RCE 084 Solid Waste Management (L-T-P 34-0) Credit-4 UNIT-I Solid waste: Public health and ecological impacts, Sources and types of solid wastes, material flow and waste generation, Functional elements: Waste generation, storage, collection, Transfer and transport, processing and recovery, disposal. Physical and chemical composition of municipal solid ‘waste, integrated solid waste management, hierarchy of waste management options, different methods for generation rates. Storage: movable bins, fixed bins. Collection: home to home collection, community bin system. Theory and design of hauled container system, stationary container system. [8] UNIT-II Transportation: handeart, tri-cycle, animal cart, tipper truck, dumper placer, bulk refuse jlroad transport, water transport, conveyors, layout of routes. Engineering system for on-site handling and processing of solid waste: separators, size reduction equipments, screening equipments, densification, baling, cubing, pelleting equipments. 18) UNIY-III Landfilling: Site selection criteria, landfill layout, landfill sections, Occurrence of gases and leachate in landfills: composition and characteristies, generation factors, initial adjustment phase, transition phase, acid formation phase, methane formation phase, maturation phase of gases and leachate, Introduction to engineered landfills. 18) UNIT-IV Composting, types of composting, process description, design and operational consideration of aerobic composting, process description, design and operational consideration of anaerobic composting. Thermal conversion technologies: incineration and pyrolysis system, energy recovery, system, Overview of solid waste management practices in India. 18) UNIT-V Introduction to Hazardous wastes, Definition of Hazardous waste, The magnitude of the problem; Hazardous waste: Risk assessment, Environmental legislation, Characterization and site assessment, Waste minimization and resource recovery, Transportation of hazardous waste, Disposal of hazardous waste, Introduction to Electronic waste and jiomedical waste and their disposal 18) References: 1. Tehobanoglous, G., Theisen, H., & Vigil, S.A; Integrated Solid Waste Management: McGraw Hill, New York 2, Solid Waste Engineering, Principle & Management issues by Ven Te Chow 3. Bhide, A.D., B.B. Sundaresan, Solid Waste Management in developing countries. 4, Manual on Municipal solid Waste Management, CPHEEO, Govt. of India. 5. Guidelines for Management and Handling of Hazardous wastes MOEF (1991), Govt. of India. 6. Datta, M; Waste Disposal in Engineered Land fils, Narosa Publishers, Delhi 7. Waste Management “Asian and Pacific Center for Transfer of Technology (N.D.) India”, September 1993. Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - LINTRODUCTION Solid waste Il Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities and are normally solid as ‘opposed to liquid or gaseous and are discarded as useless or unwanted. Focused on urban waste (MSW) as opposed to agricultural, mining and industrial wastes. I integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is the term applied to all the activities associated with the management of society's wastes. I in medieval times, wastes discarded in the streets led to the breeding of rats and the associated fleas which carried the bubonic plague. The lack of management of solid ‘wastes thus led to the Black Plague which killed half of 14th century Europe. USPHS has traced 22 human diseases to improper solid waste management. Solid wastes also have a great potential to pollute the air and water. Mining tailings from Colorado gold and silver mines will probably being spilling arsenic into the water supply forever. Just finished toxic metal treatment facility in Park City, Utah. I Materials Flow - The best way to reduce solid wastes is not to create them in the first place. Others methods include: decrease consumption of raw material and increase the rate of recovery of waste materials I Technological advances - Increased use of plastics and fast, pre-prepared foods. Solid Waste Management BB Solid waste management is the control of : generation, materials are identified as being no longer value = storage, management of wastes until they are put into a container = Collection, gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and the transport of these materials where the collection vehicle is emptied. 50% or higher of the total cost. = Processing, source separated (at the home) vs. commingled (everything together) is a big issue. Includes: physical processes such as shredding and screening, removal of bulky material, and chemical and biological processes such as incineration and composting - transfer and transport, small trucks to the biggest trucks allowable - Disposal of solid waste, landfilling with or without attempting to recover resources. Ina manner that is in accord with: ~ public health = economics - engineering = conservation + aesthetics - public attitudes I Final disposal at the tur of the century included: = dumping on land in - dumping water - plowing into soil + feeding to hogs - incineration ——————— Scanned with CamScannerWaste Generation ‘Waste handling, separation, storage and processing at the source Collection ‘Transfer and ;paration and processing] Transpo. [J ion of Disposal Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) HE IswM - defines as the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies and management programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and goals, AB939 in California: 25% reduction by 1995, 50% reduction by 2000. IB Hierarchy - adopted by EPA to rank actions: = source reduction, most useful, may involve design of packaging with minimum toxic ‘content, minimum volume or a longer useful life - recycling = waste combustion (transformation), physical, chemical and biological alteration of the waste for the purposes of: - improving efficiency = recover reusable material, glass = recover conversion products, compost - landfilling, material that: ~ cannot be recycles - has no further use - residual matter attendant to another process, ash left over after combustion Legislative Trends and Impacts I Rivers and Harbors Act, 1899, regulated the dumping of debris in navigable waters and adjacent land, The idea was to protect navigation. BB Solid Waste Disposal Act, 1965, PL89-272, ~ The intent was: = Promote solid waste management and resource recovery. _— Scanned with CamScanner+ Promote technical and financial aid - Promote national research. - Provide for guidelines. - Provide for training grants - Enforcement was by USPHS. BE National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969, Required Environmental Impact Statement (EIS). I Resource Recovery Act, 1970, PL95-512, amended the SW Disposal Act of 1965. Directed that the emphasis should be shifted from disposal as its primary objective to recycling and reuse. Management activities were transferred the US EPA which was formed by presidential order under Reorganizational Plan No. 3 of 1970, I Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 1976, PL94-580. Legal basis for implementation of guidelines and standards for solid waste storage, treatment and disposal. RCRA was amended in 1978, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986 and 1988. The 1980 and 1984 versions emphasized concern with hazardous waste. HE Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act (CERCLA), 1980, (Superfund), PL96-510, Response to uncontrolled hazardous waste disposal sites. = Ancillary laws: I Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act (PURPA), 1981. Directs public and private utilities to purchase power from waste-to-energy facilities HE Noise Pollution and Abatement Act, 1970. Limits noise. Clean Air Act, 1970, PL91-604, (reauthorized in 1990), pertains where dust, smoke and gases discharged from solid waste operations are involved. HE AB939, 25% reduction by 1995, 30% reduction by 2000. IB Local agency in LA is the LA County Sanitation Districts. Sources, Composition, and Properties of Solid Waste 1. Sources of Solid Waste HE MSW, Municipal Solid Waste, is the primary focus of this course, which excludes industrial, mining and agricultural wastes. A. Residential and Commercial IE Residential: Generated by me and you: Organic (combustible) and inorganic (non- combustible), food, paper, garden trimmings, glass, white goods, waste oil, spent cans of insecticide HE Commercial: stores, restaurants, hotels, car repair: paper, plastic. Commingled, Mixed wastes, not separated at the source. IB Putrescible, wastes that will decompose rapidly primarily food. Plastics, contain a numerical code, | through 7, which is stamped on the bottom of the container inside a small triangle EEE Scanned with CamScanner- Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE/1), 2-liter soda bottle - High-density polyethylene (HDPE/2), milk bottles 4 HE Special Wastes: ~ Bulky items; furniture, lamps. ~ Electronics ~ Major appliances (white LDPE, 2%): Buteries oitand sites I Household hazardous wastes: = paint ~ cleaners ~ bug and garden sprays B. Institutional and others Generated by government buildings, schools, prisons and hospitals. HE Does not include medical wastes which are typically incinerated and manufacturing ‘wastes from prisons, Construction and Demolition. Road repair, sewer jobs, renovations: wood, concrete, steel, shingles, electrical parts I Municipal Services. Street cleaning, parks, catch basins: trimmings, food, paper, sweepings, dead animals, abandoned vehicles. HE Treatment Plant Sludges. C. Industrial Wastes Il SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) codes. Excludes process and hazardous wastes. I SIC 32 - Stone, clay and glass products from the manufacture of flat glass ete., yielding glass, gypsum (sulfur source) abrasives, ete. D. Agricultural Wastes Hf Enormous quantities from planting, harvesting from row, field, tree and vine crops and animal husbandry, feedlots. 2. Composition of Solid Waste HI Composition describes the individual components that make up solid waste and the distribution of these components by weight HI Example Given: Scales indicate that a landfill is collecting about 800 ton/day of MSW, 5 days per week. Find: The weight of material collected from the catch basins ina year. Scanned with CamScannerWeight MSW generated per week ~ 800 tonsiday x 5 dayshveek Weight MSW generated per week = 4000tons/week Weight in catch basins = 4000tons/week x ,007 x 52 weeks/year Weight in catch basins = 1456 tons/year 3. Variation in Distribution HE Highly variable, local studies should be considered, collected data is expensive and of limited value; make sure that collected data is useful before collecting. Location, warmer more affluent communities generate more wastes. I Season, More yard and food wastes in the summer; more glass and metals in the winter. BE Example Given: A recycling company is expecting about 1500 tons/year of glass and they did some field testing during the winter to verify this number. They chose winter to get a low end of the range assuming that less beverages would be consumed in the winter. Find: The percentage decrease in revenues when the glass is actually counted. Assume that the real glass production will be based on the average of winter and summer months. Glass in winter 3.5%, glass in summer 2.5% Total tonnage = 1500 tons/year [p35 Total tonnage = 42,857 tons/year Actual glass percentage = (3.5 + 2.5/2 ‘Actual glass percentage = 3.0% Real tonnage of glass = 42,857 tons/year x 03 Real tonnage of glass = 1286 tons/year % decrease = (1500 - 1286)/1500 % decrease = 14.3% reduction in revenues Note: They made an incorrect assumption by assuming that there would be more glass in the summer. HE Economies and others. Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties of MSW 1, Physical Properties of MSW A, Specific Weight ——— Scanned with CamScannerBE uyya?, a volume measure and, therefore, subject to interpretation and variable. oe of reporting: loose, as found in containers, uncompacted, compacted. + 220 Ib/yd” for residential = 270 thtyd? for commerciat 500 Ih/yd3 in the compactor truck ~ 760 thfyd in the tandfitt HE Example Given: MSW Find: What's the decrease in volume for MSW from the house to the landfill. 1 1 Density = Density HBolume= ‘iin sw Densi original /olume = (1/220 - 1/760) / 1/220 = (.004545 - .0013 16004545 Volume = 71.0% decrease BE Example B. Moisture Content HE Wet-weight relationship: we w 100 I Varies from 15-40%, use 21%, food and yard wastes very high-70%; paper, plastics ry and inorganics very low-3%. HE important consideration for transformation processes: energy recovery (incineration) and composting. Rain soaked trash will way more than its dry’ counterpart, a consideration at the weighing scales. BE Example C. Particle Size and Distribution I Imprint consideration in the recovery of materials, pre-processing antecedent to a classification or sorting process. I Eqs. 4-2 to 4-6, based on a single linear measurement, the average size is 7-8" D. Field Capacity (FC) HH The amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample subject to the downward pull of gravity. Water in excess of FC will flow out of the waste as leachate, I 50-60% for uncompacted, commingled waste from residential and commercial sources, E. Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of Compacted MSW. EE Scanned with CamScannerIE Measures the movement of gasses and liquids in landfills. hl. ae P.76 k= 10 010 m in the vertical and 10 10 the horizontal, i Example Given: The horizontal direction Find: Calculate the coefficient for permeability at 60MM. K= ol Ab. 10. « (.3048m)> x 62.37 WR? 12.359810"> ‘K=.02845 fs 2, Chemical Properties of MSW A. Proximate Anal BE Includes the following tests: - Moisture = Volatile combustible matter - Fixed carbon (combustible residue after volatile matter is removed) = Ash (weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible Fusing point of ash - temperature at which the ash forms a solid (clinker) by fusion and agglomeration. 2000-2200ff) HE Magazines are: = 4.1% moisture = 66.4% volatile matter = 7.0% fixed carbon - 22.5% non-combustible - energy content, 4600 Btu/lb as collected, = Note: rubber as in tires and plastics have a very high energy content. HE Example Given: The Town of Waytogo, population 56,789, has decided to burn its as collected MSW which amounts to about 6 Ib/capita day Find: How: neany barrels of oil do they save on a daily basis, Ibbl oil = 5.8x10 BTU Energy in the MSW = 4608 Btu/lb x 56,789 cap x 6 Ib/eapita.day Energy in the MSW = 1.57 x 10) Btu Oil=1.57x 10° Btu/5.8x10 BTU Oil= 270 barrels/day B. Ultimate Analysis of SW Components HE Determination of the percent C, H, O, N, S, and ash. I Opportunity to calculate chemical formula, which then can be used in various chemical and biological reactions. HE Magazines are =32.9%C -5.0% H = 38.6% 0 —————— Scanned with CamScanner-.1%N -1%S - 23.3 %ash C. Energy Content of SW Components Potentially critical element in incineration, Can be measured or I calculated. DuLong Formula: Btu/lb = 14SC +610(112 - 02/8) + 40S +10N Constituents are % by weight Bi Plastics have: ~ An inert residue of 10.0% - An energy value of 14,000 Btu/lb D, Essential Nutrients HE Potentially critical element in composting. 3. Biological Properties of MSW HVS, volatile solids, ignition at 550 C is olln used asa measure of the biodegradability of the organic fraction HE Analternative is the lignin content can be used to determine biodegradability: BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC BP is the biodegradable fraction and LC is the lignin content HE Odors typically result from the anaerobic decomposition of the organic fraction. ~ Sulfate is reduced to sulfides and the to H2S. = Organic compounds containing a sulfur radical can lead to the formation of methyl mereaptan and aminobutyric acid HE Breeding of flies takes 9-11 days 4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Transformations A. Physical Transformations HE Component separation - Separating identifiable matter from the commingled MSW. - Used to: - Recover usable material ~ Remove contaminants - Improve specifications for the separated material ~ Remove hazardous waste - Recover energy and conversion products IE Mechanical Volume Reduction (Densification) - The initial volume is reduced usually by force or pressure. EEE Scanned with CamScanner~ Compaction, baling. HE Mechanical size reduction = Purpose. = reduce size - create a more uniform product ~ Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction, shredded paper occupies more volume than the parent material - Shredding, grinding, milling B. Chemical Transformations 1.) Combustion (Incineration) Combustion is the chemical reaction of oxygen with organic materials, to produce oxidized compounds with the emission of light and heat, I Results in gasses, ashes and heat, highly exothermic. 2.) Pyrolysis (Destructive Distillation) I The splitting or organics by thermal cracking and condensation in an oxygen-free ‘atmosphere into gaseous, liquid and solid fractions. BB Highly endothermic. BB Equation 3(¢6111005) M20 + cngo +2co+cH4+H2+7C In which: (6111005 is cellulose + the gases are CO+CH4 +112 « the tar and/or cil stream is C680 ~and the char is C 3.) Gasification Partial combustion of a carbonaccous fuel to generate a combustible fuel gas rich in carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. The fuel gas can then be combusted. I Results in low-BTU gas, char and oil. Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - Il COLLECTIION AND TRANSPORTATION Waste Generation ‘Waste handling, separation, storage and processing atthe source CT cota Transfer and Separation and processing Transport ‘and transformation of solid waste Disposal Issues in this topic: HE Types of services Types of collection systems Detailed analysis of collection systems HE Setting up collection routes 1. Waste Collection General HE Major cost element of solid waste disposal - typically 50-70% of the total and therefore, demands major attention especially with final disposal getting so much press IE Collection includes: = picking up MSW from sources = hauling to the emptying location ~ emptying of the truck or container B. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Low Rise, Detached: I The waste is commingled or heaped together as opposed to source separation e.g. picking out class, cardboard I Collection services: = curb - (manual or mechanical) most common, homeowner moves the container back and forth between the curb from the storage location, Larger 90 gallon ‘containers require placement in the street, perhaps at a precise angle in cul-de-sacs. = alley - Narrow utility thoroughfare in the rear of residences; not uncommon in ‘older communities, Claremont, Pomona ee Scanned with CamScanner- backyard carry - collectors retrieve the container from the storage location, empty it and return the container to the storage location. HE Manual methods of collection = direct lifting and carrying - rim roll - small lifting devices + satellite vehicles, Cushmans C. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Others. Low and medium rise apartments, high rise apartments, commercial industrial facilities, Smaller containers handled by maintenance personal for curb side collection, larger containers done mechanically. HE Much collection is done at night and very early morning to avoid the traffic. D. Collection of Waste at the Source IB The generator separates the waste as opposed to commingled wastes. IE Methods include: = Curbside collection using standard or specially designed vehicles. - Standard vehicles can be used to pick up just newspaper or just can on some kind of appropriate time cycle; pethaps every other week or the third Thursday of the month for glass. - Specially designed vehicles include - closed body recycling trucks + recycling trailers = modified flatbed trucks + open-bin recycling trucks - compartmentalized trailers Bh Example Given: You are a community activist and believe in recycling. It has been decided to make two ‘categories: the first for paper and cardboard and the second for everything else. You think that you can get 50% of the 458 homes to participate. You have actually counted the residents and there are 1338 of them. You have made a mini-survey of the paper wastes such as wrappers, packaging and determined that newspapers are about 1/3 ofthe toll paper, the rest you hope will be separated to the tune of 75%. Find: The big mecting is Tuesday night and the neighbors want some hard numbers on how you are going to accomplish the recycling 1. Computation table to calculate volumes. Scanned with CamScannerFood wastes 30 ot recycled 490, Paper. 358x153 89 130 0593 Cardboard 64 48 85, 0565 Plastics 69 32 ig (0520 Textiles 18 ot recycled 10 Rubber Os, nol-recycled 220, Leather oF ot-reevcled 270 ‘Garden 173 not-recycled 170 Wood. 18. not-reeycled 400 Torganic "Gies a a 30 ma Tin cans 38 43 150 (0287 ‘Aluminum 6 4 270 O18 Other metal 3.0 otrecyeled 340 Dirt Ashes, 27 not-recycled 810 ete. Ta —| 9 =a 2. Determine the relative volumes newspaper + cardboard = 0593 + 0565 newspaper + cardboard = .1158yd3 others, plastics, glass, tin cans. aluminum = .0520+.0206+.0287+.0148 others, plastics, lass, tn cans, aluminum =.1161 Note: 1158+. 