Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Summary
Summary recommendations:
1. Global health institutions should acknowledge and address the impact
of sanitation on the global disease burden, the contribution of improved
sanitation to reducing that disease burden and the potential benefits for
public health outcomes.
A WaterAid report, May 2011. Written by Yael Velleman and Tom Slaymaker.
Acknowledgements: This policy report draws upon the findings of
WaterAid-funded research conducted in collaboration with the Water Institute
(WI) at the Gillings School of Public Health, University of North Carolina,
during 2010. The views expressed here are those of WaterAid and do not
necessarily reflect those of the Water Institute.
With particular thanks to WaterAid country programme staff in Malawi,
Nepal and Uganda for their support and contributions to this report.
This paper should be cited as WaterAid (2011) The sanitation problem:
What can and should the health sector do?
A soft copy of this and all other WaterAid papers can be found at
www.wateraid.org/publications.
Front cover image of children in Malawi: WaterAid/Layton Thompson
Report
Table of contents
1. Introduction 2
4. F unctional deficits and the role of the health sector in addressing them 12
4.1. C
ore functional deficits in securing progress on sanitation
and related health gains 12
4.1.a Functional deficit 1: Norms and regulations 13
4.1.b Functional deficit 2: Inter-sectoral policy and coordination 15
4.1.c Functional deficit 3: Delivery of scalable sanitation programmes 20
4.1.d Functional deficit 4: Collection and use of data 26
6. R
ecommendations for health sector stakeholders 31
6.1. International health policy and donor policy 31
6.2. National development policy and resource allocation 32
6.3. National health policy and sanitation programme design 32
6.4. Other stakeholders 34
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1. Introduction
WaterAid’s vision is of a world where everyone has access to safe water
and sanitation. This vision can only be achieved by working in collaboration
with others. This report is part of an ongoing programme of work which
seeks to reach out beyond the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH)
sector to engage with actors and agencies from other sectors, particularly
health and education, as part of a concerted joint effort to address the lack
of access to WASH and the profound impact it has on health, welfare and
economic growth in the world’s poorest countries and communities.
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The report argues that the scale of coverage provided the context for more
the financial and human costs of the detailed case studies: Malawi, Nepal,
neglect of sanitation cannot be ignored; Sri Lanka and Uganda.7 Extensive in-
and that joint, cross-sector efforts that country support was provided by local
make better use of existing resources WaterAid staff and partners.
are critical to building on the gains
achieved so far in improving global A triangulation approach was
health. Progress on global health, in used to gain a fuller picture of the
particular on child health, will require interaction of the health sector with
health and sanitation professionals to sanitation policies, programmes, and
work together to tackle poor sanitation. implementation. Data were collected
This report attempts to provide some using a range of methods including:
practical recommendations on how to a review of academic literature and
facilitate this joint effort. country policies and programmes;
expert consultation via in-person field
The report draws on research conducted interviews with representatives from
during 2010 in collaboration with the the health and WASH sectors (including
Water Institute at the Gillings School staff from national government
of Global Public Health, University agencies, non-governmental
of North Carolina, USA. The research organisations and external support
team investigated the characteristics of agencies); and development of an
health sector involvement in sanitation interactive online survey using a wiki
in developing countries, including approach8 to elicit responses from
governance structures, health sector stakeholders in a larger number of
roles and responsibilities, and current countries. The full report prepared by
initiatives to link sanitation and health. the Water Institute, on which this
Four developing countries with differing report draws, is available separately
institutional arrangements for sanitation as a background paper.
and varying degrees of sanitation
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What is sanitation?
Sanitation is the collection, transport, treatment and disposal or reuse
of human excreta, domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated
hygiene promotion.12
The F-diagram (figure 1) summarises the 1.1 billion people practise indiscriminate
established means by which sanitation or open defecation.14 This situation
and associated hygiene practices represents a significant and constant
prevent infection. barrier to human and economic
development, through direct impact on
Figure 1: The ‘F-diagram’ – sanitation as a primary health, as well as broader impacts on
barrier between excreta and human contact13 wellbeing and poverty. Although more
The effective separation of faeces from human
contact through improved disposal of excreta
than 800 million people globally lack
access to safe drinking water, this paper
Fluids will focus specifically on sanitation;
this focus is driven by the neglect of
Fields the sanitation issue, as well as the
Human
Foods
New particular role of the health sector in
Faeces Human Host
sanitation promotion.
