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Analysis of Structural Member Systems PDF
Analysis of Structural Member Systems PDF
, Massachusetts Institute of
Technology, is Professor of Civil Engineering at Massa-
chusetts Institute of Technology. He has been active in
teaching and research in structural analysis and mechanics
at the U.S. Army Materials and Mechanics Research
Agency and for some years at M.I.T. His primary inter-
est is in computer based analysis methods, and his current
research is concerned with the dynamic analysis of pre-
stressed concrete reactor vessels and the development of
finite element models for fluid flow problems. Dr. Connor
is one of the original developers of ICES-STRUDL, and
has published extensively in the structural field.
ANALYSIS OF
STRUCTURAL MEMBER
SYSTEMS
JEROME J. CONNOR
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
open and closed sections. The concluding chapters treat the behavior of
planar and arbitrary curved members.
How one assembles and solves the governing equations for a member sys-
tern is discussed in Part IV. First, the direct stiffness method is outlined;
then a general formulation of the governing equations is described. Geo-
metrically nonlinear behavior is considered in the last chapter, which dis-
cusses member force-displacement relations, including torsional-flexural
coupling, solution schemes, and linearized stability analysis.
The objective has been a text suitable for the teaching of modern structural
member system analysis, and what is offered is an outgrowth of lecture notes
developed in recent years at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. To
the many students who have provided the occasion of that development, I am
deeply appreciative. Particular thanks go to Mrs. Jane Malinofsky for her
patience in typing the manuscript, and to Professor Charles Miller for his
encouragement.
JEROME J. CONNOR
Cambridge, Mass.
January, 1976
Contents
I—MATHEMATICAL PRELIMINARiES
V
CONTENTS
Index 605
Part I
MATHEMATICAL
PRELIMINARIES
1
Introduction to
Matrix Algebra
1—1. DEFINITION OF A MATRIX
An ordered set of quantities may be a one-dimensional array, such as
a21, a22, . , . .
ami,
Note that the first term in the order pertains to the number of rows and the
second term to the nuiñber of columns. For convenience, we refer to the order
of a matrix as simply m x n rather than of order m by n.
3
4 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
A matrix having only one row is called a row matrix. Similarly, a matrix
having only one column is called a column matrix or column vector.* Braces
instead ofbrackets are commonly used to denote a column matrix and the
column subscript is eliminated. Also, the elements are arranged horizontally
instead of vertically, to save space. The various column-matrix notations are:
C11 C1
C21 C2
{c1, c2,. . . , {c1} =c
If the number of rows and the number of columns are equal, the matrix is said
to be square. (Special types of square matrices are discussed in a later section.)
Finally, if all the elements are zero, the matrix is called a null matrix, and is
represented by 0 (boldface, as in the previous case).
Example 1—1
3 x 4 Matrix
4 2—1 2
3 —7 1 —8
2 4 —3 1
1 x 3 Row Matrix
[3 4 2]
3 x 1 Column Matrix
f3]
or 4Jor{3,4,2}
2 2 Square Matrix
5
[2 7
2 x 2 Null Matrix
[0 0
[o o
having both magnitude and direction. We will denote a mechanics vector quantity, such as force
or moment, by means of an italic letter topped by an arrow, e.g., F. A knowledge of Vector algebra
is assumed in this text. For a review, see Ref. 2 (at end of chapter, preceding Problems).
SEC. 1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Addition and subtraction operations are defined only for matrices of the same
order. The sum of two m x n matrices, a and b, is defined to be the m x n
matrix +
+ = +
Similarly,
— = — bLJ]
For example, if
[1 2 ii [0
b=[3 —1 —1
—d i
then
[1 1 0
1 —1
and
[1 3 2
—1 —1
a+(b+c)=(a+b)+c (1—7)
k=5 and
then
+35
ka=[[—10
10 5
6 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
+ a12x2 + + C1
a21x1 + a22x2 + + = C2
l2miXi + am2x2 + +
This set can be written as
alkxk C1 i= 1, 2, . . . ,rn
where k is a dummy index. Using column matrix notation, (1—9) takes the form
i=
= {c1}
i= 1,2,..,,rn (1—11)
1,2
Since (1—10) and (1—Il) must be equivalent, it follows that the definition
equation for a matrix multiplied by a column matrix is
ax = ulkxk} j = 1, 2,. . . ,m
This product is defined only when the column order of a is equal to the row
order of x. The result is a column matrix, the row order of which is equal to
that of a. In general, if a is of order r x s, and x of order s x 1, the product
ax is of orderr x 1.
Example 1—2
1
11 2
a= 8 x={3}
-4j
1(1)(2) + (—1)(3)
4
+ (3)(3) 9
SEC. 1—3. MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Xk = k= 1, 2,. . . ,n (1—13)
1=
Substituting for Xk in (1—10),
= i 1, 2,. . . ,m
= i 1,2,.. .,
This product is defined only when the column order of a is equal to the row
order of b. In general, if a is of order r x n, and b of order n x q, the product
ab is of order r x q. The element at the ith row and jth column of the product
is obtained by multiplying corresponding elements in the ith row of the first
matrix and the jth column of the second matrix.
8 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
Example 1—3
[+1 +1 0 —l
ab=J_1 0 —1 +4
[ 0 +2 —2 +6
aT = {a79]:
a11 a12 a1,
021 a22 a2,
a
= = (1—23)
The element, a79, at the ith row and jth column of aT, where now i varies from 1
to n and j from 1 to m, is given by
a79 = (1—24)
where is the element at the jth row and ith column of a. For example,
[3 2
T r3 7 5
1
a =[2 1 4
We consider next the transpose matrix associated with the product of two
matrices. Let
p==ab (a)
where a is m x n and b is n x s. The product, p, is m x s and the element,
Pu,
m
= Ilukbkf —1 (b)
.1 —
p79 = (c)
where now I = 1, 2 s and j = 1, 2,. . . ,m. Using (1—24) and (b), we can
write (c) as
1, 2,. S
p79 = = (d)
k1 k1 j =—
It follows from (d) that
= (ab)T = bTaT
Equation (1—26) states that the transpose of a product is the product of the
10 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
Example 1—4
ab = 13 (ab)T = [4 13 6]
6
Alternatively,
aT = [2 —1]
=
Example 1—5
[3 2
12[ LO
0
I
SEC. 1—5. SPECIAL SQUARE MATRICES
where d1, d2,. .. , are the principal elements. If the principal diagonal elements
are all equal to k, the matrix reduces to
= = (1—31)
Example 1—6
[2 01[3 01[2 01 [6 0
[o —i][o 5j[O 5j[O _ij[o —5
[2 01[3 'l_[ 6 2
—
ij [2 7] — [—2 —7
[3 11[2 01 [6 —'
[2 7j[0 _1j[4 —7
The product of two symmetrical matrices is symmetrical only when the matrices
are commutative.* Finally, one can easily show that products of the type
(aTa) (aaT) (aTba)
asingle symbol. We will use upper case letters to denote the submatrices
whenever possible and omit the partition lines.
Example 1-1
We represent
[au a12 a13
as
[A11 A121 a = [A11 A12
a or
[A21 A22J [A21 A22
where
Ia11 a121 Ia13
A11 = [a21
I A12 = I
La23
If two matrices of the same order are identically partitioned, the rules of
matrix addition are applicable to the submatrices. Let
[A11 A121 [B11 8121
I
(134)
[A23 A22J [823 B22j
where BLJ and A13 are of the same order. The sum is
a [A131t
= 1, 2,.. , M
(1—36)
b = [B1d I = 1,2 M
k= 1,2,...,S
We can write the product as
C = ab = [CIk]
C
M
1 ,,...,
— ik i . i1, —
when the row partitions of b are consistent with the column partitions of a.
14 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
Suppose we partition a with a vertical partition between the second and third
columns,
1211 1212 a13
a= a21 a22 a23 = [A11A12]
a31 a32 a33
Since the column order of A11 and A21 is equal to the row order of b, no
partitioning of b is required. The product is
[A111 [A11b
ab = LA2ijb = [A21b
As an alternative, we partition b with a vertical partition.
b12
b= b21 b22 = [811B12]
b31
In this case, since the row order of B11 and B12 is the same as the column
SEC. 1—6. OPERATIONS ON PARTITIONED MATRICES
a= A21 A22
Arnt Am2
then
AT1 AT1
AT AT . . . AT
AT AT . . . AT
A 0
A and are of the same order.
We use the term quasi to distinguish between partitioned and unpartitioned
matrices having the same form. For example, we call
(1—40)
We use the terms array and matrix interchangeably, since they are synony-
mous. Also, we refer to the determinant of an eth-order array as an nth-order
determinant. It shou'd be noted that determinants are associated only with
square arrays, that is, with square matrices.
The determinant of a third-order array is defined as
a11 a12 a13 +a11a22a33
a21 a22 a23 = —a12a21a33 + a12a23a31 (1—42)
a31 a32 a33 +a13a21a32 — a13a22a31
This number is the coefficient of x1, x2, and x3, obtained when the third-order
system ax c is solved successively for x1, x2. and x3. Comparing (l—41) and
(1—42), we see that both expansions involve products which have the following
properties:
1. Each product contains only one clement from any row or column and
no element occurs twice in the same product. The products differ only
in the column subscripts.
2. The sign of a product depends on the order of the column subscripts,
e.g., +a11a22a33 and —a11a23a32,
These properties are associated with the arrangement of the column subscripts
and can be conveniently described using the concept of a permutation, which
is discussed below.
A set of distinct integers is considered to be in natural order if each integer
is followed only by larger integers. A rearrangement of the natural order is
called a permutation of the set. For example, (1, 3, 5) is in natural order and
SEC. 1—7. DEFINITION AND PROPERTIES OF A DETERMINANT
2 None 0
3
This set has three inversions. A permutation is classified as even (odd) if the
total number of inversions for the set is an even (odd) integer. According to
this convention, (1, 2, 3) and (3, 1, 2) are even permutations and (1, 3, 2) is an
odd permutation. Instead of cbunting the inversions, we can determine the
number of integer interchanges required to rearrange the set in its natural order
since an even (odd) number of interchanges corresponds to an even (odd)
number of inversions. For example, (3,2, 1) has three inversions and requires
one interchange. Working with interchanges rather than inversions is practical
only when the set is small.
Referring back to (1—41) and (1—42), we see that each product is a permutation
of the set of column subscripts and the sign is negative the permutation
is odd. The number of products is equal to the number of possible permutations
of the column subscripts that can be formed. One can easily show that there
are possible permutations for a set of n distinct integers.
We let , ce,,) be a permutation of the set (1, 2,.
. . . , n) and define . .
• as
where the summation is taken over all possible permutations of (1, 2, . . , n).
Example 1—8
1. If all elements of any row (or column) are zero, the determinant is zero.
2. The value of the determinant is unchanged if the rows and columns are
interchanged; that is, aT! = a!.
3. If two successive rows (or two successive columns) are interchanged, the
sign of the determinant is changed.
4. If all elements of one row (or one column) are multiplied by a number k,
the determinant is multiplied by k.
5. If corresponding elements of two rows (or two columns) are equal or in
a constant ratio, then the determinant is zero.