1161=2319,0K ‘The relative volume is useful for calculating the relative size of the bins. 1158/2319 50 1161/.2319%.50 In this ease, the spt ‘equal size. is $0/50 which is ideal, The me: the collection containers would be of Assume: 3.82 Ibvcap.day, 1338 residents x 3.82 Ib/cap day x .50(participation rate) ‘tae ‘eters al, see se eyed for each truck, once/week iraveled once/week. Scanned with CamScanner=Costs avaided by not paying for the materials being Jandfilled vs. Costs = Equipment = Labor Ancillary issues = Meeting AB939 = Do the right thing because you believe it 2, Types of Collection Systems I The major dichotomy is between HCS and SCS. In HCS the container is carried to and from the disposal area. With SCS, the container is emptied into a truck and the truck travels to and from the disposal area. A, Hauled Container Systems I The container is sited at a location. In accordance with some cycle, the container is picked up and hauled off to the disposal area where the container is emptied and returned to the original location. The truck had no container, per se; the container is carried by the truck, A variation is start with an empty container. HE Advantages: = Useful when the generation rate is high and the containers are large - May eliminate spillage associated with multiple smaller containers. - Flexible. Need more capacity, use a larger container. BE Disadvantage = Ifthe containers are not filled, low utilization BB rate. Types: - Hoist truck - similar to an AAA emergency truck, but dumsters are picked up or hoisted instead of cars, smaller volumes, bulky items. = Till-frame - assembly on truck allows sliding of large containers on and off the truck. - Trash-trailer The slider assembly is not part of the truck, but part of the trailer. HE Example iven: A new sub-division witha single, ental park serves about 500 homes. The ‘average occupancy is 2.8 cap/residence. Find: The director of public works wants to know i he ean service the park, once per ‘week collection with a single hoist truck. "16.3, p.138; "Parks and recreational areas" 12Ibs/cap day “1 p70: assume rbbish 220 tse “183, p208: 6-12yd™ capacity fora hoist truck |. weight of park material ‘weight = 500 residences x 2.8 cap /residence x .12Ibs/cap.day x 7 days/week weight = 1176 Ibstweek 2. Volume of park material volume = 1176 Ibsweek / 220 Ibstyd? volume = ‘5.3 tbetyd” vs. 6-12 yo capacity Therefore,» iolst system ean be used. B. Stationary Container System a Scanned with CamScannerI The waste container remains in the vicinity of where the waste is generated. The waste is unloaded into a bigger truck. A large container is an integral part of the truck, When fully loaded from multiple waste containers, the truck travels to and from the landfill as opposed to the waste container. BE Types: = Manually loaded, Small containers. Residential pickup. -Mechanically loaded. Larger containers. Wheeled residential pickup and ‘commercial pickup = Almost all contain internal compaction equipment BB The major advantage is that the vehicle does not travel to the disposal area until it is full yielding higher utilization rates I The major disadvantages include: ~ The system is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky goods. - Wastes ¢.g. demolition, that make damage the relatively delicate mechanisms. - Large volume generations may not have room for storing large containers 3. Analysis of Collection Systems A. Definition of Terms 1.) Pickup (Phes or ses) Phes: The time spent ~ driving to the next container after an empty container has been deposited. - the time spent pickup the loaded container. the time required to redeposit the container after it has been emptied I pscs: Refers to the time spent loading the vehicle, beginning with the stop to load the first cconiainer and ending when the last container has been loaded. 2.) Haul (hy Does not include actually picking up the loaded container or redepositing the empty container nor the time spent at the location where the waste is unloaded. ICS- The time required to reach the location where the waste will be emptied, starting ‘when the container has been loaded on the truck and continuing through unloading until the truck arrives at the location where the empty container is to be redeposited. BSCS - The time required to reach the location where the full vehicle will be emptied and continuing until the truck arrives at the location where the first container will be emptied for the next route. 3.) AtSite I The time spent at the site (landfill, MRF, transfer station) where the system is unloaded including waiting time. 4.) Off-Route (W) HE Non-productive activities = Necessary - Check in, check out, meeting, breaks. = Unnecessary - Personal errands, extended coffee breaks HE Typically 15% Scanned with CamScannerThes =(Phes *s +h) The time required for a trip is the sum of the pickup time, the time on site and the haul time. The haul time may be expressed as: h=a+ bx (Fig. 8-16, p214) and is essentially a function of the distance traveled. The pickup time may be expressed as follows: Phes= pe + uc + dbe (Fig. 8-16, p214) In plain English, the pickup time is the sum required to pickup the container, to unload the container and drive between containers (p+u+d). C. Stationary Container System Tscs =(Pscs +s +h) Pses = Ct(uc) + (np-1)(dbc) ‘The pickup time depends upon the number of containers multiplied by the unit loading time plus the number of locations times the driving time between the locations. ml example Given: A stationary container system (mechanically loaded), 3.5 collection trips/wk, Shrs/day, 3.22 h/trip (pick up time), at site time ..h/trip, round trip = 10miles, a=.018 h/trip. b=.020h/trip, productive time = 85% Note: Even though a partial trip (3.5 collection trips), a fall trip (4) will have to be made to the disposal area. Find: Time required per week days/week = no of trips/week x time/trip time/day INwPses+tw(sta+bx)] — [3,5x3,22 + 4(.1 +018 + 020(10)) Tw= (EW) = (85)8 Tw = 1.84 days/week 4, Collection Routes A. General I Use a heuristic (common sense), trial and error approach consistent with the philosophy of collecting the most waste with least resources in the context of ‘constraints such as equipment breakdowns, holidays and vacations, good labor practices and the following guidelines: - Crew size and vehicles must be known and coordinated. - Routes should begin and end near arteries - Topographic and physical boundaries should be route boundaries. - Start at the top of a hill and work downward. - Last collection point should be near disposal site. — Scanned with CamScanner- Traffic problems should be dealt with early in the morning, - Extremely large load should be dealt with early in the morning. B. Layout of Collection Routes BB Location maps showing data concerning the sources including location, collection frequency, number of containers Data analysis, try to balance the routes in accordance with pickups and time. Preliminary layout of routes, start at the depot and do a route, An idea of truck capacity vs. loads is in order. IB Fine tune the preliminary design. ‘Types of Transfer Stations I Three types: direct-load, storage-load, combined direct-load and discharge load. A. Direct-Load Transfer System IE The wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied directly into: = the vehicle that will transport the wastes to the final disposal side = into facilities to compact the wastes into transport vehicles or = into waste bales. BB Surge - volume of waste that can be stored temporarily on the loading platform Large I capacity - Direct from collection to transport vehicle typically employing a two level operation. Compaction and moving the waste within the transfer vehicle is using done by some kind of back hoe with clamshell tip stationed on the top ramp. Analternative is to direct load into a compactor which in turn moves the waste directly into the haul trailer. I Medium and small capacity - Generally small with less equipment and concrete to the point where Demsey Dumsters are placed on a patch of ground. Alternately, a dual Level system can be made by raising the dumpers or lowering the dumsters, such that the waste is thrown down into the containers. Individuals seem to like this system. B. Storage-Load Transfer System HB Wastes are dumped into a pit or unloading area as opposed to the transfer vehicle, The pit is typically a larger area and thus facilitates unloading of collection vehicles and shortens waiting time. Auxiliary equipment such as payloaders move the material from the storage area into the transfer vehicle, The storage time is typically 1-3 days. I Large capacity - A large pit at a lower level is surrounded by unloading collection vehicles. Two bull dozers break up the wastes and push the wastes into hoppers which discharge into the transfer vehicles. C, Combined Direct-Load and Discharge Load Transfer Stations. HE Usually a multipurpose facility: perhaps a transfer station and a MRF. Scanned with CamScannerSolid waste and Collection Rates Waste Generation Waste handling, separation, storage and processing at the source ——+_ Collection eparation and processing ‘and transformation of solid waste Transfer and Transport Disposal In this topic Importance of waste quantities Measures and methods used to quantify waste Waste generation rates Factors that affect waste generation rates ‘Types and quantities of recovered materials Household hazardous wastes Waste characterization rules 1. Importance of Waste Quantities HE Compliance with law such as AB939 which mandates 25% reduction by 1995 and 50% reduction by 2000 HE Equipment selections. 2. Measures and Methods Used to Assess Quantities Hl MSW should be measured as a weight as opposed to a volume because the weight measurements are consistent and reproducible while the volume can vary considerably attendant to compaction. Ultimately, however, the capacity of a landfill isa volume consideration. BB Units -tb/capita‘day for residential and commercial, a repeatable measure of production for industry and agriculture e.g. Ib of manure/chicken. I Estimation of Waste Quantities - Scanned with CamScannerPickup trucks with leaves loose and dry 100 5.400 private cars 220 12,320 broken concrete 2595 233,550 Total Ib/day 331,270 Scanned with CamScanneriolid waste disposed of during the day. iced = 201b in the door -71b food consumed -5Ib food stored uced = 8 Ib/day Cans recycled = 8lb/day x .20 Tans recycled = |.6lb/day = 8lb/day x .32 1= 2 56lb/day itored = 2.56lb/day x .05 itored = .13lb/day combusted = 2.56lb/day x .20 (20% burned) combusted = .5 Nb/day c disposed of = 8 Ib/day - 1.6lb/day -.5IIb/day - solid waste disposed of = 5.76 Ib/day sis - First determine (p.929) if the data are normally | ng on log normal, probability paper. Arithmetic prob : ordinate axis, logarithmic probability paper is logar the data plots as a straight line on arithmetic paper , i straight line is an indication of skewness , If itis ke.11 Note: Using N in the denominator gives 4.79 3. Coefficient of Variation (relative measure of dispersion, typically 10-60% in solid ‘waste) CV = 100s/xbar = 100(5.11)/9.25 cv = 55.24 3. Generation and Collection Rates HE Most studies prior to 1990 reflect the amount of waste collected as opposed to the amount of waste generated. The difference may be in recycling, garbage disposal, ‘composting, fireplaces, donations to the Salvation Amy etc, The variation may be from 4-15%. Bae toncapita'year Milo tb/365days/year Ib/capita’day for residential and commercial and 6.16 Ib/eapita’day total, The total is augmented by hazardous, institutional, construction and demolition, municipal services twasies and eaten pant sludges. Residential and commercial is typeally 60% ofthe ts 48 Ibfcapita’ day. More precisely. 