C.

TREMATODES -Abdominal pain, dyspepsia, anorexia,

>Flukes or flukeworm
>Two orders: Monogenea & Digenea
(most medically important parasites)
>Flat, leaf-like & hermaphroditic
-except Schistosoma spp.
-disease of Schistosoma:
Schistosomiasis
nausea and diarrhea
+ diarrhea- mechanism of body to
excrete parasite
[TAENIA SPECIES ; Cestodes]
1. Taenia saginata- beef tapeworm
2. Taenia solium- pork tapeworm
-can go inside the brain
(NEUROCYSTICERCOSIS)

>2 Intermediate Hosts: [ INFECTIVE STAGE]: (parasite) when

the host acquires it, the host will a
1. snail- always goes first 100% have the parasitic infection

2. plants/snails/crabs/fish- (varies) a) PROTOZOA : cyst

depends on the Trematode
-if no cyst stage, infective stage is
 Oral sucker- feeding (yellow trophozoite
cirle)
b) NEMATODES: Ascaris lumbricoides
 Ventral sucker/ ACETABULUM-
attachment -unfertilized egg
[Schistosoma spp.] –dioecious -fertililized egg= infective stage
-to identify need to look at egg > Trichuris trichiura- embryonated egg
1) Schistosoma mansoni- stool > hookworm- (not egg) filariform larva
2) Schistosoma haematobium-
urine; terminal spine +eggs- usally ingestion/inhalation
3) Schistosoma japonicum- stool;
lateral knob +larva (filariform) -skin penetration
(feet)
+ mansoni & japonicum- intestine
c) TREMATODES: metacercaria
+ haematobium- urinary bladder
>exemption: Schistosoma spp
D. CESTODES
-infective stage: cercaria
>long worms

>Tapeworms

>Dwell in small intestines

[3 PARTS]

1. scolex- head
2. neck
3. several proglottids- segment

[Symptoms]
 DIAGNOSTIC PARASITOLOGY
A. Stool Examination: Fecalysis
-most common procedure
1. Collection of Fecal Specimens
->Thumb-sized stool specimen (2-4
grams)
->Placed in a dry, clean, wide mouth
container with tight-fitting lid
->Label the stool container properly
->Sample must be free from
contamination
->Stool specimen – shouldn’t be frozen
-Patient took anti-diarrheal medication,
radio-opaque compounds or oily
laxatives -> REFER FOR 1 WEEK
+unpreserved specimen: not stored at
room temp for more than 2 hrs.
-1 hr to be passed sa lab for allowance
+10 % formalin preserves stool
specimen
2. Method of Stool Examination-
Gross examination
[Stool Color]
>Brown- normal
-pigment: Stercobilin
-no Stercobilin: white
>Bright Red Blood- bleeding /
haemorrhoids
-lower GIT (almoranas)
>Bloody mucus (loose liquid)-
suggestive of ulceration in large
intestines
+large intestine- Entamoeba histolytica
>Occult blood- more likely a sign of
other GIT disorder
+occult blood- Colorectal Cancer
>black- bleeding in upper GIT
-acid in stomach (HCl)
+GIT- gastrointestinal tract
[Stool Consistency]
 well-formed, semi-formed,
mushy/liquid
 predictor for possible stages of
parasite in sample
 Normal pH: 7-7.5
2.5 Method of Stool Examination-
Microscopic examination
-for identification of helminth eggs,
larvae or protozoan’s cyst/ trophozoites
-Parasite micrometry: use a calibrated
ocular micrometer (eyepiece/ ocular
lens)
Wet Mounts
a. Direct Wet Mount
-fresh very soft/ liquid stool sample
-detect motile trophozoites
[Procedure] ½ drop of water stool ->
glass slide -> cover slip -> microscope
Solid
a. Saline Wet Mount
-Normal Saline Solution (NSS) – fecal
emulsion
-preserves protozoan trophozoites
b. Iodine Wet Method
-Lugol’s iodine
-Highlights the details of protozoan
cysts
[Procedure] poke -> cover slip ->
Lugol’s Iodine (color to parasite)
+parasite- yellowish brown
B. COLLECTION OF BLOOD
SPECIMENS
-Detects Plasmodium, filarial worms,
Trypanasoma, Leishmania
-Definite time of collection:
+Periodicity-parasites appear in blood
or not
-Palmar surface- of distal segment of
third (middle) or fourth (ring) finger
C. COLLECTION OF SCOTCH TAPE
SWAB
> Useful in Enterobiasis cases (intense
itchiness in personal area)
-Enterobius vermicularis (kigwa)
[Procedure] Swab
pre-cut scotch tape -> tongue depressor
-> glass slide
D. COLLECTION VIA VAGINAL SWABS
> Diagnosis of Trichomonas vaginalis
infection
+Pingpong motility
> BD Affirm™ VPIII Ambient
Temperature Transport System (ATTS)
-Molecular System for detection of
vaginitis
>Speculum (medical instrument)
without lubricant is used
>Mucosa is swabbed
HEMATOLOGY
>Scientific study of blood and its
component
>CBC-unclotted blood
-violet/ purple- most common tube for
blood
[PHLEBOTOMY]
Types:
-skin puncture = capillaries
-venipuncture = veins (unclotted blood)
- Arterial puncture = arteries
+Anticoagulant- (chemical) no blood
clot
+ EDTA / Ethylenediaminetetraacetic
acid – chemical put inside the purple/
violet tube
-anticoagulant presented is the EDTA
[CBC] well mixed blood or “ Whole
Blood”
+Why whole blood? Because if not
machines wont identify its form.
>(1) 8 inversions = for mixed coagulant
LAYER:
A) PLASMA: clear yellow liquid
-contains: water, sugar, protein, & salt >Most numerous
solution
>Multi-lobed nucleus
-composes of : 55% of a normal human’s
blood volume >Pale lilac granules