6. If each element in one row (or one column) is expressed as the sum of
two terms, then the determinant is equal to the sum of two determinants,
in each of which one of the two terms is deleted in each element of that
row (or column).
7. If to the elements of any row (column) are added k times the cor-
responding elements of any other row (column), the determinant is
unchanged.
Properties 1 and 2 are obvious. It follows from property 2 that laTl a!. We
This result can be obtained by substituting for O.ii and a12 in (b). Finally, to
illustrate property 7, we take
Cofactors occur naturally when (.1 —44) is expanded9 in terms of the elements
of a row or column. This leads to the following expansion formula, called
Laplace's expansion by cofactors or simply Laplace's expansion:
The above identities are used to establish Cramer's rule in the following section.
Example 1—9
(1) We apply (1—46) to a third-order array and expand with respect to the first row:
a11 a12 a13
(121 a23 a23
a31 a32 a33
(2) Suppose the array is triangular in form, for example, lower triangular. Expanding
with respect to the first row, we have
0 0
(122 0
a21 a22 0 = a11 = (a51)(a22a33) = a11a22a33
032 033
031 a32 033
Generalizing this result, we find that the determinant of a triangular matrix is equal to
the product of the diagonal elements. This result is quite useful.
Whether we use (1—48) or first multiply a and b and then determine lab! depends
on the form and order of a and b. If they are diagonal or triangular, (1—48)
is quite efficient. t
Example 1—10
[1 31 r2 3
5] 4
a! = hi = Ic! = —20
Alternatively,
c [[11 29J
and cj = —20
[1 31 r2 0
a=[0 b__[1
5]
a! = 5 bi = 8 Ic! = +40
Determining c first, we obtain
rs 121
and ci = +40
= [5 20]
= j = 1, 2, . . . , ii (a)
lalxr =
The expansion on the right side of (c) differs from the expansion
al ajrAj.
=
only in that the rth column of a is replaced by c. Equation (c) leads to Cramer's
rule, which can be stated as follows:
A set of n linear algebraic equations in n unknowns, ax = c, has a
unique solution when 0. The expression for Xr (r = 1, 2 n) is
the ratio of two determinants; the denominator is al and the numerator
is the determinant of the matrix obtained from a by replacing the rth
column by c.
If jaf = 0, a is said to be singular. Whether a solution exists in this ease will
depend on c. All we can conclude from Cramer's rule is that the solution, if
it exists, will not be unique. Singular matrices and the question of solvability
are discussed in Sec. 1 —13.
(note that we have taken r = I in Eq. c of Sec. 1—9). Using matrix notation,
(b) takes the form
[Au]T{cj}
Equation (e) leads naturally to the definition of adjoint and inverse matrices.
SEC. 1—10. ADJOINT AND INVERSE MATRICES 23
We define the adjoint and inverse matrices for the square matrix a of order n as
Note that the inverse matrix is defined only for a nonsingular square matrix.
Example 1—11
123
a= 2 3 1
412
The matrix of cofactors is
5 0 —10
—1 —10 +7
—7 +5 —1
Also, al = —25. Then
5 —i —7
Adja 0 —10 +5
—10 +7 —1
—1/5 + 1/25 +7/25
= —-- Adj a= 0 + 2/5 — 1/5
a
+2/5 —7/25 + 1/25
Premultiplication by a' 1
results in
— a"'
and therefore a1 is also symmetrical. One can also show* that, for any
nonsingular square matrix, the inverse and transpose operations can be inter-
changed:
bT,_t = (1—52)
We consider next the inverse matrix associated with the product of two square
matrices. Let
c= ab
where a and b are both of order n x n and nonsingular. Premultiplication
by and then b1 results in
a'c = b
(b'a'')c =
It follows from the definition of the inverse matrix that
(ab)1 = (1—53)
001
010
100
interchanges rows 1 and 3 and postmultiplication by
1000
0001
0010
0100
interchanges columns 2 and 4. This simple example shows that to interchange
rows, we first interchange the rows of the conformable unit matrix and pre-
multiply. Similarly, to interchange columns, we interchange columns of the
conformable unit matrix and postmultiply.
The elementary operation matrices for operations (2) and (3) are also obtained
by operating on the corresponding conformable unit matrix. The matrix which
multiplies row j by is an mth order diagonal matrix having d1 = 1 for i j
and = Similarly, postmultiplication by an nth order diagonal matrix
having = 1 for i j and = will multiply thejth column by Suppose
that we want to add times row jto row k. Then, we insert in the kth row
and jth column of and premultiply. To add z times column jto column k,
we put in the jth row and kth column of and postmu-ltiply.
We let e denote an elementary operation matrix. Then, ea represents the
result of applying a set of elementary operations to the rows of a. Similarly,
ac represents the result of applying a set of elementary operations to thc columns
of a. In general, we obtain e by applying the same operations to the conformable
unit matrix. Since we start with a unit matrix and since the elementary opera-
tions, at most, change the value of the determinant by a nonzero scalar factor,*
it follows that e will always be nonsingular.
Example 1—12
1 1/2 1/5
a= 3 7 2
—2 1 5
We first:
1. Add (—3) times the first row to the second row.
2. Add (2) times the first row to the third row.
*
See properties of determinants (page 18).
26 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
100
—3 0 1
201
and the result is
1 1/2 1/5
0 11/2 7/5
0 2 27/5
Continuing, we multiply the second row by 2/11:
1 0 0 1 1/2 1/5 1 1/2 1/5
0 2,'Il 0 0 11/2 7/5 = 0 1 14/55
0 0 1 0 2 27/5 0 2 27/5
Next, we add (—2) times the second row to the third row:
1 0 0 1 1/2 1/5
1 1 1 14/55
1 0 0 269/55
Finally, we multiply the third row by 55/269. The complete set of operations is
0 0
e —6/11 2/11 0
+ 1870/2959 —220/2959 55/269
We obtain e by applying successive operations, starting with a unit matrix. This is more
convenient than listing and then multiplying the operation matrices for the various steps.
The form of e after each step is listed below:
Initial Step 1 Step 2
100 100 1 0 0
0 0 1 —3 0 1 —6/11 2/11 0
001 201 2 0 1
SEC. 1—12. RANK OF A MATRIX 27
Step 3 Step 4
1 0 0 [1 0 0
—6/11 2/11 0 }
—6/11 2/11 0
+34/11 —4/11 0 L+187o/2959 —220/2959 55/269
Two matrices are said to be equivalent if one can be derived from the other
by any finite number of elementary operations. Referring to Example 1 —12, the
matrices
1 1/2 1/5 1 1/2 1/5
3 7 2 and 0 1 14/55
—21 5 00 1
where p and q are nonsinqular. This follows from the fact that the elementary
operation matrices are nonsingular.
We multiply the elements in rowj by (j 1, 2,. . . ,r) and subtract the result
from the last row. This operation will not change the magnitude of Ar+t (see
Sec. 1—7). In particular, we determine the constants such that the first r elements
28 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
Apr
Equation (1—60) states that the last m — r rows of a are linear combinations
of the first r rows. One can also show* that the last n — r columns of a are
linear combinations of the first r columns.
Example 1—13
We see that a is at least of rank 2 since the determinant associated with the first two rows
and columns is finite, Then, the first two rows are linearly independent. We consider the
determinant of the third-order array consisting of columns 1, 2, and q:
1 2 ajq
2 1 a2q
5 7 a3q
Solving the system,
+ 223 = 5
22 = 7
we obtain
q = 3,4
Since a33 and (134 satisfy this requirement, we conclude that a is of rank 2. The rows are
related by
(third row) = + 3 (first row) + (second row)
One can show* that the elementary operations do not change the rank of
a matrix. This fact can be used to dctcrmine the rank of a matrix. Suppose b
defined by (1—61) is obtained by applying elementary operations to a. We know
that band a have the same rank. It follows that a is of rank p. A matrix having
the form of b is called an echelon matrix. When a is large, it is more efficient
to reduce it to an echelon matrix rather than try to find the largest nonvanishing
determinant:
(pxpt
a11
I b12 ...
0 II, b2p B12
(121
(1—61)
0 0
Example 1—14
[i 2 3 4
a=)2 1 3 2
[5 7 12 12
At this point, we see that r = 3. To obtain b, we multiply the second row by — 1/3, the third
row by — 1/2, and interchange the third and fourth columns:
1243
b= 0 1 2 1
0010
Suppose a is expressed as the product of two rectangular matrices:
(rnxn) (nxs)
a = b c (1—62)
One can show* that the rank of a cannot be greater than the minimum value
of r associated with b and C:
r(a) ruin [r(b), r(c)] (1—63)
[—1/2 +1/2 01
a
— [—1/2 +1/2 1]
0 I
Since each matrix is of rank 2, the rank of a will be Evaluating the product,
we obtain
[0 0
1
[:: :: (1-64)
If a is of rank 2, we can always renumber the rows and columns such that (1—65)
is satisfied. We partition a and x,
[a11 a12 a131
a [A1 A2] (1—66)
[a21 a22 a23j
X1
çx1
1x2
and write (1—64) as A1X1 + A2X2 = c. Next, we transfer the term involving
X2 to the right-hand side:
A1X1 = c — A2X2 (1—67)
Since jA1j 0, it follows from Cramer's rule that (1—67) has a unique solution
for X1. Finally, we can write the solution as
= Aj'(c — A2X2) (1—68)
Since X2 is arbitrary, the system does not have a unique solution for a given c.
The order of X2 is generally called the defect of the system. The defect for this
system is 1.
If a is of rank 1, the second row is a scalar multiple, say A, of the first row.
Multiplying the second equation in (1—64) by 1/A, we have
Tf c2 2cr, the equations are inconsistent and no solution exists. Then, when
a is of rank 1, (1—64) has a solution only if the rows of c are related in the same
manner as the rows of a. If this condition is satisfied, the two equations in (1—69)
are identical and one can be disregarded. Assuming that 0, the solution is
(221
a is of rank in, there exists an mth order array which has a nonvanishing
determinant. We rearrange the columns such that the first in columns are
32 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
Since IA1I 0, (1—73) can be solved for X1 in terms of c and X2. The defect
of the set is n — m, that is, the solution involves n — m arbitrary constants
represented by X2.
Suppose a is of rank r where r < m. Then, a has r rows which contain an
rth-order array having a nonvanishing determinant. The remaining m — r rows
are linear combinations of these r rows. For (1—71) to be consistent, that is,
have a solution, the relations between the rows of c must be the same as those
for a. The defect for this case is n — r.
Example 1—15
To show this, we multiply the first equation in (a) by the second by —A2, and add to
these equations the third equation. Using (b), we obtain
0= C3 — — I12C2 (d)
Unless the right-hand side vanishes, the equations are contradictory or inconsistent and no
solution exists. When e 0, (c) is identically satisfied and we see that (a) has a nontrivial
solution (x 0) only when r < 3. The general case is handled in the same manner.*
In general, (1 —71) can be solved when r < ,n if the relations between the rows
of a and c are identical. We define the augmented matrix, ci, for (1—71) as
a11 a12 C1
= a2,,
[a cJ (1—74)
afl,2 a,flfl Cm
When the rows of a and c are related in the same way, the rank of tz is equal to
the rank of a. It follows that (1—71) has a solution only if the rank of the aug-
mented matrix is equal to the rank of the coefficient matrix:
= r(a) (1—75)
REFERENCES
1. R. A., W. J. DUNCAN and A. R. cOLLAR: Elementary Matrices, cambridge
University Press, London, 1963.