3.82 HE example Given: The Simi Valley Landfill services app. $0,000 homes. Find: ‘What is the weekly output of hazardous waste to the landfill? Assume: 2.35 capita/residence, T6-3, p138 hazardous waste=.0063Ib/capita day HW = $0,000 residence x 2.35 capitaesidence x 0063Ib/capita day HW = 740.25 Ibfday x 7 days/wke W = 5181.75 Ibsiwk IB Special Wastes = batteries - 1houschold batteries/capita year - used oil - 80 gal/eapita year HE example Given: A tire recycler has costed out his capital investment and he needs 1000 tires/day, S days/week in order to meet his goal of 8% return on investment. nd. How big of a town does he need? 1. Tire needed Tires needed = 1000tres/day x Sdavs/week ‘Tires nceded = 5000 tireswveek capita year People required = SOOO ties/week x 80tire x S2weeks/year People required = 325,000capita BB Rate Variation = The larger the data base, the less the variation. - For a residence, peak day factor of 3.0, minimum day factor of 20 BE example Given: The projected volume at the transfer station was 325tons/day on St Patrick's Day which ‘was identified and projected as a peak day. You subsequently discovered that holidays are, in fact, not peak days but minimum days. Find: The normal tonnage ‘Assume that the transfer station approximates a small community. From 76-6, for a small eommunity, peak day 2.0, minimum day = .$ EEE Scanned with CamScannerActual tonnage = 325tons/day x 1/2,0(Peak day) ‘Actual tonnage = 162.5 tonsday ‘Normal day tonnage = 162.5 tons/day x 1/.5(minimum day) ‘Normal day tonnage = 32Stonsday Note: The peak would be 650. 4, Factor that Effect Generation Rates I Source Reduction and Recycling. Design with disposal in mind. IE Public Attitudes and Legislation. If not reimbursed, the public must be recruited to a "tree saving" mentality. Legislation includes bottle laws, AB939, green waste pick-ups. I Geographic and Physical Factors. The bigger the yard and the longer the growing season, the more the waste, Seasonal, fall leaves, Christmas gifts, spring cleanup. Kitchen grinders contribute a minimal reduction. I Frequency. More waste is collected if the frequency is increased. Note that 4 more wastes are not generated, Scanned with CamScannerUNIT — 111 TREATMENT AND PROCESSING TECHNIQUES Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste Waste Generation ‘Waste handling, separation, storage and processing at the source ~ Collection ‘eparation and processing and transformation of ‘Transport Per solid waste Transfer and Disposal Issues in this topic: I Recovery of separated materials. Separation and processing of solid waste components BE Transformation processes 1, General IE Methods used to recover source separated material: = Curbside collection - Homeowner delivery to drop-off centers I Further separation of source separated material as well as separation of ‘commingled waste - MRF's Material Recovery Facilities -MRI/TFs Material Recovery/Transfer Facilities, a facility of the future which may include: -drop-off center -materials separation facility - composting - bioconversion «= production of refuse derived fuel (DRF) + transfer and transport facility 2. Reuse and Recycling Opportunities A. Opportunities for reuse include: MDirect reuse as a raw material, 55 gal. drums, furniture, bicycles. Thrift shops. Haw material for re manufacturing. Must meet material specifications, e.g Se Scanned with CamScanner= glass: color, no label or metal, degree of cleanliness = plastics: type (PETE/1, HDPE/2 etc.) moisture content Feed stock for the production of compost and other processes. If used as an intermediate cover the compost can be fairly contaminated, However, compost for sale must be free of contaminants. Mruel Source: (perhaps the greatest value of MSW) - Direct burn of the organic fraction. Dirt, ashes, metal, refrigerators will not burn and perhaps other constituents such as plastics and tires should not be burned. - Converting MSW to fuel BB Land reclamation. Enormous opportunity to reclaim land such as strip-mines or areas below sea level as in the Netherlands, or create new green areas such as golf courses, ball fields, equestrian centers. B. Drop-off, Buy-back Centers HB Drop-off centers may be a wooden bin for newspapers to a thrift shop. Participation can be low because the material must be stored by the homeowner and there is not an economic incentive. Convenience, next to a supermarket, may be critical. IH Buy-back centers may be a vending type machine in front of Lucky's to a large commercial venture, such as the Holt Boulevard operation. 3. Unit Operations for Separation and Processing A. Purpose HE Modify the physical characteristics to facilitate removal of desired ‘component, Remove specific components or contaminants. Prepare the material for subsequent uses. Size Reduction Size reduction is the process by which as collected materials are mechanically reduced in size. Object is to obtain a uniform final product that is reduced in size potentially reducing storage and shipping course. Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction, Shredded paper occupies more space than the parent stock. Shredders include hammer mill, flail mill and shear shredder and usually involve metal parts revolving against one another. Glass crushers. Wood grinders inelude chippers, such as local tree cutters use, to reduce the branches to chips and tub grinders. Once the wood is broken up, the finer pieces can be used as raw material for composting and the larger pieces can be used as a fuel. Screening Il Screening is a unit operation used to separate mixtures of materials of different sizes into two or more size fractions by means of screen surfaces. BE Object is to: = Remove oversized material - Remove undersized material - Separate into light (combustible, paper) and heavy (non-combustible, glass) fractions. ~ Screening devices include: (Fig. 9-8, p. 260) Scanned with CamScanner+ Vibrating screens - Rotary screens = Disc screens D. Other Processes - Density Separation (Air Classification) is the unit process used to separate light materials such as paper and plastic from heavy materials such as metals based on weight difference in the air stream. In solid waste the light fraction is typically organic while the heavy fraction is typically inorganic. Used to separate glass from plastic in a commingled situation. = Magnetic Separation is the operation by which ferrous metals are separated from the waste stream utilizing magnetic principals. Used to separate tin cans from aluminum in a commingled situation. - Densification (compaction) is a unit operation used to increase the density of the ‘material so that it can be stored and transported more cheaply and as a means of preparing densified refuse-derived fuels (ARDR) and include balers and can crushers. 4, Facilities for Handling, Moving and Storing MSW. HE Conveyors Transfer wastes from one location to another and include hinge, belt drag and pneumatic. Conveyors are used in the manual sorting of MSW. Belt is 4' wide and move at 15-90 ft/min. with a thickness of waste of 6" IE Example Given: A recyeting operation of commingled wastes. Find: The Chiet of Public Works of Pomona wants to know how many sorters, jobs, will be needed on the sorting conveyor line, You know the population is 120,000. From T6-3,p.138 3 82 Ib /eapita day ‘Weekly tonnage = 120,000 residents x 3.82 Ib /eapita day x days/week x I tor/2000 Tb. Weekly tonnage = 16,044 tons/week 2.5 ton/personhour, Assume a work week of 40 hours ‘ets hour Persons required = 16,044 tonstveek x2 Ston Persons requires 160 peaple not including augmentation because of sickness, vacation, holidays, absentevism ete. An analysis ofthe economic advantages of the recycling operation seems in order. x 1 weel/$0 hours IE Movable Equipment - front end loaders, fork lifts Weighing facilities EB Storage facilities 5, Development and Implementation of MRF's A. Engineering Considerations I Function of MRF. Depends on role of MRF, type of materials, how the material will be delivered and how it will be presented to the buyer. Ill Selection of materials to be separated. Depends on the program set up in the community, e.g. commingled, 3 recycle containers and | for waste. Material specifications Flow diagrams a Scanned with CamScanner- Characteristics of the waste material to be processed. - Material specifications ~ Available equipment. - Example: Refrigerators must be removed, plastic bags must be burst open, brown bags are moved from the paper to the cardboard section where they command a higher price, Paper may be baled which weigh 1400 Ib. and are 30x40x60 inches. I Estimate Quantities and Loading rates, Mass balance. Usually expressed in tons/hour. Based on 1820 operating hours year. Number of ton/yr (or ton/d. Loadii n/h Oading rate, tom/h = | 595 srocessing h/yr (or hd) HE Layout and design. Would consider: - Waste deliveries, ingress ~ Material delivery rates. - Loading rates including storage for peak times. = Material flow and handling patterns - Performance criteria for equipment selection HE Equipment Environmental controls BB Aesthetics B. Planning and Design Process for MRF's I Feasibility analysis. Technical and economic merits. = The coordination of the MRF into the overall IWM (integrate waste management) plan. - What kind of MRF and what kind of materials will it process. - Economics, capital and operating costs. A sensitivity analysis of the effects of fluctuating prices is particularly important = Ownership and Operation. Public, private, combination. Bi Preliminary design. BE Final design C. Issues for MRFs Siting. Remote locations, as much buffer as possible, NIMBY inevitable. HB Environmental issues. Traffic, noise, dust, odor, vector control, airborne litter, looks terrible. I Public health and safety. General public and employees. For the employees, protective clothing, puncture-proof gloves, ar filters, showers, perhaps a radio. EEE Scanned with CamScannerf Economies, Sensitive to market prices. Must be environmentally correct or be shut jown 6. Combustion A. General HE Object: = Reduce the volume (85-95% reduction) and weight of wastes. - Recover conversion products and energy. HE Major concerns: ~ Air pollution. - Siting, NIMBY. B. Description of Combustion Process = Unload into a storage pit, usually a 2 day volume. The tipping area should minimize unloading waiting time with reason. = An overhead crane drops material into a charging chute which directs the wastes to the furnace, The operator tries to get an even mix and remove non-combustible items such as mattresses or engine blocks = The waste falls on grates and is mass fired. Air is typically introduced. ~ Gases and small particles rise to the combustion chamber and burn at 1600ff - Heat is recovered from the gases using water-filled tubes in the combustion chamber and a boiler that produces steam which is converted to electricity in a generator. - Air pollution is controlled including NOx, SO2 and particulates. ~ Clean gases are discharged to the stack. = Ash and unbumed material are quenched (cooled with water). The water and residue must be properly disposed of. Sce p.641 for an excellent discussion of air pollution systems. C. Types of Combustors HE Mass fired. Use unseparated, commingled MSW. Predominate in US, 68%. Pick out the bicycles and refrigerators, burn the rest. The energy content is probably extremely variable. B® orpr (Refuse Derived Fuel) fired. 