Flies
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Tetanus, 1%
Other Non-Communicable Diseases, 4% 14% 4%
Congenital Abnormalities, 3%
Meningitis, 2% Sepsis, 6%
AIDS, 2% Neonatal
Pertussis, 2% deaths, 41%
Birth Asphyxia, 9%
Malaria, 8%
Injury, 3%
Measles, 1% Preterm Birth
14% 1% Complications, 12%
Diarrhoea
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Figure 3: C
orrelation of sanitation access with diarrhoea and child mortality25
0.20
0.18
0.16
0.14
0.12
0.10
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Open
Latrine
Flush
Open
Latrine
Flush
diarrhOea child mortality
Table 1: Summary statistics on deaths and disability from WASH-related diseases in 200426
Malawi Nepal Sri Lanka Uganda World
Population 12,895,000 26,554,000 19,040,000 28,028,000 6,436,826,000
Deaths DALYsa Deaths DALYs Deaths DALYs Deaths DALYs Deaths DALYs
Diarrhoeal diseases (% of 20,700 674,000 15,800 523,000 900 41,000 30,600 1,035,000 2,163,283 72,776,516
total deaths or DALYs) (9%) (8%) (6%) (6%) (<1%) (<1%) (7%) (7%) (4%) (5%)
Intestinal 0 1,700 100 16,000 0 16,000 0 39,000 6,481 4,012,666
nematode infections
Malnutritionb 3,700 211,000 2,000 157,000 100 15,000 2,500 246,000 250,562 17,461,607
Trachoma 0 5,000 0 20,000 0 0 0 87,000 108 1,334,414
Schistosomiasis 1,300 5,900 0 0 0 0 1,700 63,000 41,087 1,707,144
Lymphatic filariasis 0 5,400 0 119,000 0 26,000 0 68,000 290 5,940,641
Total country deaths/DALYs 25,700 903,000 17,900 835,000 1,000 98,000 34,800 1,538,000 2,461,811 103,232,988
for WaSH-related diseases (11%) (12%) (7%) (11%) (<1%) (2%) (8%) (11%) (4%) (7%)
(% of total deaths/DALYs)
Total country deaths/DALYs 227,100 7,575,000 238,900 7,837,000 213,400 4,469,000 405,800 14,145,000 58,771,791 1,523,258,879
due to all diseases for 2004
a
Disability-adjusted life-year
b
Protein-energy malnutrition only
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Figure 4: 2010 Sanitation coverage in the case study countries and globally33
100% 1 100%
9 4 10
14 4 17
8 25 25
31 16
80% 13 11 80%
52 3
27 14 14
7 11
60% 80 26 60%
7
20 22
6 91
40% 11 40%
70
56 61
48 54
20% 42 5 39 20%
4 31
11
0% 0%
1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008 1990 2008
Malawi Nepal Sri Lanka Uganda World
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The tremendous impact of sanitation In 2008, the World Bank’s Water and
on health results in significant Sanitation Program (WSP) conducted
economic returns on investment in an economic impact analysis of
sanitation, for individuals as well as sanitation in five south-east Asian
national economies. Evans et al34 countries: Cambodia, Indonesia, the
determine that such returns include Lao People’s Democratic Republic,
direct healthcare savings by both health Vietnam, and the Philippines. The
agencies and individuals, as research estimated that these countries
well as indirect benefits such as lose an estimated US$9 billion (2005
productive days gained per year (for dollars) a year – 2% of their combined
persons 15-59 years of age); increased GDP – because of poor sanitation.38
school attendance for children; time A similar study in India showed
savings (working days gained) resulting that inadequate sanitation cost the
from more convenient access to economy US$53.8 billion annually in
services; and a high value of deaths lost productivity, healthcare provision
averted (based on future earnings). The and other losses - equivalent to 6.4%
study further showed that achieving of GDP in 2006.39
the water and sanitation Millennium
Development Goal (MDG)35 could yield The data above provides compelling
substantial economic benefits, ranging evidence on the benefits of sanitation
from US$3-34 per US$1 invested, investment – and the scale of the
depending on the region. financial and above all human costs
of not investing cannot be ignored
There are also significant benefits by any sector. In a time of financial
for health systems and budgetary crises and shrinking domestic and
resources; according to UNDP, at any aid financial flows, joint efforts that
given time half of the hospital beds in make better use of existing resources
developing countries are occupied by are not only sensible but critical to
patients suffering from sanitation- and building on the gains achieved so far