2. THOMAS, G. B., JR.: Calculus and Analytical Geometry. Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Reading, Mass., 1953.
3. BODBWIG, E.: Matrix calculus, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1956.
4. HOUN, F. E.: Elementary Matrix Algebra, Macmillan Co., New York, 1958.
5. HADLEY, G.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1961.
6. HOUSEHOLDER, A. S.: The Theory of Matrices in Numerical Analysis, Blaisdell,
Waltham, Mass., 1964.
7, NOBLE, B.: Applied Linear Algebra, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1969.
8. HIL DEBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
9. Faddeeva, V. N.: Computational Methods of Linear Algebra, Dover Publications,
New York, 1959.
34 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
10. RALSTON, A. and H. S. WILF: Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, Vol. 1,
New York, 1960.
Wiley,
11. RALSTON, A. and H. S. WILF: Mathematical Methods for Digital Computers, Vol. 2,
Wiley, New York, 1967.
12. BEREZIN, I. S. and N. P. ZHIDKOV: Computing Methods, Vols. I and 2, Addison-Wesley
Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1965.
13. FORSYTHE, G. E., and C. B. MALER: Computer Solution of Linear Algebraic Systems,
Prentice-Hall, New York, 1967.
14. VARGA, R. S.: Matrix Iterative Analysis, Prentice-Hall, New York, 1962.
15. CONTE, S. D.: Elementary Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1965.
PROBLEMS
1—1. Carry out the indicated operations:
(a)
1 4 0 2 .3 5
321 +713
510 056
(b)
[2 1
1 6j[ 3 —1 2
(c)
3[3 4j+2[[—i0 ii
[1 21 [2
3j4[l
3
(d)
[i
[—3
—2152
4J 55
(e)
[—i l][4 1
[ 2 —3j [2 3
[4 11 [—i I
[2 3j [ 2 —3
1—2. Expand the following products:
(d)
[Cii a121 0
[021 022j [0 C2
Sl= a1+ a2 + 03 =
S2 = + b2 + b3 bk
=
can be written as
3 3
S1S2
I 1
cia — db — [dblk]
dy [dv j dy — [dy j
Using (1—19), show that if
c = ab
then
dc db da
=a—+—b
dy dy dy
1—5. Consider the triple product, abc. When is this product defined? Let
p = abc
Determine an expression for What is the order of p? Determine for the
case where c aT.
1—6. Evaluate the following products:
(a)
F 41 [1 21 [5 1
[—2 ij [2 sj [4 1
(b)
(a + b)(a + b) where a is a square matrix.
1—7. Show that the product of two symmetrical matrices is symmetrical
only when they are commutative.
1—8. Show that the following products are symmetrical:
(a)
aTa
(b)
aTba where b is symmetrical
(c)
bTaTcab where c is symmetrical
36 INTRODUCTION TO MATRtX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
1-9. Evaluate the following matrix product, using the indicated sub-
matrices:
1
3 1 3
4 51
1—10. Let c = ab. Show that the horizontal partitions of c correspond to
those of a and the vertical partitions of c correspond to those of b. Hint: See
Eq. (1—37).
1—11. A matrix is said to be symmetrically partitioned if the locations of
the row and column partitions coincide. For example,
a11 012 0131
a21 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33
is symmetrically partitioned and
a11 a12 a13
a i,j = 1, 2,. ., N
.
(a) Deduce that the diagonal submatrices are square and Ars, have
the same order.
(b) If a = aT, deduce that
Ars =
1—12. Consider the product of two square nth order matrices.
c= ab
(a) If a and b are symmetrically partitioned, show that CJk, AJk, are of
the same order. Illustrate for the case of one partition, e.g.,
[A11 A12
a
— [A2, A22
1a1122a1h3
The first subscripts in (a) are in natural order. We obtain (b) by rearranging (a)
such that the second subscripts are in natural order. For example, rearranging
e231 a12 a23 a31 = (2, 3, 1)
we obtain
e312a31a12a23 fi = (3, 1,2)
Show that if is an even permutation, (fl1, is also an even
permutation. Using this result, show that
=
p
and, in general,
al =
1—18. Consider the terms
Suppose that
= = =
Then, (b) takes the form
Show that
(c) = —(a)
Generalize this result and establish that the sign of a determinant is reversed
when two rows are interchanged.
1—19. Consider the third-order determinant
a! =
38 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
1 0 0
0 0
9
o o ...i a
(pxp)
-
(pxn)
We introduce symmetrical partitions after row (and column) p and write the
product as
(pxp) (pxq) (pxp) (pxq) (pxp) (pxq)
[A1, A121 [G1, 0 1[Bi, B12
LA21 A22J — [G2, G22J[0 B22
(qxp) (qxq) (qxp) (qxq) (qxp) (qxq)
aj1 aj2
The determinant of the array contained in the firstj rows and columns is called
the jth-order discriminant.
1—26. Does the following set of equations have a unique solution?
1 2 3 x1 2
1 3 5 X2 = 3
3 7 ii x3 5
Does a exist?
T =
1—28. Show that b1' bT,
Find the inverse of
(a)
[1 3
[3 2
(b)
[2 4
[i S
(c)
[1 31[2 4
[3 2J[l s
(d)
[2 O1[2
[o 3j[l s
Let
a12
[A11 A12
a
= = [A2, A22
31 32 33
and
— B32
[8,, 82,
where the order of BJk is the same as AJ1. Starting with the condition
aa' 13
PROBLEMS 41
determine the four matrix equations relating BJk and Aft (j, k 1, 2). Use this
result to find the inverse of
124
212
121
1—3!. Find the inverse of
A
L0 lq
where B11, B22 are square and nonsingular. Hint: write has
[B11 01[1 0
b
[o ij[o 1 j[o B22
1—34. Consider the 3 x 4 matrix
1121
a= 1 3 2 2
1211
Determine the elementary row operation matrix which results in a21 = a31 =
= Oand a11 022 033 = +1.
1—35. Let
(pxp) (p'<q)
[A11 A12
a
[A2, A22
(qxq)
—
A AIA \1
1—36. Suppose we want to rearrange the columns of a in the following way:
1 2 3
a= 2 1 3 col2—+coll
col3—*col2
3 4 5
42 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
o 0 11
H= 1 0 01
o i oj
Note that we just rearrange the corresponding columns of 13.
(b) Show that pre;nultiplication by rearranges the rows of a in the
same way.
(c) Show that 11TH 13.
(d) Generalize for the case where a is n x n.
(e) Show that
= a!
(a)
1 3 7
5 2 4
3 —4 —10
(b)
1 2 3 —1
2 4 6 —2
—1 —2 —3 1
a= 2
1234 1 3 2
5 7 12 14
1122
a—
2132
4 2 1
7797
PROBLEMS 43
= j = 2,3,...,m
Show that the second, third mth rows of c are multiples of the first
row and therefore r(c) 1. When will r(c) = 0?
1 —44. Consider the product
B1 {b11b21 - -
Am
Suppose r(a) = r4, r(b) rb. For convenience, we assume the first r0 rows
of a and the first r1 columns of b are linearly independent. Then,
A3 = j = ra + 1, ra + 2, -. , m .
p= 1
44 INTRODUCTION TO MATRIX ALGEBRA CHAP. 1
rb
Bk = XkqBq k— + 1, Tb + 2, . . . ,
q 1
AraB2
Suppose ra Tb. What canyou conclude about A1 is orthogonal
toB1,B2 Br?
(e) Utilize these results to find the rank of
—1/2 1/2 0 1 0 1
—1/2 1/2 1 1 0 1
—1 1 1 1 1 2
U
1—45. Consider the m x n system
a12 X1 C1
021 022 0 C2
Gm i 2 0R111 X,,
Let
= . . .
j 1, 2,. . . , fl2
A1 k = r + 1, r + 2 m
=
(a) Show that the system is consistent only if
Ck k= i• + 1, r + 2,.. . , in
p=1
Note that this requirement is independent of whether in < n or in > n.
PROBLEMS 45
[i —1 11
X2
fc1
[i 2 4]
and
1 1 C1
—1 2 c2
1 4 c3
The values of 2. for which nontrivial solutions of (2—i) exist are called the
characteristic values of a. Also, the problem of finding the characteristic values
and corresponding nontrivial solutions of (2—i) is referred to as a second-order
characteristic-value problem,*
The problem occurs naturally in the free-vibration
analysis of a linear system. We illustrate for the system shown in Fig. 2—1.
The equations of motion for the case of no applied forces (the free-vibration
case) are
d2y2
+ k2(y2 — 0
d2y
m1 + k1y1 — k2(y2 — y1) = 0
*
Also called "eigenvalue" problem in some texts. The term "cigenvalue" is a hybrid of the
German term Elgenwerte and English "value."
46
SEC. 2—1. NTRODUCT$ON 47
and substituting in (a) lead to the following set of algebraic equations relating
the frequency, w, and the amplitudes, A1, A2:
(k1 + k2)A1 — k2A2 = in1w2A1
—k2A1 + k2A2 = m2w2A2
We can transform (c) to a form similar to that of(2—1) by defining new amplitude
measures,*
2—co2
A2 =
and the final equations are
k1+k2_A — —==
k2
2=
—
rn1
k2
A1 + A2 = 2A2
'fl2
I
Fig. 2—1. A system with two degrees of freedom.
are possible only if the determinant of the coefficient matrix vanishes, that is,
when
a11 — A a12
0 (2-5)
a21 a22—).
Expanding (2—5) results in the following equation (usually called the charac-
teristic equation) for 1:
22 — (a11 + a22)). + (a11a22 — a21a12) = 0 (2—6)
We let
= a11 + a22
(2—7)
= a11a22 — a12a21 = H
and the characteristic equation reduces to
22 — + P2 = 0 (2—8)
The roots of (2—8) are the characteristic values of a. Denoting the roots by
22, the solution is
21,2 = (P1 ± (2—9)
Example 2—i
[2 2
a={2
=2÷ 5= 7
P2 = (2)(5) — (2)(2) = 6
The characteristic equation for this matrix is
22 — 72 +6= 0
SEC. 2—2. SECOND-ORDER CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEM 49
Solving (a),
[1 —2
—!
131=0
A.1 2— ±j where i=
This follows from the fact that the coefficient matrix is singular.
(Oii — %1)(a22 — — a12a21 = 0
Since only one equation isindcpendcnt and there are two unknowns, the solu-
tiOn is not unique. We define as the solution for A = Assuming*
that a12 0, the solution of the first equation is
xi') = C1
1)
=
012
—_2112
= +
L J
By definition,
Q1Q1 = 1 - (2—11)
Q2 = c2 (2—13)
)
where
= +
Also,
L j
(2—14)
aQ2 =
It remains to discuss the case where A1 = A2. If a is symmetrical, the char-
acteristic values will be equal only when a11 a22 and a12 = c121 = 0. Equa-
tion (2—4) takes the form
(a11 — A)xi + (0)xz 0
(O)x1 + (a11 A)x2 = 0
These equations are linearly independent, and the two independent solutions
{c1, 0}
{0, c2}
Q1Q2
—
— —C1C2 /1 + (a11
-
— A1)(a11
2
— A2)
a12
and we see that QrQ2 = 0. This result is also valid when the roots are equal.