23%, Produced from the organic fraction and can be made with consistency to meet energy, moisture, ash content specifications. Forms include: shredded, fluff, pellets or cubes. Also, since metals, plastics etc. are not burned, air emissions are cleaner. D. Volume Reduction I Typically 90% volume reduction of the materials that were combusted. Demolition : wastes, white goods, cars ete. were never considered. ‘Always a residue and ash left over after combustion consisting of glass, tin cans, iron and steel E. Issues With Combustion Faci IB Siting. As with MRF's, a remote location with plenty of buffer zone. EEE Scanned with CamScannerIB Air Emissions, May exceed the cost of the combustion facilities, Most pressing issue in the LA area, Important consideration in the decision between mass-fired and RDF systems. Bf Disposal of residues, bottom ash, fly ash, scrubber product. Typically disposed of in land fill. IB Liquid Emissions. Sources: ash removal, wet scrubbers. Economics. Standardized life cycle co 7. Composting A. General I The organic fraction of MSW (less plastic, rubber and leather) is converted into an earthy, humus-like, material by the action of bacteria and other microbes. Provsins Aminoseids Lipids Catbos -+02-4+Nutsients+MOs 4 Compos.+ New Cells + Dead Cel Celllose 1 Lignin (C02 +120+ NOS +504 set ash HL Objectives: = Convert the MSW into a biologically stable material which is reduced in volume, - Destroy unwanted biologicals: pathogens, weeds, insect eggs. = Retain the maximum nutrient (N, K, pH). - To produce a valuable, soil amendment product, Not a fertilizer. Lousy C:N ratio. B. Process Description IE Howard et al in India in 1930. BB Three basic steps: - Preprocessing MSW - Segregating degradable matter, removing engine blocks, tin cans. - moisture content. - fertilizer content perhaps by adding sewer sludge - Decomposition = windrow = static pile + in-vessel - Preparation for market + grinding + screening - blending additives _—SaesS eS Scanned with CamScanner~ bagging C. Design and Control - Particle size - Seeding, mixing and turning = Oxygen requirement (aerobic process) - Moisture content = CN ratio D. Composting Techniques BB Agitated and Static, With agitated, the material is turned; with static, air is blown through the material HE Windrow composting = Most common agitated method. - The material to be composted is shredded into 1-3" pieces and the moisture is adjusted between 50-60%. 7 stories Mitypical size and dimensions of containers. A. Low Rise IB Single family detached and attached j—_———— Scanned with CamScannerIB Single family detached ~ separate recyclables at the MRF, not at the home - variety of storage containers and mixed waste: plastic bags, 32 gallon galvanized or plastic, cardboard boxes -90 gallons containers equipped with wheels, mixed waste Bh cxample: Given: Inthe town of Prolific, the average family size is 67. Ithas been decided to use a standard container which will be provided by the town. Find: Size the container From T6-3, p.138 3.82Ibsteapita day From T4-1, p.70 220Ibs/yd* we Residential weekly volume = 6 Teapita x 3 82Ibs/capita day x 20]b5 x Tdays/week Residential weekly volume = sisy? x 2 ye? Use 2.90gallon containers B, Low and Medium Rise I Basement storage by residents and moving of the container by maintenance personnel Large outdoor containers, located in special areas that are emptied mechanically by the collection truck BB example Given’ The Wook Wooki Garden apartments consisting of 50 units with an average of 1.9 persons/unit. The manager has decided to provide one disposal unit for mixed waste anda single Unit for all recycled material, Use 2lbs/capita day,total waste. Find: Size the two containers for weekly pickup. (Quick, first cut estimate) 2.0903 <7 eal? = 164.5gallons ‘Total weight = 2Ibs/capita day x 1.9 persons/unit x SO units x 7days/wk Total weight = 1330Ibs/week “16-1, p 147 Ynecovered for reeycling 12-16% by weight Total weight of recycled mat! = 1330Ibs/week x_16(use max to give largest recycle container) Total weight of recycled mat! = 213 Ibs/week ‘Total weight of waste = 1330Ibs/week x (1-.12)(use min to give largest waste container) Total weight of waste = 1170 Ibs/week yd Volyme of reeycle coniainer = 213Ibs'week x 1501S 150Ibs is a guess from T4-1, p 70 based on plastics at 110 and aluminum at 270 and alas at 330. A more detailed analysis would not be difficult. In any case, the best information may be Forthcoming from actual operating data Volume of recycle container = 1.42 yards Any container larger than this number will do the trick. Since there should not be putrescible in the recyeling bin, a larger container with more infrequent collections e.g. may be suitable. Volane of waste comtine = 170 talweek x 220Ibs 3, Volume of waste container = 5.3 yd" /week SSS Scanned with CamScannerC. High Rise Apartments IB Porters pick up the waste at the apartment door. IE Wastes are taken to the SW area by tenants IH Chutes on each floor (12-36") ¥ Buse 175ibs HE 1-2ibs/tenant.day IE Vacuum transport systems have been used most notably at Disney World ial and Industrial Facilities - removed from work area by wheeled containers or blanket wrapped and transported via the service area to a disposal/processing area. Compaction would not be unusual BB industrial area - May be more suACEptible to the profit motive e.g. can order employees to recycle cans, 3. Storage of SW at the Source A, Effects of Storage I Putrefaction - Microbial decomposition via bacteria and fungi leading to vermin and odors. I Adsorption of Fluids - If more than a week, the water will become equally distributed, primarily moisture from food and garden material maving into the paper. Hf Contamination - A small volume of paint had great potential to contaminate a great deal of plastic, an argument for source separation of recyclables. B. Types of Storage Containers Ii For residential containers, manually collected, the max. weight should be 40-65Ibs as not injure the collector. 32 gallons galvanized or plastic is the most common. Temporary and disposable containers such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags and paper bags are common. A problem with these is that animals are attracted by the food and tear them open and spread the material around Low rise - trend towards 1 man collection crews with vehicles with mechanical, articulated arms and 90 gallon containers, (75-120) Low and medium rise - Demsey dumsters, portable or not, galvanized or plastic High rise - more proned to have processing equipment: compaction, shredding, baling and in the old days incineration Container Locations: side or rear of house, alleys, common location identified for that purpose. Public health and aesthetics - Potential for odors and vermin. Randy and his maggots, Processing at Dwellings EB nsinkeration of food - No significant decrease in the weight or volume of the MSW. Separation - very effective if you can engender meaningful participation Scanned with CamScannerCompaction - individual units under the counter, collection and processing by large units, Potentially counterproductive if the wastes are to sorted at a MRF; also, compaction may foster contamination. 5, Composting The biological conversion of the biodegradable organic fraction of the MSW. resulting in a volume reduction and producing a useful by-product : BB Isolate a 3M square area with chicken wire and dump the yard wastes. Food wastes : ' may be stirred into the mix if odor and vermin problems can be obviated. Water and turn occasionally, once/week. Pethaps ready to use after | year, put in at top, take out at bottom. Produces a humus-like material which is a soil conditioner, not a fertilizer. Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - IV INCINERATION Incineration is a waste treatment process, the combustion of organic substances contained in waste materials, Incineration and other high temperature waste treatment systems are described as "thermal treatment", Incineration of waste materials converts the ‘waste into ash, flue gas, and heat, The ash is mostly formed by the inorganicconstituents of the waste, and may take the form of solid lumps or particulates carried by the flue gas, The flue gases must be cleaned of gaseous and particulate pollutants before they are dispersed into the atmosphere. In some cases, the heat generated by incineration can be used fo generate electric power Incineration with energy recovery is one of several waste-to-energy (WtE) technologies such as gasification, Plasma are gasification, pyrolysis and anaerobic digestion Incineration may also be implemented without energy and materials recovery. In several countries, there are still concerns from experts and local communities about the environmental impact of incinerators (see arguments against incineration). In some countries, incinerators built just a few decades ago often did not include amaterials separation to remove hazardous, bulky or recyclable materials before combustion. These facilities tended to risk the health of the plant workers and the local environment due to inadequate levels of gas cleaning and combustion process control. Most of these facilities did not generate electricity. Incinerators reduce the solid mass of the original waste by 80-85% and the volume (already compressed somewhat ingarbage trucks) by 95-96 %, depending on composition ing. 2] This means that while incineration docs not completely replace landfilling, it significantly reduces the necessary volume for disposal. Garbage trucks often reduce the volume of waste in a built-in compressor before delivery to the incinerator. Alternatively, at landfills, the volume of the uncompressed garbage can be reduced by approximately Jo%lcitation needed] yy using a stationary steel compressor, albeit with a significant and degree of recovery of materials such as metals from the ash for recy energy cost. In many countries, simplerwaste compaction is a common practice for compaction at landfills Incineration has particularly strong benefits for the treatment of certain waste types inniche areas such —asclinical ©» wastesand certain hazardous wastes where pathogens and toxins can be destroyed by high temperatures. Examples ——— — Scanned with CamScannerinclude chemical multi-produet plants with diverse toxic or very toxic wastewater streams, which cannot be routed to a conventional wastewater treatment plant Waste combustion is particularly popular in countries such as Japan where land is a scarce resource, Denmark and Sweden have been leaders in using the energy generated from incineration for more than a century, in localised combined heat and power facilities supporting district heating schemes.