-FUNCTION: transports RBC, WBC, & >Function: immune defense

platelets throughout the blood >Under: Granulocytes
=remove waste products of metabolism 2) LYMPHOCYTE
B) RED BLOOD CELL / ERYTHROCYTE -Spherical nucleus
> anucleated (no nucleus), biconcave -“robin’s egg blue” cytoplasm
cells produced from the bone marrow
>TYPES
>Hemoglobin- gas transporting protein
molecule; carries O2 and CO2 -T-cell= cellular immune response
-reason why its Red -B cell: antibody production
>Functions: -NK Cells (Natural Killer Cells) – kill
cancer cells
-Transport oxygen (lungs -> tissues)
> Under: Agranulocytes
-Transport carbon dioxide (back to
lungs) 3) EOSINOPHIL
>Associated Conditions: -Usually with a bilobed nucleus
1. Anemia- low number of RBC -Granules stain bright reddish-orange
2. Polycythemia- high number of RBC >FUNCTION:
C) WHITE BLOOD CELL (LEUKOCYTE) -defense against parasites
-Nucleated cells that lack hemoglobin -Activate allergic response
-Acts as defense against infection >UNDER: Granulocytes
>Leukocytosis- increased number of 4) BASOPHIL
leukocyte
-with purple-blue granules
>Leukopenia- decreased number of
Leukocyte >FUNCTION:

-Inflammatory response

-Involved in allergic response

>UNDER: Granulocytes

1) NEUTROPHIL 5) MONOCYTE
-Kidney-shaped or horse-shoe shaped 3. Measuring biochemical abnormalities
nucleus of the blood

>TYPES: (in tissues) 4. Hemostasis and coagulation assays

- Dendritic cell: marks out cells that are

antigens (foreign bodies) that should be
destroyed by lymphocytes

-Macrophage: act as antigen-presenting

cells (largest WBC in tissues)

-lalapit si T-lympocyte

> Under: Agranulocytes

D) PLATELETS (THROMBOCYTE)

-Cell Fragments of MEGAKARYOCYTE

>FUNCTION: form clots during injury to

prevent blood from leaking out

! Thrombocytosis- increased number of

platelets

! Thrombocytopenia- decreased number

of platelets (Dengue)

[HEMATOLOGY SECTION]

>Sample: whole blood and blood films

> Complete Blood Count (CBC)

-hemoglobin (Hb)

-hematocrit (Hct)

-Red blood cell count (RBC)

-White blood cell count (WBC)

-Platelet count/estimate

-rbc indices (MCV, MCH,MCHC)

>PROCEDURES:

1. Counting the number of concentration

of cells

2. Determining the relative distribution

of various types of cells