In general, QIQ2 0 when a is unsymmetrical. Two nth order column vectors
U, V having the property that
UTV=VTU=0 (2—16)
Example 2—2
[2 2
a=[2
A1=+6 A2=+1
The equations for A = +6 are
—4x1 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 — =0
We see that the second equation is times the first equation. Solving the first equation,
we obtain
= c1 = = 2c1
Then,
2}
and the normalized solution is
Q1
Repeating forA = A2 = +1, we find
= c2{1,
and
Q2
One can easily verify that
= j = 1,2
and
— —
—
Ii
a=[t 8
3
The characteristic values and corresponding normalized solutions for this matrix are
Q2 = {4, — l}
QTQ2 =
[1 —2
—l
A1—_+i A2=—i
We have included this example to illustrate the case where the characteristic values are
52 PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
x(1t = c1
When the roots are complex, 12 is the complex conjugate of Now, we take c2 = c1.
Then, xt2> is the complex conjugate of We determine c1 such that
= I
Finally, the characteristic values and characteristic vectors are
21,2 =
Qt,2 =
In general, the characteristic values are complex conjugate quantities when the elements
of a are real. Also, the corresponding characteristic vectors are complex conjugates.
Now, we let
q=[Qj Q2]
(2—17)
=
Column j of q contains the normalized solution for We call q the normalized
modal matrix* for a. With this notation, (b) takes the form
aq = (2—18)
* This terminology has developed from dynamics, where the characteristic vectors define the
We have shown that the characteristic vectors are always linearly indepen-
dent when a is symmetrical. They are also independent when a is unsym-
metrical, provided that 11.2. Then, 0 except for the case where a is
unsymmetrical and the characteristic values are equal. If 0, q1 exists
and we can express (2—18) as
q'aq = (2—19)
Also, by definition,
— —
[Qfl [1 0
q q = [QTJ [Qi Q2]
[o 1
Example 2—3
[2 2
5
+6
Q2{2,-1}
—[0 0 +1]
q=[Qi
54 PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
— [2 —ij — [12 —1
— I [1 21[6 01
—ij[o
T
i[i 21[6 21 [6 01
q aq
= 5L2 _-1][12 —ii = [o ij =
(2)
[1 8
= +5 Qi = +1}
01 —
Lo —ij
-1 ( 1— —[,15/6
q
[— j — [\/17/6
One can easily verify that
[5 01
q
[1 —2
01
Lo —iJ
[1 1
q
-1 [+i 01
0
+ + +
We can write (2—22) as
ax = AX
(2—23)
(a — 0
In what follows, we suppose a is real.
For (2—23) to have a nontrivial solution, the coefficient matrix must be
singular.
a — AI,4 0 (2—24)
and is the sum of all the jth order minors that can be formed on the diag-
onal.* Letting 22,. . , denote the roots, and expressing the characteristic
.
We summarize below the theoretical results for the real symmetrical case.
The proofs are too detailed to be included here (see References 1 and 9):
1. The characteristic values 22,. . , are all real.
.
principal minors.
56 CHARACTERiSTIC-VALUE PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
Example 2—4
5—2 0
a= —2 3 —.1
0 —1 1
Since a is symmetrical, its characteristic values are all real. We first determine /3k, $2, f33,
using (2—25):
5+ 3 +1 +9
$2 +11 + 5 + 2 +18
/33 = 5(2) — (—2)(—2) = +6
The characteristic equation is
182—6=0
and the approximate roots are
+0.42
22 +2.30
+6.28
To determine the characteristic solutions, we expand ax = 2x,
(5 — 2)x1 = 2x2
—x3 = —(3 — 2)x2
(l—,t)x3= x2
Solving the first and third equations for x1 and x3 in terms of x2, the general solution is
j=l,2,3
Q2 = (0,01)
When 2 = 23 = —1, (a) reduces to
2x3 + 2x2 = 0
2x1 + 2x2 0
4x3 =0
The general solution and characteristic vector for are
and = 0
o}
-
This example illustrates the case of a symmetrical matrix having two equal characteristic
values. The characteristic vectors corresponding to the repeated roots are linearly inde-
pendent. This follows from the fact that a — 213 is of rank I for the repeated roots.
13 1
It follows that F is positive definite with respect to y when all the characteristic
values of a are positive. But y is uniquely related to x and y = 0 only when
x = 0. Therefore, F is also positive definite with respect to x. The problem of
establishing whether xTax is positive definite consists in determining whether
all the characteristic values of a are positive.
SEC. 2—5. QUADRATIC FORMS
Laiz a22
Since a1 > 0, it follows from the second requirement in (d) that a22 > 0.
Therefore, (d) is equivalent to (b). We let
= aj1j = a11
A2 = a11a12
a12a12
= at (2—31)
where is the sum of all the jth-order principal minors. Equivalent conditions
can be expressed in terms of the discriminants. Let represent the deter-
minant of the array consisting of the first j rows and columns.
a11 a12 aU
A= £112 a22
(2—34)
a2J
The conditions,
A1 > 0 A2 > 0 ... A,, > 0 (2—35)
Example 2—5
111
122
123
The discriminants are
A1 = +1
= 2 — 1 = +1
= 1(6—4)— 1(3—2) + 1(2—2) = +1
Since all the discriminants are positive, this matrix is positive definite. The corresponding
invariants are
= 1 + 2 + 3 = +6
$2(2—1)+(3—1)+(64) +5
/13 = A3 = +1
1 1 1
1 —2 2
1 2 3
Now, b and a have the same characteristic values.* This follows from
— = — a — (2—38)
REFERENCES
1. HILDSBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
2. BODEWIG, E.: Matrix Calculus, Interscience Publishers, New York, 1956.
3. SMiRNOV, V. I.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass.,
1964.
4. TURNBULL, H. W., and A. C. AITKEN: An Introduction to the Theory of Canonical
Matrices, Dover Publications, New York.
5. HADLEY, G.: Linear Algebra, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading, Mass., 1961.
PROBLEMS
2—1. Consider the system
Ay =
where A and B arc symmetrical nth-order matrices and is a scalar. Suppose
B can be expressed as (see Prob. 1—25)
B = brb
where b is nonsingular. Reduce (a) to the form
ax =
where x by. Determine the expression for a in terms of A and b.
2—2. Let x1, x2 be two nth-order column matrices or column vectors and
let c1, c2 be arbitrary scalars. If
c1x_I + c2x2 0
only when c1 = = 0, x1 and x2 are said to be linearly independent. It follows
that x1 and x2 are linearly dependent when one is a scalar multiple of the other.
Using (2—10) and (2—13), show that and Q2 arc linearly independent when
2—3. Determine the characteristic values and the modal matrix for
[3 2
(a)
[2 7
[2 0 3
(b) to s 0
[3 0 2
2—4. Following the procedure outlined in Prob. 2—I, determine the charac-
teristic values and modal matrix for
+ 12Y2
l2Y1 + =
62 CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
[3 2
a=[2
2—7. Positive integral powers of a square matrix, say a, arc defined as
a2 = aa
a3 = aa2
ar =
If al # 0, exists, and it follows from the definition that
= a''
(a) Show that ar is symmetrical when a is symmetrical.
(b) Let 2L be a characteristic value of a. Show that is a characteristic
value of ar and is the corresponding characteristic vector.
where 0 is an nth-order null matrix. That is, a satisfies its own characteristic
equation. This result is known as the Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.
(a) Verify this theorem for
[2 1
2
a11 a12 x1
a12 a22 x2
: :
a27, x,,
64 CHARACTERISTIC-VALUE PROBLEMS CHAP. 2
We partition a symmetrically,
(pxp) (pXl)
NzTvTl [A11 A121 f Xt
AT A MV
("2
(qxp) (qxq)
where p + q = n. We take
B11 1P 8221q
Show that the diagonal submatrices of g are nonsingular for arbitrary p when
a is positive definite.
3
Relative Extrema
for a Function
3—1. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE
Letf(x) be a function of x which is defined for the interval x1 x x2. If
f(x) — f(a) 0 for all values of x in the total interval x1 x x2, except
x a, we say the function has an absolute minimum at x a. If f(x) — f(a)> 0
for all values of x except x = a in the subinterval, x containing x = a,
we say that f(a) is a relative minimum, that is, it is a minimum with respect to
all other values of f(x) for the particular subinterval. Absolute and relative
maxima are defined in a similar manner. The relative maximum and minimum
values of a function are called relative extrema. One should note thatf(x) may
have a number of relative extreme values in the total interval x1 x x2.
As an illustration, consider the function shown in Fig. 3—1. The relative
extrema are [(a), f(h), f(c), f(d). Using the notation introduced above, we say
that f(b) is a relative minimum for the interval x fib. The absolute
maximum and minimum values of f occur at x = a and x = d, respectively.
f(x)
x
x1 a b c X2
66
SEC. 3—1. RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION OF ONE VARIABLE 67
Example 3—1
x2 + 4x + I = 0
dx
and solving for x, we obtain
x1,2 = —2 ±
The second derivative is
d2f
= 2x +4= 2(x + 2)
Thcn,x = x1 = —2 + = x2 = —2—
corresponds to a relative maximum.
J(x) = (x — a)3 +c
The first two derivatives are
= 3(x —
a)
d3f
6
dx3
The stationary point, x = a, is neither a relative minimum nor a relative maximum since
the third derivative is finite. We could have also established this result by considering the
expression for the slope. We see from (a) that the slope is positive on both sides of x = a.
The general shape of this function is shown in Fig. E3—l.
66 RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
Fig. E3—1
f(x)
I
a
x
1
(3-2)
Example 3—2
We expand sin x in a Taylor series about x = 0 taking n = 2. Using (3—1) and (3—2),
and noting that a = 0, we obtain
sin Ax = Ax + R2
If we use (a) to find sin (0.2), the upper bound on the truncation error is 0.0013.
If Ax is small with respect to unity, the first term on the right-hand side of
(3—1) is the dominant term in the expansion. Also, the second term is more
significant than the third, fourth nth terms. We refer to df/dx Ax as
the first-order increment in f(x) due to the increment, Ax. Similarly, we call
4d2f/dx2(Ax)2 the second-order increment, and so on. Now, f(a) is a relative
minimum when f(a + Ax)— f(a) > 0 for all points in the neighborhood of
x a, that is, for all finite values of Ax in some interval, — Ax e, where
and e are arbitrary small positive numbers. Considering Ax to be small, the
first-order increment dominates and we can write
For f(a + Ax) — f(a) to be positive for both positive and negative values of
Ax, the first order increment must vanish, that is, df(a)/dx must vanish. Note
that this is a necessary but not sufficient condition for a relative minimum, if
the first-order increment vanishes, the second-order increment will dominate:
It follows from (3—4) that the second-order increment must be positive for
f(a + Ax) — > 0 to be satisfied. This requires d2f(a)/dx2 > 0. Finally,
the necessary and sufficient conditions for a relative minimum at x = a are
df(a) — d2f(a)
dx
0
dx2 > 3 5
Since the third-order increment depends on the sign of Ax, it must vanish for
RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
f(a) to be a relative extremum. The sufficient conditions for this case are as
follows:
Relative Minimum
d3f d4f
dX4>
(3—7)
Relative Maximum
d3f d4f
The notation used in the Taylor series expansion off(x) becomes somewhat
cumbersome for more than one variable. In what follows, we introduce new
notation which can be readily extended to the case of 11 variables. First, we
define to be the total increment in f(x) due to the increment, Z\x.