(] in 2005, waste incineration produced 4.8 % of the electricity consumption and 13,7 % of the total domestic heat consumption ‘The first incinerators for waste disposal were built in Nottingham by Manlove, Alliott & Co. Lid, in 1874 to a design patented by Albert Fryer. They were originally known as destructors. An incinerator is a furnace for burning waste. Modem incinerators include pollution mitigation equipment such as flue gas cleaning. There are various types of incinerator plant design: moving grate, fixed grate, rotary-kiln, and fluidised bed. The burn pile, or burn pit is one of the simplest and earliest forms of waste disposal, essentially consisting of a mound of combustible materials piled on bare ground and set on fire. Indiscriminate piles of household waste are strongly discouraged and may be illegal in urban areas, but are permitted in certain rural situations such as clearing forested land for farming, where the stumps are uprooted and burned.!6] Rural burn piles of organic yard waste are also sometimes permitted, though not asphalt shingles, plastics, or otherpetroleum products Burn piles can and have spread uncontrolled fires, for example if wind blows burning material off the pile into surrounding combustible grasses or onto buildings. As interior structures of the pile are consumed, the pile can shift and collapse, spreading the burn area, Even ina situation of no wind, small lightweight ignited embers can lift off the pile viaconvection, and waft through the air into grasses or onto buildings, igniting them. Burn barrel ‘The burn barrel is a somewhat more controlled form of private waste incineration, containing the burning material inside a metal barrel, with a metal grating over the exhaust. The barrel prevents the spread of burning material in windy conditions, and as the combustibles are reduced they can only settle down into the barrel. The exhaust grating helps to prevent the spread of burning embers. Typically steel 55-US-gallon (210 L) drums are used as burn barrels, with air vent holes cut or drilled around the base eS Scanned with CamScannerfor air intake.7] Over time the very high heat of incineration causes the metal to oxidize and rust, and eventually the barrel itself is consumed by the heat and must be replaced. Private burning of dry cellulosic/paper products is generally clean-burning, producing no visible smoke, but the large amount of plastics in household waste can cause private burning to create a public nuisance and health hazard, generating acrid odors and fumes ‘that make eyes burn and water. The temperatures in a burn barrel are not regulated, and usually do not reach high enough or for enough time to completely break down chemicals such as dioxin in plastics and other waste chemicals. Therefore plastics and other petroleum products must be separated and sent to commercial waste disposal facilities. In the United States, private rural incineration is typically permitted so long as it is not a nuisance to others, does not pose a risk of fire such as in dry conditions, and the fire is clean-burning, producing no visible smoke. However, many states, such as New York, Minnesota, and Wisconsin, have laws against private bum barrels due to EPA findings that one household burning their own waste can release more dioxins and furans annually than a modem incinerator processing 200 tons per day.'®) People intending to burn waste may be required to contact a state agency in advance to check current fire risk and conditions, and to alert officials of the controlled fire that will occur. 91 Moving grate ‘The typical incineration plant for municipal solid waste is a moving grate incinerator. The moving grate enables the movement of waste through the combustion chamber to be optimised to allow a more efficient and complete combustion. A single moving grate boiler can handle up to 35 metric tons (39 short tons) of waste per hour, and can operate 8,000 hours per year with only one scheduled stop for inspection and maintenance of about one month's duration.(!°] Moving grate incinerators are sometimes referred to as Municipal Solid Waste Incinerators (MSW1s). The waste is introduced by a waste crane through the "throat" at one end of the grate, fiom where it moves down over the deACEnding grate to the ash pit in the other end Here the ash is removed through a water lock Part of the combustion air (primary combustion air) is supplied through the grate from below. This air flow also has the purpose of cooling the grate itself. Cooling is important for the mechanical strength of the grate, and many moving grates are also water-cooled internally, EEE Scanned with CamScannerExhaust a: SEUSS owned Metal and Materials Recovery and Recycling Landfilling Scanned with CamScanner‘boiler lines’ (boilers and flue gas treatment plants), so that waste can continue to be received at one boiler line while the others are subject to revision. Fixed grate ‘The older and simpler kind of incinerator was a brick-lined cell with a fixed metal grate over a lower ash pit, with one opening in the top or side for loading and another opening in the side for removing incombustible solids called clinker, Many small incinerators formerly found in apartment houses have now been replaced by waste compactors Rotary-kiln ‘The rotary-kiln incinerator!!! is used by municipalities and by large industrial plants. ‘This design of incinerator has 2 chambers: a primary chamber and secondary chamber ‘The primary chamber in a rotary kiln incinerator consist of an inclined refractory lined cylindrical tube. Movement of the cylinder on its axis facilitates movement of waste. In the primary chamber, there is conversion of solid fraction to gases, through volatilization, destructive distillation and partial combustion reactions. The secondary chamber is necessary to complete gas phase combustion reactions. ‘The clinkers spill out at the end of the cylinder. A tall flue-gas stack, fan, or steam jet supplies the needed drafi. Ash drops through the grate, but many particles are carried along with the hot gases, The particles and any combustible gases may be combusted in an “afterburner” Fluidized bed ‘A strong airflow is forced through a sandbed. The air seeps through the sand until a point is reached where the sand particles separate to let the air through and mixing and churning occurs, thus a fluidized bed is created and fuel and waste can now be introduced. ‘The sand with the pre-treated waste and/or fuel is kept suspended on pumped air currents and takes on a fluid-like character. The bed is thereby violently mixed and agitated keeping small inert particles and air in a fluid-like state. This allows all of the mass of waste, fuel and sand to be fully circulated through the furnace. Specialized incineration Fumiture factory sawdust incinerators need much attention as these have to handle resin powder and many flammable substances. Controlled combustion, burn back prevention EEE Scanned with CamScannersystems are essential as dust when suspended resembles the fire catch phenomenon of any liquid petroleum gas, Use of heat ‘The heat produced by an incinerator can be used to generate steam which may then be used to drive a turbine in order to produce electricity. The typical amount of net energy that can be produced per tonne municipal waste is about 2/3 MWh of electricity and 2 MWh of district heating, ] ‘Thus, incinerating about 600 metric tons (660 short tons) per day of waste will produce about 400 MWh of electrical energy per day (17 MW of electrical power continuously for 24 hours) and 1200 MWh of district heating energy each day, Pollution Incineration has a number of outputs such as the ash and the emission to the atmosphere of flue gas. Before the flue gas cleaning system, the flue gases may contain significant amounts of particulate matter, heavy metals, dioxins, furans, sulfur dioxide, and hydrochloric acid Ina study from 1994, Delaware Solid Waste Authority found that, for same amount of produced energy, incineration plants emitted fewer particles, hydrocarbons and less SO2, HCI, CO and NOx than coal-fired power plants, but more than natural gas fired power plants.!3) According to Germany's Ministry of the Environment, waste incinerators reduce the amount of some atmospheric pollutants by substituting power produced by coal-fired plants with power from waste-fired plants.!"4] Gaseous emissions Dioxin and furans ‘The most publicized concerns from environmentalists about the incineration of municipal solid wastes (MSW) involve the fear that it produces significant amounts of dioxin and furanemissions.!'5] Dioxins and furans are considered by many to be serious health hazards. In 2005, The Ministry of the Environment of Germany, where there were 66 incinerators at that time, estimated that "...whereas in 1990 one third of all dioxin emissions in Germany came from incineration plants, for the year 2000 the figure was less than 1%. Chimneys and tiled stoves in private households alone discharge approximately 20 times more dioxin into the environment than incineration plants."t'4] —_——_——_—_—sS=—=Seeeon@—™—e”———- Scanned with CamScannerAccording to the United States Environmental Protection Agency, incineration plants are no longer significant sources of dioxins and furans. In 1987, before the governmental regulations required the use of emission controls, there was a total of 10,000 grams (350 07) of dioxin emissions from US incinerators. Today, the total emissions from the 87 plants are 10 grams (0.35 oz) annually, a reduction of 99.9 %, Backyard barrel burning of household and garden wastes, still allowed in some rural areas, generates 580 grams (20 oz) of dioxins annually. Studies conducted by the US- EPAI'©ldemonstrate that the emissions from just one family using a burn barrel produced more emissions than an incineration plant disposing of 200 metric tons (220 short tons) of waste per day by 1997 and five times that by 2007 due to increased chemicals in household trash and decreased emissions by municipal incinerators using better technology Dioxin cracking methods and limitations Generally, the breakdown of dioxin requires exposure of the molecular ring to a sufficiently high temperature so as to trigger thermal breakdown of the strong molecular bonds holding it together, Small pieces of fly ash may be somewhat thick, and too brief aan exposure to high temperature may only degrade dioxin on the surface of the ash, For a large volume air chamber, too brief an exposure may also result in only some of the exhaust gases reaching the full breakdown temperature. For this reason there is also a time clement to the temperature exposure to ensure heating completely through the thickness of the fly ash and the volume of waste gases ‘There are trade-offs between increasing either the temperature or exposure time. Generally where the molecular breakdown temperature is higher, the exposure time for heating can be shorter, but excessively high temperatures can also cause wear and damage to other parts of the incineration equipment. Likewise the breakdown temperature can be lowered to some degree but then the exhaust gases would require a large/long greater lingering period of perhaps several minutes, which would req treatment chambers that take up a great deal of