSA) and soft tissue resistant to local soft tissue
infections common infection) may include a
(cellulitis, antibiotics 7-10-day course of an
abscess), to such as beta- oral antibiotic such as:
urinary tract lactams, trimethoprim-
infections, including sulfamethoxazole (TMP
osteomyelitis methicillin, -SMX or Bactrim)
(bone), amoxicillin,
 endocarditis penicillin, clindamycin
(heart), nafcillin, minocycline
pneumonia oxacillin, and doxycycline
(lung) infections, cephalosporins linezolid (Zyvox)
and meningitis . tedizolid (Sivextro)
(brain infection). MRSA is delafloxacin (Baxdela)
Incision/drainag spread by omadacycline
e or debridement contact. Patients with more
may be required. MRSA usually complicated infections
affects the may require intravenous
skin, such as antibiotics for MRSA in
surgical sites. the hospital such
MRSA can as vancomycin,
also cause lung linezolid, or
or blood daptomycin.
infections.
Infection
outbreaks can
be acquired in
the community
(CA-MRSA)
or in
healthcare
settings such
as nursing
homes, dialysis
centers, or
hospitals
(MRSA).
The CDC
lists MRSA as
a "serious"
threat.

2. Drug resistant Streptococcus pneumoniae:

Current/Emerging  Infection Types Resistance Treatment Options

Resistant Bacteria Notes
Drug-resistant Stre S. Drug- ceftriaxone (Rocephin)
ptococcus pneumoniae cause resistance cefotaxime
pneumoniae s pneumococcal to ceftaroline (Teflaro)
disease. Streptococ vancomycin
Infection types can cus some fluoroquinolones (moxiflo
include ear and pneumonia xacin, levofloxacin)
sinus e depends high-dose beta-lactam
infections, commu upon the antibiotics
nity-acquired area in (amoxicillin, amoxicillin-
pneumonia (CAP) which you clavulanate)
lung infections, live. select macrolides -
meningitis, and When (azithromycin, clarithromycin,
bloodstream these erythromycin): macrolides not
infections. bacteria for meningitis infection due to
are poor CNS penetration
resistant to
penicillin,
they are
often
resistant to
many
other
antibiotic
classes.
Resistance
in the US
is
relatively
high.
The CDC
lists drug
resistant S.
pneumonia
e as a
"concernin
g" threat.

3. Vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE):

Current/Emerging Resistant Infection Types Resistance Treatment Options

Bacteria Notes

Vancomycin-resistant Entero Enteroccocci are The best ampicillin

coccus (VRE) bacteria that are regimen for ampicillin-
normally present treating VRE sulbactam
in the human is not always gentamicin,
body, such as the known.  streptomycin
intestines and Laboratory ceftriaxone
female genital testing of the These agents have
tract. VRE can been used for
VRE infections determine VRE.
are resistant to which Combinations are
the antibiotic antibiotics will often needed.
vancomycin and work best.
often occur in The CDC
hospitals. lists drug-
resistant VRE
as a "serious"
threat.

Antibiotic resistance:

 
Bacteria can also acquire resistance when they pass genetic material back and forth from
one bacteria to another. One way they can do this is through plasmids. Plasmids are
pieces of bacterial DNA that can be transferred between bacteria. Some plasmids enable
the bacteria to produce an enzyme that can make antibiotics useless. When the plasmid is
inserted into other bacteria, antibiotic resistance can spread easily and quickly among
bacteria.
Additionally, when a bacterium's genetic material spontaneously changes, or mutates,
those genetic changes can create resistance. Over time, bacteria can acquire more than
one type of resistance through different mechanisms. This can lead to so-called
"superbugs" that are resistant to multiple antibiotic classes. Antibiotic resistant bacteria
can spread from one person to another (e.g., through touching contaminated surfaces,
coughing or sneezing), resulting in the spread of hard-to-treat or untreatable infections.
causes drug resistance:
Over-prescription of antibiotics
Patients not finishing the entire antibiotic course
Overuse of antibiotics
Poor infection control in health care settings
Poor hygiene and sanitation
Absence of new antibiotics being discovered
Prevention:
Only use antimicrobial drugs when a doctor prescribes them.
Always complete the full prescribed course, even if the symptoms have subsided. If not,
the drug may only kill off the most vulnerable microbes, leaving others to survive and
develop resistance.
Never share antimicrobials with others or using leftover drugs from previous
prescriptions. These medications may not be suitable for different forms of infection.
Do not pressurize doctors into prescribing antimicrobials when they are not necessary.
Follow good hygiene practices to prevent the spread of microbes, including washing
hands thoroughly and ensuring that food preparation areas are clean.
Get recommended vaccinations, as this will reduce the risk of needing to take medication.

References:
o Crawford, F. (2009, July 20). Athlete's foot. BMJ Clinical Evidence, 1712
ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2907807/
o El-Gohary, M., van Zuuren, E. J., Fedorowicz, Z., Burgess, H., Doney, L., Stuart,
B., ... & Little, P. (2014, August 4). Topical antifungal treatments for tinea cruris
and tinea corporis. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews, 8
onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/14651858.CD009992.pub2/full#abstract
o Genital / vulvovaginal candidiasis (VVC). (2014, February 13)
cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/candidiasis/genital/index.html
o Ringworm. (2015, December 4)
cdc.gov/fungal/diseases/ringworm/index.html
o https://www.britannica.com/science/bacteria/Bacterial-metabolism
o https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7919/
o https://www.scientistcindy.com/microbial-metabolism.html
o www.Wikkipedia.com
o https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/283963#prevention
o https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drug_resistance
o https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/antimicrobial-resistance
o https://courses.lumenlearning.com/microbiology/chapter/drug-resistance/
o https://www.drugs.com/article/antibiotic-resistance.html

o https://www.webmd.com/diabetes/foot-problems#1
o https://www.apma.org/diabeticwoundcare
o https://clinical.diabetesjournals.org/content/24/2/91
o https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/460282
o https://dermnetnz.org/topics/diabetic-foot-ulcer/
o https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-microbial-pathogenesis.htm#
o https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Book
%3A_Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/1%3A_Micro
bial_Pathogenesis
o https://www.wise.com/what-is-microbial-pathogenesis.htm#blood-transfusion-in-
hospital
o https://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-microbial-pathogenesis.htm#white-blood-
cells-labeled-on-illustration
o https://www./what-is-microbial-pathogenesis.htm#virus-depiction
o https://www.dummies.com/store/product/Microbiology-For-Dummies.productCd-
1118871189.html