The result of operating onf(x) with d is called the first and is denoted
by df:
df=-1Ax = df(x,Ax) (3—10)
One can use dx and Ax interchangeably; however, we will use Ax rather than dx.
Higher differentials of f(x) are defined by iteration. For example, the second
differential is given by
Using differential notation, the Taylor series expansion (3—1) about x can be
written as
(3-14)
The first differential represents the first-order increment in f(x) due to the
increment, Ax. Similarly, the second differential is a measure of the second-
order increment, and so on. Then,f(x) is a stationary value when df = 0 for all
permissible values of Ax. Also, the stationary point is a relative minimum
(maximum) when d2f> 0 (<0) for all permissible values of Ax. The above
criteria reduce to (3—5) when the differentials are expressed in terms of the
derivatives.
Rules for forming the differential of the sum or product of functions are listed
below for reference. Problems 3—4 through 3—7 illustrate their application.
f= u(x) + v(x)
df=du+dv 3 15
d2f = d(df) d2u + d2v —
f= u(x)v(x)
df = u dv + v du (3—16
df
2
= ud2 v + 2dudv + vd 2u
df
dy dy
If Af> 0 (<0) for all points in the neighborhood of(x1, x2,. . , we say
.
df (3—20)
=
Higher differentials are defined by iteration. For example, the second differen-
tial has the form
d2f=d(df)= (3—21)
f(2)
r 1
j, k = 1, 2, . . . ,n (3—23)
LOXJOXkJ
Ax =
and the expressions for the first two differentials simplify to
df = AXTf(l)
(3—24)
d2f = AXTf(2) Ax
The Taylor series expansion forf about (x1, x2, . . . , when expressed in
terms of differentials, has the form
Af= df + + + + (3-25)
= 0 j= 1, 2,. . . ,n (3—27)
called the Euler equations for f, Note that the number of equations is equal
to the number of independent variables.
A stationary point corresponds to a relative minimum (maximum) of f
when d2f is positive (negative) definite. It is called a neutral point when d2f
is either positive or negative semidefinite and a saddle point when d2f is indif-
ferent, i.e., the eigenvalues are both positive and negative. This terminology
was originally introduced for the two dimensional case where it has geometri-
cal significance.
To summarize, the solutions of the Euler equations correspond to points at
which f is stationary. The classification of a stationary point is determined by
the character (definite, semidefinite, indifferent) of evaluated at the point.
We are interested in the extremum problem since it is closely related to the
stability problem. The extremum problem is also related to certain other prob-
lems of interest, e.g., the characteristic-value problem. In the following exam-
ples, we illustrate various special forms of f which are encountered in member
system analysis.
Example 3—3
f= y,)
= x2
df=
1 1 ek k 1 j 1 Xk
Now,
>-—&Xk
k1 OXk
It follows that
df=
j=l
Repeating leads to
d2f
=
f >
k=t
The first differential (see Prob. 3—9) has the form
u= w= [w31] v= {v1}
=
and letting
du
74 RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
= a
The solution of (i) corresponds to a stationary value of (f). If a is positive definite, the
stationary point is a relative minimum. One can visualize the problem of solving the
system ax = c, where a is symmetrical from the point of view of finding the stationary
value of a polynomial having the form f = — XTC.
1(6u uôv
— vax1
we can write
df = = —f dv)
We apply (b) to
1.
= xx
where a is symmetrical, and obtain (see Prob. 3—5)
2 AXT
= —f---- (ax — 2x)
(d)
(122 = Ax A AxT Ax — 2 dA AxTx)
xx
Setting dA = 0 leads to the Euler equations for (c),
ax—Ax=0 (e)
Example 3—4
f=
g(x1, x2) = 0
The first variation is
ox1 Ox2
76 RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
ax1
Now, we suppose ag/ax2 0. Solving (b) for dx2 (we replace dx1 by
x1 is the independent variable.)
/ag\
dx2= —t—i-----itSx1
8x2/
and substituting in (a), we obtain
df = [PL —
ax1 8x1 ox2 ox2
ax1 \ox1fOx2/ox2
g(x1, x2) = 0
d2f =
2 2 2
Of
= dx1 + —i—
k1
a quadratic form in the independent differential, using (c), and noting
d2x1 = 0,
d2f + + +
ax1ax.2 ox2 \0x1 ax2j Ox2
where
Og Jag
u=
The character of the stationary point is determined from the sign of the bracketed term.
(3-32)
Ox2 Ox2 Ox2
OH
g(x1, x2) = 0
A= (3-33)
0x2/ Ox2
and
— = 0 (3-34)
Ox1
g(x1, x2) = 0
Equations (3—34) and (e) of the previous example are identical. We see that
the Euler equations for II are the stationary conditions for f including the
effect of constraints.
Example 3—5
f= + + 2x1 + 7x2
g = — x2 = 0
We form H f+ 2g,
The stationary requirement for H treating x1, x2, and 2 as independent variables is
6x1 + 2 + 2 = 0
4x2 +7— 2 = 0
x1 — x2 = 0
the form
H= f + k1 2k9k H(x1, x2 . .
, (3—35)
We first solve r equations in (3—36) for the r Lagrange multipliers, and then
determine the n coordinates of the stationary points from the remaining n — r
equations in (3—36) and the r constraint equations (3—37). The use of Lag-
range multipliers to introduce constraint conditions usually reduces the amount
of algebra.
REFERENCES
1. THOMAS, G. B., JR., C'alculus and Analytical Geometry, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Reading, Mass., 1953.
2. COURANT; R., Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol. 1, Blackie, London, 1937.
3. COURANT, R., Differential and Integral Calculus, Vol. 2, Interscience Publishers,
New York, 1936.
4. HANCOCK, H., Theory of Maxima and Minima, Dover Publications, New York, 1960.
5. APOSTOL, T. M,, Mathematical Analysis, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Mass., 1957.
6. CRANDALL, S. H., Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1956.
7. HILDEBRAND, F. B., Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, New York,
1952.
PROBLEMS
3—1. Determine the relative extrema for
(a) f(x) = 2x2 + 4x + 5
(b) f(x) = —2x2 + 8x + 10
(c) f(x) = ax2 + 2bx + c
(d) f(x)=x3+2x2+x+10
(e) f(x)=1x3+2x2+4x+15
(f) f(x) = (x — + (x — a)2
(g) f(x) = 4ax3 + 4bx2 + cx + d
3—2. Expand cos x in a Taylor series about x = 0, taking n= 3. Determine
the upper and lower bounds on R3.
3—3. Expand(1 + x)112inaTaylorseriesaboutx = Otakingn = 2. Deter-
mine upper and lower bounds on R2.
3—4. Find df and d2f for
(a) f=x2+2x+5
(b) f=3x3+2x2+5x+6
(c) f=x2sinx
(d) f= cosywhcrey = x3
PROBLEMS 79
df = (du — f dv)
d2f = — fd2v) —
3—6. Let u1, u2, u3 be functions of x and f = f(u1, u2, u3). Determine df.
3—7. Suppose f = u(x)w(y) where y = y(x). Determine expressions for df
and d2f. Apply to
(a) u=x3—x
(b) w=cosy
(c) y=x2
3—8. Find the first two differentials for the following functions:
(a) f= + +
(b) f' = + 6x1x2 + + 5x1 — 4x2
3—9. Consider f = uv, where
u= u(y1, .v2) v = v(y1, Y2)
and
Yi y1(x1, x2) = y2(x1, x2)
Show that
df = d(uv) u dv + v du d2f = ud2v + 2 du dv + vd2u
Note that the rule for forming the differential of a product is independent of
whether the terms are functions of the independent variables (x1, x2) or of
dependent variables.
3—10. Classify the stationary points for the following functions:
(a) f 3xl + — 9x1 + 12x2 — 10
(b)
f + 6x1x2
f 6x1x2 + 2x1 +
f = 6x1x2 + 34 — 3x1
3—11. Consider Rayleigh's quotient,
xTax
x=
where Q3 (j = 1, 2,. . . , n) are the normalized characteristic vectors for a.
(a) Show that
= j=j-
80 RELATIVE EXTREMA FOR A FUNCTION CHAP. 3
(b) Suppose x differs only slightly from Qk. Then, ICjI << for j k.
Specialize (a) for this case. Hint: Factor out 2k and
(c) Use (b) to obtain an improved estimate for A.
[3
a=[i
x {1, —3}
The exact result is
2=1 x={1,—2}
3—12. Using Lagrange multipliers, determine the stationary values for the
following constrained functions:
(a)
g + x2 0
(b)
g1 = x1 + x2 + X3 — 1 = 0
g2=x1—x2+2x3+2=0
3—13. Consider the problem of finding the stationary values of f = =
xrarx subject to the constraint condition, = 1. Using (3—36) we write
H =f+ Ag = — 2(XTX —1)
(a) Show that the equations defining the stationary points off are
ax=Ax xTx=1
(b)Relate this problem to the characteristic value problem for a symmetri-
cal matrix.
3—14. Supposef = and g = I — xTax = 0 where aT a. Show that
the Euler equations for H have the form
xTax=1
We see that the Lagrange multipliers are the reciprocals of the characteristic
values of a. How are the multipliers related to the stationary values of f?
4
Differential Geometry
of a Member Element
The geometry of a member element is defined once the curve corresponding
to the reference axis and the properties of the normal cross section (such as
area, moments of inertia, etc.) are specified. In this chapter, we first discuss the.
differential geometry of a space curve in considerable detail and then extend
the results to a member element. Our primary objective is to introduce the
concept of a local reference frame for a member.
x3
i3 X3(y)
x2
X2(y)
x1
* The vector directed from the origin of a fixed reference frame to a point is called the position
vector. A knowledge of vectors is assumed. For a review, see Ref. 1.
81
82 DIFFERENTiAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
Example 4—i
(1) Consider a circle in the X1-X2 plane (Fig. E4—1A). We take y as the polar angle and
let a = The coordinates are
x1 = a cos y
x2 = a sin y
and F = + asiny'12
(2) Consider the curve (Fig. E4—1B) defined by
= a cos y
x2 = bsiny (4—3)
X3 = CY
where a, b, care constants. The projection on the X, -X2 plane is an ellipse having semiaxes
a and b. The position vector for this curve has the form
F = a cos + b sin Y12 + CYI3
As Exy —* 0, the chord length approaches the arc length, In the limit,
ds2
=
Noting that
dx1 = dy
we can express ds as
+ + +
ds dy (4-4)
Fig. E4—1A
Fig. E4—1B
Q(+Ay)
I LISI
P(y)
Fig. 4—2. Differentia' segment of a curve.