water-related diseases,36 representing in improving global health. Clearly,
a tremendous burden for already if real improvement is to be made
overstretched health systems. It also in population health in developing
estimates that “universal access countries, especially on child mortality
to even the most basic water and where performance has been
sanitation facilities would reduce the particularly poor, then health and
financial burden on health systems in sanitation professionals need to work
developing countries by about US$1.6 in concert to tackle poor sanitation as
billion annually—and US$610 million a major cause of ill health.
in Sub-Saharan Africa, which
represents about 7% of the region’s
health budget”.37
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Findings:
• Clear policy, legislation and minimum standards are an important
foundation for securing potential health gains from WASH. Some countries
have public health legislation in place but very few have explicit policies
and strategies for addressing sanitation.
• Ministries of Health and health authorities often play a minimal role in
sanitation policy setting and programming, whether led by or included
within the Ministry of Health’s environmental health division.
• Where sanitation policies exist they are generally approached from an
engineering (supply-side) perspective, which does not recognise the
public health implications of sanitation (and consequently, does not use
behaviour change or health outcomes as indicators of a well-functioning
sanitation infrastructure).
• Many developing countries lack commonly agreed minimum standards
for sanitation (eg. in schools and clinics). Concepts and definitions of
what constitutes ‘safe’ or ‘improved’ sanitation are still evolving (eg. the
sanitation ‘ladder’), and require significant inputs from public health
professionals (beyond technology).
• When sanitation enforcement mechanisms are in place, such as housing
regulations and bylaws, they are often constrained due to minimal funding
and inadequate human resources. Formal sanctions alone are unlikely
to result in health gains unless coupled with efforts to promote safe
sanitation and improved hygiene practices.
• No examples were found for the purpose of this study of regulations or
guidelines for patient safety and infection control measures, which relate
to safe sanitation.
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In Malawi, as a result of the development not expected until 2011. The NSP will
of the National Sanitation Policy (NSP) be supported by development partners
in 2008, the Ministry of Irrigation under a SWAp for sanitation, bringing
and Water Development (MoIWD) together government institutions and
established a Sanitation and Hygiene other relevant stakeholders. The SWAp
Department in 2009 to lead the national is anticipated to improve coordination
sanitation initiatives. At the local level, and participation in the formulation
the District Assemblies are responsible and implementation of sector policies,
for ensuring that the policy is reflected planning, and investment. Oversight will
in strategies for implementation be provided by the National Sanitation
through the Development Strategy and Hygiene Coordination Unit (NSHCU),
and Improvement Programmes (DSIP). chaired by the director of Preventive
It is most likely that, while the Water Health Services (PHS) of the MoH and
Department will take the lead in with the director of MoIWD acting as the
water and possibly some subsidised executive secretary.
implementation of sanitation activities,
sanitation promotion and monitoring Successive governments in Sri Lanka
will be led by the Health Department. have prioritised investment in health
Although the NSP was adopted by the and education which has led, inter
government in 2008, its official launch alia, to significant improvements
has been delayed several times and is in public health. Sanitation has
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Findings:
• Lack of effective inter-sectoral collaboration is a major factor causing slow
progress on sanitation.
• Ministries of Health and health authorities often play a minimal role in
sanitation policy setting and programming, whether led by or included
within the Ministry of Health’s environmental health division.