treatment plant space. AA side effect of breaking the strong molecular bonds of dioxin is the potential for breaking the bonds of nitrogen gas (N2) and oxygen gas (Oz) in the supply air. As the exhaust flow cools, these highly reactive detached atoms spontaneously reform bonds into reactive oxides such as NOx in the flue gas, which can result in smog formation and acid rain if they were released directly into the local environment. These reactive oxides must —_———_—_—_ Sse Scanned with CamScannerbe further neutralized with selective catalytic reduction (SCR) or selective non-catalytic reduction (see below). Dioxin cracking in practice ‘The temperatures needed to break down dioxin are typically not reached when burning of plastics outdoors in a burn barrel or garbage pit, causing high dioxin emissions as mentioned above. While plastic does usually burn in an open-air fire, the dioxins remain after combustion and either float off into the atmosphere, or may remain in the ash where it can be leached down into groundwater when rain falls on the ash pile. Fortunately, dioxin and furan compounds very strongly bond to solid surfaces and are not solvated by water so leaching processes are limited to the first few milimeters below the ash pile. The gas-phase dioxins can be substantially destroyed using catalysts, some of which can be present as part of the fabric filter bag structure. Modern municipal incinerator designs include a high temperature zone, where the flue gas is ensured to sustain a temperature above 850 °C (1,560 °F) for at least 2 seconds before it is cooled down, They are equipped with auxiliary heaters to ensure this at all times, These are often fucled by oil, and normally only active for a very small fraction of the time. Further, most modern incinerators utilize fabric filters (often with Teflon membranes to enhance collection of sub-micron particles) which ean capture dioxins present in or on solid particles. For very small municipal incinerators, the required temperature for thermal breakdown of dioxin may be reached using a high-temperature electrical heating element, plus a selective catalytic reduction stage CO As for other complete combustion processes, nearly all of the carbon content in the waste is emitted as CO2 to the atmosphere. MSW contains approximately the same mass fraction of carbon as CO2 itself (27%), so incineration of 1 ton of MSW produces approximately 1 ton of CO2 If the waste was landfilled, 1 ton of MSW would produce approximately 62 cubic metres (2,200 cu ft) methane via the anaerobic decomposition of the biodegradable part of the waste. Since the global warming potential of methane is 21 and the weight of 62 cubic meters of methane at 25 degrees Celsius is 40.7 kg, this is equivalent to 0.854 ton of CO2, which is less than the I ton of CO2 which would have been produced by incineration. In EEE Scanned with CamScannersome countries, large amounts of landfill gas are collected, but still the global warming potential of the landfill gas emitted to atmosphere in the US in 1999 was approximately 32 % higher than the amount of CO2 that would have been emitted by incineration.!'8] In addition, nearly all biodegradable waste has biological origin, This material has been formed by plants using atmospheric CO2 typically within the last growing season. If these plants are regrown the CO? emitted from their combustion will be taken out from the atmosphere once more ion Such considerations are the main reason why several countries administrate ineinei of the biodegradable part of waste as renewable energy. !'9 The rest - mainly plastics and other oil and gas derived products — is generally treated as non-renewables Different results for the CO2 footprint of incineration can be reached with different assumptions. Local conditions (such as limited local district heating demand, no fossil fuel generated electricity to replace or high levels of aluminium in the waste stream) can decrease the CO2 benefits of incineration. The methodology and other assumptions may also influence the results significantly. For example the methane emissions from landfills occurring at a later date may be neglected or given less weight, or biodegradable waste may not be considered CO? neutral, A study by Eunomia Research and Consulting in 2008 on potential waste treatment technologies in London demonstrated that by applying several of these (according to the authors) unusual assumptions the average existing incineration plants performed poorly for COz balance compared to the theoretical potential of other emerging waste treatment technologies.(20) Other emissions Other gaseous emissions in the flue gas from incinerator furnaces include sulfur dioxide, hydrochloric acid, heavy metals and fine particles. The steam content in the flue may produce visible fume from the stack, which can be perceived as a visual pollution. It may be avoided by decreasing the steam content by flue-gas condensation and reheating, or by increasing the flue gas exit temperature well above its dew point. Flue-gas condensation allows the latent heat of vaporization of the water to be recovered, subsequently increasing the thermal efficiency of the plant Flue-gas cleaning The quantity of pollutants in the flue gas from incineration plants is reduced by several processes, ae Scanned with CamScannerParticulate is collected by particle filtration, most often electrostatic precipitators (ESP) and/or baghouse filters, The latter are generally very efficient for collecting fine particles, In an investigation by the Ministry of the Environment of Denmark in 2006, the average particulate emissions per energy content of incinerated waste from 16 Danish incinerators were below 2.02 g/GJ (grams per energy content of the incinerated waste). Detailed measurements of fine particles with sizes below 2.5 micrometres (PM2 5) were performed on three of the incinerators: One incinerator equipped with an ESP for particle filtration emitted 5.3 g/GJ fine particles, while two incinerators equipped with baghouse filters emitted 0.002 and 0.013 g/GJ PM2 5. For ultra fine particles (PMi.0), the numbers were 4,889 g/GJ PM 0 from the ESP plant, while emissions of 0.000 and 0.008 g/GJ PMi.0 were measured from the plants equipped with baghouse filters.[?"1I22] Acid gas scrubbers are used to remove hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, hydrofluoric acid, mercury, lead and other heavy metals. Basic scrubbers remove sulfur dioxide, forminggypsum by reaction with lime. 73] Waste water from scrubbers must subsequently pass through a waste water treatment plant. Sulfur dioxide may — also. be removed =~ by _—_dry desulfurisation by injection limestone slurry into the flue gas before the particle filtration. NOxis either reduced by catalytic reduction with ammonia in acatalytic converter (selective catalytic reduction, SCR) or by a high temperature reaction with ammonia in the furnace (selective non-catalytic reduction, SNCR). Urea may be substituted for ammonia as the reducing reagent but must be supplied earlier in the process so that it can hydrolyze into ammonia, Substitution of urea can reduce costs and potential hazards associated with storage of anhydrous ammonia Heavy metals are often adsorbed on injected active carbon powder, which is collected by the particle filtration. Solid outputs Incineration produces fly ash and bottom ash just as is the case when coal is combusted. The total amount of ash produced by municipal solid waste incineration ranges from 4 to 10 % by volume and 15-20 % by weight of the original quantity of wasteland the fly ash amounts to about 10-20 % of the total ash, [*iation needed] The fly ash, by far, constitutes more of potential health hazard than does the bottom ash because the fly ash often i Scanned with CamScannercontain high concentrations of heavy metals such as lead, cadmium, copper and zine as well as small amounts of dioxins and furans.'?5] The bottom ash seldom contain significant levels of heavy metals, In testing over the past decade, no ash from an incineration plant in the USA has ever been determined to be a hazardous waste,(#ation needed] 4, present although some historic samples tested by the incinerator operators’ group would meet the being ecotoxic criteria at present the EA say "we have agreed” to regard incinerator bottom ash as "non- hazardous” until the testing programme is complete. [tation acd} Other pollution issues Odor pollution can be a problem with old-style incinerators, but odors and dust are extremely well controlled in newer incineration plants. They receive and store the waste in an enclosed area with a negative pressure with the airflow being routed through the boiler which prevents unpleasant odors from escaping into the atmosphere. However, not all plants are implemented this way, resulting in inconveniences in the locality. ‘An issue that affects community relationships is the increased road traffic of waste collection vehicles to transport municipal waste to the incinerator. Due to this reason, ‘most incinerators are located in industrial areas. This problem can be avoided to an extent through the transport of waste by rail from transfer stations. ‘Agency’s (ESPA) comprehensive health effects research concluded "inconclusively” on health effects in October, 2009. The authors stress, that even though no conclusive evidence of non-occupational health effects from incinerators were found in the existing literature, "small but important effects might be virtually impossible to detect". The report highlights epidemiological deficiencies in previous UK health studies and suggests areas for future studies.!