83
84 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
dx 2
dx 2
dx 21/2
s(y) dy (4—5)
= + +
We have defined ds such that s increases with increasing y. It is customary to
call the sense of increasing s the positive sense of the curve.
To simplify the expressions, we let
2 1/2
dx
= (4-6)
+
Then, the previous equations reduce to
ds = dy
(4—7)
One can visualize as a scale factor which converts dy into ds. Note that
x > 0. Also, if we take y = s, then +1.
Example 4—2
Consider the curve defined by (4—3). Using (4—6), the scale factor is
The integral for s is called an elliptic integral of the second kind and denoted by E(k, y).
Then,
s (b2 + c2)'12 E(k, y)
Tables for E(k, y) as a function of k and y are contained in Ref. 3. When b = a, the curve
is called a circular helix and the relations reduce to
= (a2 + const.
S = ny
SEC. 4—3. UNIT TANGENT VECTOR 85
As L\y -+ 0, approaches the tangent to the curve at P. Then, the unit tangent
vector at P is given by*
- PQ d1
t=
.
Jim --=—-
ds
(4—8)
•
Since > 0, 1 always points in the positive direction of the curve, that is, in the
direction of increasing s (or y). It follows that dP/dy is also a tangent vector and
—
dy
/df dP\"2
(4—10)
\dy dy
Equation (4—10) reduces to (4—6) when is expressed in cartesian
coordinates.
+s Q(y+6.y)
r(y)
Example 4—3
We determine the tangent vector for the curve defined by (4—3). The position vector is
When a b, a [a2 + =' coast, and the angle between the t?ngent and the X3
direction is constant. A space curve having the property that the angle between the tangent
and a fixed direction (X3 direction for this example) is constant is called a helix.*
H=
ldt
dy
where (4..-lt)
d (1 dF
Normal plane
Rectifying
plane
Example 4—4
We determine fi and b for the circular helix. We have already found that
a — [a2 +
and
Then,
i dt
fl — C05 — Sm
dt dy
dy
The principal normal vector is parallel to the plane and points in the inward radial
direction. It follows that the rectifying plane is orthogonal to the X1-X2 plane. We can
determine b using the expansion for the vector product.
—asiny acosy C
a
This reduces to
- C. C a
b sin — — cos + £3
a a a
Fig, E4—4
(4—13)
ic/i
K
c/s2
Using (4—11), we can write
— — Ku
ds (4—14)
Note that K points in the same direction as Ft since we have taken K 0. The
curvature has the dimension L1 and is a measure of the variation of the tangent
vector with arc length.
We let R be the reciprocal of the curvature:
R= K1 iS)
In the case of a plane curve, R is the radius of the circle passing through three
consecutive points* on the curve, and K = JdO/dsj where 6 is the angle between
I and To show this, we express I in terms of 0 and then differentiate with
respect to s. From Fig. 4—5, we have
cos + Sifl 012
* See Ref. 4, p. 14, for a discussion of the terminokgy 'three consecutive points."
SEC. 4—5. CURVATURE, TORSION, AND THE FRENET EQUATIONS
Then
— .
dO
K [—sin + cos 617] a—
and
dO 1
K
ds R
dO/ds
[— sin + cos 612]
In the case of a space curve, the tangents at two consecutive points, say P and Q,
are in the osculating plane at F, that is, the plane determined by and ñ at. P.
We can interpret R as the radius of the osculating circle at P. It should be noted
that the osculating plane will generally vary along the curve.
x2
\
R
+
R
t
i2
it
The binormal vector is normal to both and ñ and therefore is normal to the
osculating plane. A measure of the variation of the osculating plane is given
by db/ds. Since his a unit vector, db/ds is orthogonal to h. To determine whether
db/ds involves we differentiate the orthogonality condition I b 0, with
respect to s.
- db - dl
ds ds
But dl/ds Kñ and b ii = 0. Then, db/ds is also orthogonal to I and involves
only ñ. We express db/ds as
db
= —tn (4—16)
Example 4—5
—cos — sin
where
a = (a2 + c2)112
Then,
a a
K=-—
adv a a +c
and
1— dñ c c
2
2—const
a dy a
We have developed expressions for the rate of change of the tangent and
binormal vectors. To complete the discussion, we consider the rate of change
of the principal normal vector with respect to arc length. Since fi is a unit
vector, dñ/ds is orthogonal to ñ. From (4—17),
- dñ
b—
ds
a
SEC. 4—6. GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS FOR A SPACE CURVE 91
(b)
ds ds
The differentiation formulas for 1, ii, and b are called the Frenet equations.
t =
di ldi
= — = tangent vector
thu exdy
1 di
a= —i-- i— principal normal vector
(4—19)
= I x ñ binormal vector
di
— ds
dy dy
ft £12 133 11
n = t22 12 (4—21)
£32 e33
One can express* the direction cosines in terms of derivatives of the cartesian
coordinates (x1, x2, x3) by expanding (4—19). Since (1, b) are mutually or-
thogonal unit vectors (as well as 13) the direction cosines are related by
1jm6m = j, k = 1, 2, 3 (4—22)
are related by -
tl —
t2 = COS 4)11 + sin 4)b (4—24)
çbn + cos 4th
Combining (4—21) and (4—24) and denoting the product of the two direction
cosine matrices by the relation between the unit vectors for the local and basic
frames takes the concise form
t= (4—25)
where
[ €12 €j3
£21cos4)+€31sin4) €22cos4)+ €32sin4) €23cosçb+ €33sinqS
[21sin4)+€31cos4) —€22si+C32cos4) —€23 sin 41+ £33cos41
Note that the elements of fi are the direction cosines for the local frame with
respect to the basic frame.
fJjk = Xk) (4—26)
x3
Normat
Y1
Fig. 4—6. Definition of local reference frame for the normal cross section.
94 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
Example 4—6
We determine for the circular helix. The natural frame is related to the basic frame.by
I
a.
——slay
a
—cosy —
c
a a a
= — cos y — sin y 0 12 = {Ik}
C.
—slay
c
—--cosy
a
b —
a a a
Using (4-.25)
a
cos y
a a a
a
—sinycosçb ——cosysin4
a a
C. I. a
+cosysm4 + —sinycos4 sin y sin — — cos y cos
a
Y2
y3 — ——
Y2
=
The differential arc length along the curve is related to by
aIR
= (4—29)
=
This notation is illustrated in Fig. 4—8. One can consider the vectors
(or to define a local reference frame at Q.
x3
y2t2 +y3t3
x2
aR
= t3
96 DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
We see that
t2 g2 1
(4—30)
ü3=t3 g3=1
It remains to determine ü1 and g1.
Now,
= =
dy1
Also, -
d12 (dñ dçb 1db
+ dy1
—bj + .
—
dy1 \dy1 j '\dv1 dy1
dt3 (dii dq5\ 1db
=
.
\dy1
+ b—)+
dy1j \dy1
—11——
dy1
and finally,
= cc(1 — Ky'2)!1 +
/ +
d4)\
_)(Y2t3
-
y3t2)
(4—31)
Y2 COS 4) J73 sin 4)
We see from Fig. 4—9 that y'2 is the coordinate of the point with respect to the
principal normal direction.
y3
\y3
Fig. 4—9. of y.
Since 13R/ay1 (and therefore ii1) involve and the reference frame defined
by iii, u2, will not be orthogonal. However, we can reduce it to an orthogonal
REFERENCES 97
system by taking
= (4—32)
dy
which requires
cer dy (4—33)
= 150
When (4—32) is satisfied,
aR
= — Ky'2)t1
and
= (4—34)
= cx(l —
In this case, the local frame at Q coincides with the frame at the centroid. One
should note that this simplification is practical only when ccc can be readily
integrated.
Example 4—7
a= (a2 + c2)112
C
Then,
C
at = —
a
— Yo) tS
For this curve, varies linearly with y (or arc length). The parameter g1 follows from (4—34).
ds1
hi = = a(1 — Ky2)
/
x(l —
a
'\ cc-
REFERENCES
1. THOMAS, G. B., JR.: Analytical Geometry and Calculus, Addison-Wesley Publishing
Co., Inc., Reading, Mass., 1953.
2. HAY, U. 13.: Vector and Tensor Analysis, Dover Publications, New York, 1953.
3. JA}INKE, E., and F. EMDE: Tables of Functions, Dover Publications, New York, 1943.
4. STRUm, D. J.: Differential Geometry, Addision-Wesley Publishing Co., Reading,
Mass., 1950.
DIFFERENTIAL GEOMETRY OF A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 4
PROBLEMS
4—1. Determine Il, b, ; K, x for the following curves:
(a) x1 = cos y
3 x2 = 3 sin y x3 = 5y
(b) x1 3 cos y x2 = 6 sin y x3 = 5y
(c) = + + p313
(d) x1 = cos y
x2 = sin y
x3 = cy
where a, /3, c are real constants.
4—2. If 0, the curve lies in the plane. Then,r Oandb ±i3.
The sign of b will depend on the relative orientation of ñ with respect to 1.
Suppose the equation defining the curve is expressed in the form
x2=J(x1) x3=0
Equation (a) corresponds to taking x1 as the parameter for the curve.
(a) Determine the expressions for 7, ñ, b, and K corresponding to this
representation. Note that y and + f(x1)12 + Let
_Lf' .f"etc
(b) Apply the results of (a) to
4a
= —
2
x1)
where a and b are constants. This is the equation for a parabola sym-
metrical about x1 = b/2.
(c) Let 9 be the angle between and
cos0 = I •11.
Deduce that = sec 0. Express t, h, !, and K in terms of 0.
(d) Specialize for the case where 02 is negligible with respect to unity.
This approximation leads to
sin 0 tan 0 0
cos 0 1
dh
— = —— 12
dy.
dñ
PROBLEMS 99
dx,.
1k C
72 IA A
dy dv2
C2k
[3 (d€
=
[,.=,. \ dyj J \ dy dy dyj j
€311 42 1€21
€32 €13 0
€33j °
4—6. Let
42 43]
Then,
€1
[4k]
€3
Using (4—22), show that
Ii' iT —
i—i
100
SEC. 5—1. ROTATION TRANSFORMATION
To proceed further, we must relate the two reference frames. We write, the
relations between the unit vectors as
i2 = Ili'
where is the scalar component of with respect to The transformation
matrix, is nonsingular when the unit vectors are linearly independent. Sub-
stituting for and equating the coefficients of i' leads to
a' =
a2
Finally, we let
R'2
(53)
R21 =
With this notation, the relations between the component matrices take the
form
a2 =
a1 = R21a2
=
The order of the superscripts on R corresponds to the direction of the trans-
formation. For example, R'2 is the rotation transformation matrix corre-
sponding to a change from frame 1 to frame 2. We see that the transformation
matrix for the scalar components of a vector is the inverse transpose of the
transformation matrix governing the unit vectors for the reference frames.