• Improving access and changing behaviours requires coordination between
multiple agencies. Most countries have a coordinating body of some sort
with a mandate on sanitation but responsibilities, accountabilities and
financing arrangements tend to be poorly defined.
• SWAps have the potential to improve coordination of financing for
sanitation but can also reinforce silos and present obstacles to
inter-sectoral collaboration
• District level coordination is crucial for effective programme implementation,
but district structures often lack the autonomy needed to respond flexibly to
sanitation-related health problems and tend to suffer from under-resourcing
in human and financial terms
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Table 4: Sanitation-related programmes within the Sri Lanka Health Master Plan 2007-2016
Health services delivery programme title Focal points Relevant agencies
1.4 Disease control programme
1.4.2.b C ommunicable Diseases Control: Simple interventions like improving the Ministry of Health,
STD/AIDS Control household level hygiene and sanitation as well Provincial Health
1.4.2.d . 4 Communicable Diseases Control: as creating awareness of these issues - of what Authorities, National
Immunisable Diseases Control: Viral they are and how they work, and access to Water Supply and
Hepatitis Prevention and Control information on water, hygiene and sanitation Drainage Board, Local
1.4.2.f C
ommunicable Disease Control: issues can bring down the burden of disease and Authorities, Ministry
Food and Water-Borne Diseases: misery especially among the underserved and of Plantation and
Control/Prevention and Control of the poor. Infrastructure.
Diarrhoeal Diseases
1.4.2.g C ommunicable Diseases Control:
Water-Borne Diseases Control - 2
1.5 Programme for vulnerable populations
1.5.7 Health of People in Urban Slums Health status of a population is dependent Ministry of Health,
on the living condition and water supply Provincial Health
and sanitation. Authorities, National
We have to have a multi-sectoral approach in Water Supply and
health prevention and promotion strategies and Drainage Board, Local
it should be through appropriate technology in Authorities, Ministry
delivering the services. Most of the activities of Plantation and
we have to work with the water board, and the Infrastructure.
Municipal council or urban councils. Also we
have to use the existing systems and mechanism
to implement the programmes.
1.5.8 School Health Conduct a School Sanitation Survey annually Ministry of Education
and data provided to the Ministry of Education Provincial Education
and other relevant Ministries and Departments. Authorities.
Availability of sanitation and water supply.
Percentage of Officers of Health providing data
to the Medical Officer/Maternal and Child Health.
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Despite the success of the CHCs, Waterkeyn notes that the health sector’s
involvement in Uganda’s CHCs from 2003 to 2005 was minimal due to the lack
of staffing availability and transportation. At the district level, health workers
attended workshops and then withdrew from their commitment to conduct
community training if per diems were not provided. However, at the national
level the Environmental Health Department recently initiated efforts to
address unsafe sanitation by developing a standard toolkit for ‘participatory
hygiene and sanitation transformation’ (PHAST) training with a team that
is conducting training sessions in one district. Although the integration of
health and sanitation promotion through CHCs in Uganda was less successful,
results elsewhere merit further exploration.
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Findings:
• Promoting uptake and use of sanitation is an enduring challenge and its
absence is a barrier to progress in sanitation coverage, but it is rarely an
explicit component in health programme design.
• District and local health worker practices and programmes are typically
disease-focused and rarely consider or integrate sanitation as a strategy
to reduce the disease burden (diarrhoeal and others).
• Sanitation is rarely included in primary healthcare programmes and
services or meaningfully integrated into disease-specific (eg. HIV/AIDS) or
integrated programmes (eg. IMCI), but there are examples where this has
been successfully done (eg. the Sri Lanka Health Master Plan).
• Local implementation of sanitation policies and programmes provides
good synchronicity with public health objectives as well as potential
for improved health outcomes. There is evidence to suggest a positive
relationship between health promotion at community and household
level and latrine ownership and use.
Findings:
• Data and analyses are not routinely shared between sectors, especially at
district levels, resulting in lost opportunities to identify and target vulnerable
populations (eg. low income areas, unplanned urban settlements, or areas
prone to disease outbreaks).