°3] The U.K. Health Protection Agency produced a lesser summary in September 2009.75] many toxiocologists criticise and dispute this report as not being comprehensive epidemiologically, thin on peer review and the effects of fine particle effects on health * ‘The highly toxic fly ash must be safely disposed of. This usually involves additional waste miles and the need for specialist toxic waste landfill elsewhere. If not done properly, it may cause concerns for local residents. —— Scanned with CamScanner+ Some people are still concerned about © the health effects of dioxin and furan emissions into the atmosphere from old incinerators; especially during start up and shut down, or where filler bypass is required. + Incinerators emit varying levels. of ~— heavy —metals_-— such as vanadium, manganese, chromium, nickel, arsenic, mercury,lead, and cadmium, which can be toxic at very minute levels Incinerator Bottom Ash (IBA) has elevated levels of heavy metals with ecotoxicity concerns if not reused properly, Some people have the opinion that IBA reuse is still in its infancy and is still not considered to be a mature or desirable product, despite additional engineering treatments. Concerns of IBA use in foam concrete have been expressed by the UK Health and Safety Executive in 2010 following several construction and demolition explosions. In its guidance document, IBA is currently banned from use by the UK Highway Authority in conerete work until these incidents have been investigated Alternative technologies are available or in development such as Mechanical Biological Treatment, Anaerobic Digestion(MBT/AD), Autoclaving or Mechanical Heat Treatment (MHT) using steam or plasma are gasification (PGP), which is incineration using electrically produced extreme high temperatures, or combinations of these treatments. Erection of incinerators compete with the development and introduction of other emerging technologies. A UK government WRAP report, ‘August 2008 found that in the UK median incinerator costs per ton were generally higher than those for MBT treatments by £18 per metric ton; and £27 per metric ton for most modem (post 2000) incinerators. Building and operating waste processing plants such as incinerators requires long contract periods to recover initial investment costs, causing a long term lock-in. Incinerator lifetimes normally range 25-30 years. This was highlighted by Peter Jones, OBE, the Mayor of London's waste representative in April 2009 Incinerators produce fine particles in the furnace. Even with modern particle filtering of the flue gases, a small part of these is emitted to the atmosphere. PM2 5 is not separately regulated in the European Waste Incineration Directive, even though they are repeatedly correlated spatially to infant mortality in the UK (M.Ryan's ONS data based maps around the EfW/CHP waste incinerators at Edmonton, Coventry, Chineham, Kirklees and Sheffield). Under WID there is no requirement to monitor stack top or downwind incinerator PM2 5 levels 3] several European doctors Dane Ae Scanned with CamScannerassociations (including cross discipline experts such as physicians, environmental chemists and toxicologists) in June 2008 representing over 33,000 doctors wrote a keynote statement directly to the European Parliament citing widespread concerns on incinerator particle emissions and the absence of specific fine and ultrafine particle size monitoring or in depth industry/government epidemiological studies of these minute and invisible incinerator particle size emissions. Local communities are often opposed to the idea of locating waste processing plants such as incinerators in their vicinity (the Not In My Back Yard phenomenon). Studies inAndover, Massachusetts strongly correlated 10% property devaluations with close incinerator proximity. Prevention, waste minimisation, reuse and recycling of waste should all be preferred to incineration according to. the waste hierarchy, Supporters of zero waste consider incinerators and other waste treatment technologies as barriers to recycling and separation beyond particular levels, and that waste resources are sacrificed for energy production. ‘A 2008 Eunomia report found that under some circumstances and assumptions, incineration causes less CO2 reduction than other emerging EfW and CHP technology combinations for treating residual mixed waste.!?°] The authors found that CHP incinerator technology without waste recycling ranked 19 out of 24 combinations (where all alternatives to incineration were combined with advanced waste recycling plants); being 228% less efficient than the ranked | Advanced MBT ‘maturation technology; or 211% less efficient than plasma gasification/autoclaving combination ranked 2. ‘Some incinerators are visually undesirable. In many countries they require a visually intrusive chimney stack If reusable waste fractions are handled in waste processing plants such as incinerators in developing nations, it would cut out viable work for local economies. It is estimated that there are 1 million people making a livelihood off collecting waste. ‘The history of municipal solid waste (MSW) incineration is linked intimately to the history of landfills and other waste treatment technology. The merits of incineration are inevitably judged in relation to the alternatives available. Since the 1970s, recycling and Finnvrimant af al Enninnarinn APE Dane AT Scanned with CamScannerother prevention measures have changed the context for such judgements. Since the 1990s alternative waste treatment technologies have been maturing and becoming viable. wastes. It Incineration is a key process in the treatment of hazardous wastes and cli is often imperative that medical waste be subjected to the high temperatures of incineration to destroy pathogens and toxic contamination it contains, ‘The first incinerator in the U.S. was built in 1885 on Governors Island in New York." In 1949, Robert C. Ross founded one of the first hazardous waste management companies in the US. He began Robert Ross Industrial Disposal because he saw an opportunity to meet the hazardous waste management needs of companies in northern Ohio. In 1958, the company built one of the first hazardous waste incinerators in the US.!°"] The first full-scale, municipally operated incineration facility in the U.S. was the Arnold O. Chantland Resource Recovery Plant, built in 1975 and located in Ames, Towa, This plant is still in operation and produces refuse-derived fuel that is sent to local power plants for fuel.(52] The first commercially successful incineration plant in the U.S. was built in Saugus, Massachusetts in October 1975 by Wheelabrator Technologies, and is still in ‘operation today. ‘There are several environmental or waste management corporations that transport ultimately to an incinerator or cement kiln treatment center. Currently (2009), there are three main businesses that incinerate waste: Clean Harbours, WTI-Heritage, and Ross Incineration Services, Clean Harbours has acquired many of the smaller, independently run facilities, accumulating 5~7 incinerators in the process across the U.S. WTI-Heritage has one incinerator, located in the southeastern corner of Ohio (across the Ohio River from West Virginia). Several old generation incinerators have been closed; of the 186 MSW incinerators in 1990, only 89 remained by 2007, and of the 6200 medical waste incinerators in 1988, only 115 remained in 2003.!3] No new incinerators were built between 1996 and 2007. ‘The main reasons for lack of activity have been: Economics. With the increase in the number of large inexpensive regional landfills and, up until recently, the relatively low price of electricity, incinerators ‘were not able to compete for the ‘fuel’, ic., waste in the U.S. Tax: polsies Tax credits for plants producing electricity from waste were ea in the U.S, between 1990 and 200 ——_. Scanned with CamScanner‘There has been renewed interest in incineration and other waste-to-energy technologies in ‘the U.S. and Canada, In the U.S., incineration was granted qualification for renewable energy production tax credits in 2004.'54] Projects to add capacity to existing plants are underway, and municipalities are once again evaluating the option of building incineration plants rather than continue landfilling municipal wastes. However, many of these projects have faced continued political opposition in spite of renewed arguments for the greenhouse gas benefits of incineration and improved air pollution control and ash recycling In Europe, with the ban on landfilling untreated waste, scores of incinerators have been built in the last decade, with more under construction, Recently, a number of municipal governments have begun the process of contracting for the construction and operation of, incinerators. In Europe, some of the electricity generated from waste is deemed to be from a 'Renewable Energy Source (RES) and is thus eligible for tax credits if privately operated, Also, some incinerators in Europe are equipped with waste recovery, allowing the reuse of ferrous and non-ferrous materials found in landfills. A prominent example is, the AEB Waste Fired Power Plant. The technology employed in the UK waste management industry has been greatly lagging behind that of Europe due to the wide availability of landfills. The Landfill Directive set down by the European Union led to the Government of the United Kingdom imposing waste legislation including the landfill tax and Landfill Allowance Trading Scheme. This legislation is designed to reduce the release of greenhouse gases produced by landfills through the use of alternative methods of waste treatment, It is the UK Government's position that incineration will play an increasingly large role in the ‘treatment of municipal waste and supply of energy in the UK. Emergency incineration systems exist for the urgent and biosecure disposal of animals and their by-products following a mass mortality or disease outbreak. An increase in regulation and enforcement from governments and institutions worldwide has been forced through public pressure and significant economic exposure. Contagious animal disease has cost governments and industry $200 billion over 20 years to 2012 and is responsible for over 65% of infectious disease outbreaks worldwide in the past sixty years. One-third of global meat exports (approx 6 million tonnes) is affected by trade restrictions at any time and as such the focus of Governments, public bodies and commercial operators is on cleaner, safer and more robust methods of animal carcass disposal to contain and control disease. Scanned with CamScanner* Char: It consists of elemental carbon along with tne » The char liquid and gases have high calorific values » It has been observed that even after supplying the heat certain amount of excess heat still remains which can t Scanned with CamScannerUNIT - V COMPOSTIN Composting Composting is an excellent method of recycling biodegradable waste from an ecological point of view, Composting is in fact the controlled biological decomposition of organic matter, such as food and yard wastes, into humus, a soil-like material. Composting is nature’’s way of recycling organic waste into new soil, which can be used in vegetable and flower gardens, landscaping and the like. However, many large and small composting schemes have failed because composting is regarded as a disposal process, and not a production process. Environmental problems may arise when waste is composted without noncompostible matter like metals and plastics being removed. Hazardous substances like heavy metals may then be found in the compost, which in tum may be taken up in the food chain when compost is used on agricultural land. To prevent this situation, sorting at the composting plant or even at the houschold level might be called for. Benefits of Composting- BB Keeps organic wastes out of landfills. BB Provides nutrients to the soil EB increases beneficial soil organisms (¢.g., worms and centipedes). BB Suppresses certain plant diseases. [BL Reduces the need for fertilizers and pesticides, EB Protects soils from erosion. EB Assists pollution remediation Composting is also defined as process in which organic matter of the solid waste is decomposed and converted to humus and stable mineral compounds. The end product, of composting process is called compost whi th fertilizer. ‘There are three methods of composting: (1) Composting by Trenching (2) Open window composting (3) Mechanical Composting Scanned with CamScanner