Example 5—i
We consider the two-dimensional case shown in Fig. E5-1. The relations between the
unit vectors are
= cos + sin
= —sin + cos
We write (a) according to (5—2).
cos6 sinO
102 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 5
Then,
—sin4
R21
Lsinfl cos4
R'2 = (fV) 1 =
L—sjn 6 cos U
0 cos + o sin
and
Jafl — I
[ cos sin
— ?J L — sin 0 cos oJ
When both frames are orthogonal, q5 = 0 and ir
Fig. E5—1
12
The result obtained in the preceding example can be readily extended to the
case of two orthogonal reference frames. When both frames are
orthogonal, the change in reference frames can be visualized as a rigid body
rotation of one frame into the other, f3jk is the direction cosine for with
respect to and the rotation transformation matrix is an orthogonal matrix:
R'2 — 1
— LI'jki (55)
Pjk — COSt'X2
j, A'k
In Sec. 4—7, we defined the orientation of the local frame (1k, 13, at a
point on the reference axis of a member element with respect to the natural
frame (1, ñ, b) at the point. This frame, in turn, was defined with respect to a
fixed cartesian frame 12, 13). In order to distinguish between the three
frames, we use superscripts p and p' for the local and natural frames at p and
a superscript 1 for the basic cartesian frame:
= t2,
= {Z, ii, b} (5—6)
=
SEC. 5—2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE TRANSFORMATIONS 103
With this notation, the relations between the unit vectors and the various
rotation matrices are:
t" = R141
=
1. From(4—21),
— (5—7)
2. From (4—24),
1 0 0
=0 cos4; sin 4;
0 —sin4; cos4;
3.
defined by (4—25).
Fcquiv.
linear if is constant, that is, if the geometry of the element does not change
appreciably when the external loads are applied. We will write (5—8) in matrix
form and treat force transformations as matrix transformations.
104 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 5
—
—(42 XQ2) — 0
,1
/
F1P3
'Ik —
M1
i—-i
43
I' 'i/
/ xP1
/
Xp3
a moment at Q. Note that the order of the subscripts for the translation trans-
formation matrix, corresponds to the order of the translation (from P
to Q). Also, and must be referred to the same frame, that is, the super-
scripts must be equal.
Up to this point, we have considered only one orthogonal reference frame.
In general, there will be a local orthogonal reference frame associated with
each point on the axis of the member, and these frames will coincide only when
the member is prismatic. To handle the general case we must introduce rota-
tion transformations which transform the components of F and M from the
local frames to the basic frame (frame 1) and vice versa. We use a superscript
p to indicate the local frame at point P and the rotation matrix corresponding
to a transformation from the local frame at P to frame 1 is denoted by R'1.
With this notation,
=
(5—12)
=
and the general expression for takes the form
= (5—13)
— (a)
MQ = + QP x
When all the vectors are referred to a common frame, say frame 1, the matrix
transformation is
— I
(b)
'Q) L"PQ L3J
We let
(5—14)
=
When the force systems are referred to local frames, we mast first transform
them to a common frame and then apply (5--15). Utilizing the general
matrix,
0 1
I
_ (5—16)
=
and applying.
(a)
=
106 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 5
we obtain
= (5—17)
— [R = (S—18)
- - (5-19)
— I
When both p and q arc parallel to 1, reduces to
= 91i'PQ (5—20)
* If the reference axis isa plane curve and the local frame coincides with the natural frame = 0)
we say the member is planar.
SEC. 5—2. THREE-DIMENSIONAL FORCE TRANSFORMATIONS 107
Example 5—2
We consider the plane circular member shown in Fig. ES—2. We take frame 1 parallel to
frame p. Then,
where
0 0 +a(1 —cos6)
=0 0 —asinO
a(1 — cos 0) asin0 0
Fig. E5—2
p
2
t7
Example 5—3
As an illustration of the case where the geometry is defined with respect to a basic
Cartesian frame, we consider the problem of finding for a circular helix. The general
108 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS FOR A MEMBER ELEMENT CHAP. 5
To simplify the algebra, we suppose the local frame coincides with the natural frame at
every point along the reference axis, that is, we take = 0. Using the results of Sec. 4—7,
the rotation matrices reduce to
a
a
C a
C.
a C
cc cc
(a\2 /c\2 a ac
I—I ——sin ij —i (1 — cos
cc I cc
c /a\2 /c'\2
cc \ccJ
SEC. 5—3. THREE-DIMENSIONAL DISPLACEMENT TRANSFORMATIONS
—
a I a a
ac2 a a2 ci2c
— — c2) —
a a a a a a
Note that we can specialize the above general results for the case of a plane circular member
(Example 5-2) by taking c = 0 and = 0.
UQ = Up + QP X (5—24)
We define
(5—25)
=
as the displacement matrix for P referred to frame 1. The displaccment at Q
resulting from the rigid body displacement at P is given by
— [13 XPQ1
L"l 3J i —
consider next the case where the local frames at P and Q do not coincide.
The general relation between the displacements has the form
=
0 13
- (5—27)
— d14
[o j
One can showt that alternate forms of (5—27) are
= T (yqp)T
The units are radians. -
REFERENCES
1. HALL, A. S., and R. W. WOODS-LEAD: Frame Analysis, 2d ed., Wiley, New York, 1967.
2. MORLCE, P. B.: Linear Structural Analysis, Ronald Press. New York, 1959.
3. PESTEL, E., and LECKIE, F.: Matrix Methods in Elastomechanics, McGraw-Hill, New
York, 1963.
4. Livasr.Ey, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
5. MARTLS.t, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1966.
PROBLEMS
5—1. Consider the two-dimensional cartesian reference frames shown. If
a1 = {50, —100}, find a2.
Prob. 5—i
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
\/2/2 o
(a) Determine R12. Verify that (R12)T = (R12y1
PROBLEMS
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
0
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
0 — 12/2
(a) Determine 91'),Q and
(b) Determine
(c) Suppose {l00, —50, 100, 20, —40, +60). Calculate
5--4. Consider the planar member consisting of a circular segment and a
straight segment shown in the sketch below. Point P is at the center of the circle.
Prob,. 5—4
S
t'i
Ic
Q Q_ P P
Verify that (5—27) and (5—28) are equivalent forms. Note that
5—7.
•1
rI
IA
ii r
— I _T___
I
niT
I
I
—c ort
L" 3 1 3J
5—8. Consider the plane member shown. The reference axis is defined by
x2 = f(xj).
Prob. 5—8
x1
(a) Determine Note that the local frame at P coincides with the
basic frame whereas the local frame at Q coincides with the natural
frame at Q.
(b) Specialize part (a) for the case where
4a 2
— (x1b — Xj)
z
6
Governing Equations
for an Ideal Truss
6—i. GENERAL
A system of bars* connected at their ends by frictionless hinges to joints and
subjected only to forces applied at the joint centers is called an ideal truss.t
The bars arc assumed to be weightless and so assembled that the line con-
necting the joint centers at the ends of each bar coincides with the centroidal
axis. Since the bars are weightless and the hinges are frictionless, it follows that
each bar is in a state of direct stress. There is only one force unknown asso-
ciated with each bar, namely, the magnitude of the axial force; the direction
of the force coincides with the line connecting the joint If the bars lie
in one plane, the system is called a plane or two-dimensional truss. There
are two displacement components associated with each joint of a plane truss.
Similarly, a general system is called a space or three-dimensional truss, and
there are three displacement components associated with each joint.
We suppose there are in bars (members) and j joints. We define i as
= 2 for a plane truss
= 3 for a space truss
Using this notation, there are if displacement quantities associated with the]
joints. In general, some of the joint-displacement components are prescribed.
Let r be the number of prescribed displacement components (displacement
restraints) and nd the total number of unknown joint displacements. It follows
that
= if — r (6—2)
115
116 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN iDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
The equilibrium equations for the bars have been used to establish the fact
that the force in each bar has the direction of the line connecting the joint
centers at the ends of the bar. There remains the equilibrium equations for the
joints. Since each joint is subjected to a concurrent force system, there are iJ
scalar force-equilibrium equations relating the bar forces, external joint loads,
and direction cosines for the lines connecting the joint centers in the deformed
state. In order to solve the problem, that is, to determine the bar forces, reac-
tions, and joint displacements, m additional independent equations are required.
These additional equations are referred to as the bar force—joint displacement
relations and are obtained by combining the bar force—bar elongation relation
and bar elongation—joint displacement relation for each of the in bars.
In this chapter, we first derive the elongation—joint displacement relation for
a single bar and then express the complete set of in relations as a single matrix
equation. Thisprocedure is repeated for the bar force-elongation relations and
the joint force-equilibrium equations. We then describe a procedure for in-
troducing the joint-displacement restraints and summarize the governing equa-
tions. Finally, we briefly discuss the solvability of the governing equations for
the linear case. In this case, the question of initial instability is directly related
to the solvability.
In Chapter 7, we develop variational principles for an ideal truss. The
two general procedures for solving the governing equations are described in
Chapters 8 and 9. We refer to these procedures as the displacement and force
methods. They are also called the stWhess and flexibility methods in some
texts.
The basic concepts employed in formulating and solving the governing
equations for an ideal truss are applicable, with slight extension, to a member
system having moment resisting connections. Some authors start with the
general system and then specialize the equations for the case of an ideal truss.
We prefer to proceed from the truss to the general system since the basic
formulation techniques for the ideal truss can be more readily described. To
adequately describe the formulation for a general system requires introducing
a considerable amount of notation which tends to overpower the reader.
vectors for the basic frame. The initial coordinates, displacement components,
and components of the resultant external force for joint k are denoted by
(j = 1, 2, 3) and the corresponding vectors are written as
rk =
j= 1
Uk = Ukl (6—5)
Pk
The coordinates and position vector for joint k in the deformed state are
1k + 11k
(6—6)
= + Uk
14313
Deformed position
of joint k
x2
//
// flkl
11k2
x1
13
x.,3
12
I /
/ XkI //
Xk2
/
Xg3
to joint s and define as the direction cosine for the positive sense of bar n
in the undeformed state with respect to the direction:
1 1
= (Ar = — XkJ) (6—9)
— Xk) (6—10)
=L
Note that 1, due to the orthogonality of the reference frame. Finally,
we let be the unit vector associated with the positive direction of bar n in
the undeformed state. By definition,
- 1
= Ar =
12
The deformed position of bar n is shown in Fig. 6—3. The length and direc-
tion cosines for bar n are equal to the magnitude and direction cosines for the
vector, = — Pk. Let L12 + e12 be the deformed length, the unit vector
SEC. 6—2. ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION
x3
Ap Joints
x2
t?&2
x1
associated with the positive direction in the deformed state, and the corre-
sponding direction cosine matrix. These quantities are defined by
+ eh) (6—12)
— 1 —.