• Significant weaknesses exist within respective sector information
management systems (including a lack of sanitation-related information in
HMIS, as well as a lack of health information in WASH MIS).
• With the exception of Sri Lanka, existing data on sanitation-related infections
and diseases is often weakly integrated within the design, implementation
and monitoring of sanitation programmes.
• Critical information for tracking national, district, and local budget allocations
and expenditure for sanitation is often lacking. Furthermore information on
impact/cost-effectiveness of sanitation interventions is often inadequate for
effective results-based programme management and resource allocation.
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6. R
ecommendations for
health sector stakeholders
Sanitation infrastructure is necessary but not sufficient for better
health. The failure of health sector stakeholders to work jointly
with WASH sector counterparts to address key functional deficits
is constraining progress on sanitation and related health outcomes.
Various actions can be taken by international, national and local health
sector actors that could help accelerate progress on sanitation and
leverage gains in health, most notably by reducing the impact of the
main causes of child mortality such as diarrhoea and under-nutrition.
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Endnotes
WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring
1 9
Improved sanitation facilities A systematic review of studies
18
Programme (JMP) (2010) Progress are those that ensure hygienic estimated that hand-washing
on sanitation and drinking water. separation of human excreta from with soap reduced the incidence
human contact. According to the of respiratory infections by a
2
Black R et al (2010), “Global, WHO/UNICEF JMP, these include mean of 23 % (Rabie and
regional, and national causes flush toilets and pour-flush toilets/ Curtis (2006), “Handwashing
of child mortality in 2008: a latrines (to a sewer system, septic and risk of respiratory infections:
systematic analysis”, Lancet 2010; tank, or pit latrine), ventilated a quantitative systematic
375: 1969–87. improved pit latrines, pit latrines review”, Tropical Medicine and
with slab, and composting toilets. International Health, 11(3), 258-
3
WaterAid (2009), Fatal neglect:
267). Of these studies, however,
How health systems are failing 10
WHO/UNICEF JMP (2010) Progress the only one conducted in a
to comprehensively address on sanitation and drinking water. developing country found that
child mortality.
hand -washing with soap brought
11
WHO/UNICEF JMP (2010) Progress
4
www.sanitationandwaterforall.org. about a 50% reduction (Luby et al
on sanitation and drinking water.
(2005), “Effect of hand-washing
5
Bartram J, Cairncross S (2010) 12
Definition developed for the on child health: a randomised
Hygiene, Sanitation and Water: International Year of Sanitation controlled trial”, The Lancet,
Forgotten Foundations of Health. 2008 by the Water Supply and 366, 255-233).
PloS Med e367: doi:10.1371/ Sanitation Collaborative Council
journal.pmed.1000367. WHO (2008c), Safer water, better
19
and approved by the UN-Water
health: Costs, benefits and
Task Force on Sanitation.
6
WHO www.who.int sustainability of interventions to
13
WaterAid (2008), Tackling the protect and promote health.
7
Malawi, Nepal and Uganda are
silent killer: The case
classified by the World Bank as 20
Black R et al (2010), “Global,
for sanitation.
developing countries, while regional, and national causes
Sri Lanka is classified as a lower- 14
Defecation in fields, forests, of child mortality in 2008: a
middle-income country. Sri Lanka bushes, bodies of water or other systematic analysis”, Lancet 2010;
has been included as an example open spaces, or disposal of 375: 1969–87.
of a country which has made human faeces.
progress on sanitation and health Black R et al (2010), “Global,
21
35
Report
24
Gunther I and Fink G (2010), Data provided under the JMP is
32 40
In 2007 the British Medical
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41
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worldbank-dhs2010.pdf in the case study countries. Background Note, June 2010.
Nevertheless, the application Tearfund, Water Supply and
25
Gunther I and Fink G (2010), of identical criteria globally by Sanitation Collaborative Council
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42
Heller L (2009), Interfaces and
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45
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Beyond Construction: Use by All.
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30
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39
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31
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36
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48
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37
Notes
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