— (6—13)
—
(6—14)
+ — Uk) (6—20)
=
/ +
1
— (u, Uk)
This form shows that the second-order terms arc related to the change in
orientation of the bar. If the initial geometry is such that the bar cannot ex-
perience a significant change in orientation, then we can neglect the nonlinear
terms. We use the term linear geometry for this case. The linearized relations
are
— Uk)
(6—21)
= (x. —
— Xk)
= (x., — xk)
T
= — Uk)
= + (ii, — uk)T
= + Uk)
—
=
= — (6—22)
= ci,, + — u,,)
To proceed further, we must relate the bars and joints of the system, that is,
we must specify the connectivity of the truss. The connectivity can be defined
by a table having m rows and three columns. In the first column, we list the bar
numbers in ascending order, and in the other two columns the corresponding
numbers, and n, of the joints at the positive and negative ends of the mem-
bers. This table is referred to as the branch-node incidence table in network
theory.* For structural systems, a branch corresponds to a member and a node
to a joint, and we shall refer to this table as the member-joint incidence table
or simply as the connectivity table. It should be noted that the connectivity
depends only on the numbering of the bars and joints, that is, it is independent
of the initial geometry and distortion of the system.
Example 6—1
See Ref. 8.
122 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
table (we list it horizontally to save space) for this numbering scheme takes the following
form:
Bar,n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
+Joint(n÷) 1 2 4 5 1 2 3 1 2 4 5
—Joint(n..) 2 3 5 6 4 5 6 5 6 2 3
Fig. E6—1
3 0 2 0
0
6 4
With the connectivity table, the evaluation of the initial length and direction cosines can
be easily automated. The initial data consists of the j coordinate matrices, x1, x2
To compute and a,,, we first determine n÷ and n_ from the connectivity table and then
use the first two equations of(6—22). For example, for bar 8, 8÷ 1, 8.. 5, and
xs• — x1 — x5
(x1 — x)T(x * x5)
= — x5)T
where d is of order m x ij. The elements in the uth row of d involve only
the elements of Then, partitioning d into submatrices, of order 1 x 1,
where k = 1, 2 in and £ = 1, 2 j, it follows that the only nonvan-
ishing submatrices for row n are the two subinatrices whose column number
corresponds to the joint number at the positive or negative end of member it,
SEC. 6—3. GENERAL ELONGATION—JOINT DISPLACEMENT RELATION
= (6—25)
= 0 when t' n÷ orn
Example 6—2
The .& matrix can be readily established by using the connectivity table. For row n,
one puts +y,, at column at column n_, and null matrices at the other locations.
The general form of the d matrix for the truss treated in Example 6—1 is listed below.
We have also listed the elongations and joint displacement matrices to emphasize the
significance of the rows and partitioned columns of .&.
Uj U2 U3 U4 U5 U6
e1 Ii 0 0 0 0
e2 0 12 0 0 0
e3 0 0 0 13 13 0
e4 0 0 0 0 14 14
e5 15 0 0 0 0
e6 0 is 0 0 —Ys 0
0 0 0 0
e5 is 0 0 0 0
e9 0 19 0 0 0 —19
e10 0 1io 0 ho 0 0
e11
0 0 0 0
71
= 72
(6—26)
124 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
and define C as
k 1,2 in
C = [Ck(i
e= 1,2,...,j (6—27)
*= + Cr,, - = — Ij
=0 n÷ or n...
Then,
d = yC (6—28)
Example 6—3
The connectivity matrix for Example 6—1 is listed below. The unit matrices are of order
2 since the system is two-dimensional.
Joint Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6
1 12
2 +12
12
+12
12
Bar
Numbers +12
+12 12
+12 12
+12
12 +12
12 +12
One can consider row n of C to define the two joints associated with bar n. It follows
that column k of C defines the bars associated with joint k. This association is usually
Elastic
behavior
0 C
Fig. 6—4. Stress-strain curves for elastic and inelastic behavior.
*
A detailed discussion of the behavior of engineering materials is given in Chap. 5 of Ref. 2.
126 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Since the stress and strain are constant throughout the bar,
F=
e = Lg (6—29)
e0 = Le0
We convert the a-c relation for the material to the force-elongation relation
for the bar by applying (6—29).
C0
We consider first the case where the stress-strain relation is linear, as shown
in Fig. 6—5. A material having this property is called Hookean. The initial and
transformed relations are
a= E(r —
AE
F (e — e0) k(e — a0) (6—30)
=
L
a F + e0 = fF + e0
We call k, f the stiffness and flexibility factors for the bar. Physically, k is the
force required per unit elongation and f, which is the inverse of k, is the elon-
gation due to a unit force.
We consider next the case where the stress-strain relation is approximated
by a series of straight line segments. The material is said to be piecewise linear.
Figure 6—6 shows this idealization for two segments. A superscript (j) is
used to identify the modulus and limiting stress for segment j. The force-
elongation relation will still be linear, but now we have to determine what
SEC. 6-4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR 127
segment the deformation corresponds to and also whether the strain is in-
creasing (loading) or decreasing (unloading). For unloading, the curve is as-
sumed to be parallel to the initial segment.* The relations for the various
possibilities are listed below.
F = F>1>
(6—3 1)
F= k">(e —
2. Loading—Second Segment
3. Unloading—Second Segment
F k>1>(e — (6—33)
One can readily generalize these relations for the nth segment.f
* We are neglecting the Bauschinger etlect. See Ref. 2, Sec. 5.9. or Ref. 3, Art. 74.
t See Prob. 6—8.
128 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Example 6—4
Fig. E6—4
40
41.7
30
(in./in.)
Taking
L=lQft=l2Oin ,4=lin.2
we obtain
Suppose a force of 35 kips is applied and the bar is unloaded. The equivalent initial
strain is (see Equation 6—33 and Fig. 6—6):
= —
The procedure described above utilizes the segment stiffness, which can be
interpreted as an average tangent stiffness for the segment. We have to modify
the stiffness and equivalent initial elongation only when the limit of the seg-
SEC. 6-4. FORCE-ELONGATION RELATION FOR A BAR 129
.4
I''I
/1
-eo,eq.
where e0, eq is interpreted as the equivalent linear initial strain and is given by
eo,eq =
(6—35)
A = — —
The equivalent initial strain, eoeq, depends on e, the actual strain. Since e in
turn depends on F, one has to iterate on eoeq regardless of whether the seg-
ment limit has been exceeded. This disadvantage is offset somewhat by the use
of for all the segments.
The notation introduced for the piecewise linear case is required in order to
distinguish between the various segments and the two methods. Rather than
continue with this detailed notation, which is too cumbersome, we will drop
all the additional superscripts and write the force-deformation relations for bar
n in the simple linear form
=
(6—36)
= +
130 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
where k, f, and e0 are defined by (6—31) through (6—35) for the physically
nonlinear case.
We can express the force-displacement relations for the "m" bars as a single
matrix equation by defining
(6 39)
k1
k2
k=
km
and noting (6—24). The generalized forms of (6—37) and (6—38) are:
F,, = (6—42)
When F,, is positive, the sense of F,, is the same as the positive sense for the
bar. Continuing, we define F,,,, as the forces exerted by bar n on
the joints at the positive and negative ends of the bar. From Fig. 6—8,
= — F,, = — F,,fi,,i
(6—43
F,,,, +F,, =
SEC. 6—6. JOINT FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS
Joint n_
We consider next joint k. The external joint load vector is Pk, where
Pk = For equilibrium, the resultant force vector must equal zero. Then,
Pk - j+=k —
The first summation involves the bars which are positive incident on joint k
(positive end at joint k) and the second the bars which are negative incident.
Using (6--43), the matrix equilibrium equation for joint k takes the form:
Pk = — (6—44)
j+k
Let be the general external joint load matrix:
= P2, ,
(if x 1) (6—45)
Note that the rows of pertain to the joints and the columns to the bars.
We partition into submatrices of order i x 1.
= (if x m)
(6—47)
= 1, 2,.. ,j . and k= 1, 2. . . ,m
Since a bar is incident only on two joints, there will be only two elements in
any column of From (6—44), we see that, for column n,
=
= (6—48)
= 0 when e orn_
The matrix can be readily developed using the connectivity table. It will
have the same form as dT with y, replaced by n,,. When the geometry is linear,
= = and
132 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Example 6—5
The matrix for the truss of Example 6—1 has the following general form:
Bar Numbers
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 +llç
RT T nT nT ftT
+ 2 —plo
Iz -'
A
DT
P2
oT nT
OF
+p7 OT
a ±1J3
C
oT oT øT oT
C
-I J3 +p4 P6 +pU
•r
I,
where
0 -. 0
o o
Finally, we have
= (6—50)
(fld x 1)
(r x 1)
6—51
—
>< 1)
- x 1)
+ V = 13
where
ROk = [cos (6—58)
We have omitted the frame superscript (o) for quantities referred to the basic
frame (ut, to simplify the notation.
We define CU', as the system joint-displacement and -force matrices
referred to the local joint reference frames,
= ...
(6-59)
= . . .
R°1
R02
= . (6—60)
R0j
Then,
=
= (a)
SEC. 6—8. ARBITRARY RESTRAINT DIRECTION 135
b
(IP =
leads to
= (6—61)
The transformation to is the same as for the case where the restraint
directions are parallel to the directions of the basic frame, that is, it will involve
only a rearrangement of the rows of Similarly, we obtain A by rearranging
the columns of .cifi. The steps are
A2]
-+ -* B
LB2
Example 6—6
To obtain the submatrices in column k of we postmultiply the submatrices in column
T
k of ri by R°" We can perform the same operation on and then transpose the
resulting matrix or, alternately, we can premultiply the submatrices in row k of by R°".
As an illustration, see the matrix for Example 6—5 on page 136. The matrix can be
determined by transposing and replacing il,, by y,.
U = (6—63).
*
See Prob. I —36 for a discussion of permutation matrices.
C)
—
0
—
z
C,)
m
0
— R04P1 :13
>
2
ROSDTI C
m
-1
C
(I)
Cl)
SEC. 6—9. INITIAL INSTABILITY 137
U=
and it follows that
I) = HPII°' (6—64)
A dDT
and then substituting for d, P.s, and D in terms of the geometrical, connectivity,
local rotation matrices lead to
B
A= ( 6— 65 )
Equation (6—65) is of interest since the various terms are isolated. However,
one would not generate A, B with it.
In general, (b) can be solved only if a and [a c] have the same rank,* It follows
that the equations are consistent for an arbitrary right-hand side only when
the rank of a is equal to], the total number of equations. Applying this condition
*
See Sec. 1—13; see also Prob. 1—45.
138 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
to (a), we see that the truss is initially unstable when the rank of B1 is less
than na.
For the truss to be initially stable under an arbitrary loading, B1 must be
of rank This requires m That is, the number of bars must be at least
equal to the number of unknown displacement components. Since the rank
may still be less than this condition is necessary but not sufficient for initial
stability. In order to determine whether a truss is initially stable, one must
actually find the rank of B1. The following examples illustrate various cases
of initial instability.
Example 6—7
Fig. E6—7
x2
in = 4
na = 5
x1
F
F1 F2 F3 F4
Pu —1
P12 +1
)
— B1
P21 +1
P22 +1
P31 +1
Example 6—8
We first develop the matrix for the truss shown in Fig. E6—8A and then specialize
it for various restraint conditions.
Fig. E6—8A
'1
J
M
0
4 3
I
F
F F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
® Pit —1 —cosU
© Piz +1 sinO
® Psi +1 cosO
—a--—-— .
P22 ±1 sinO
® Psi +1 cosO
® P32 —1 —sinO
© P41 —1 —cosO
—1 —sinO
The first two relations correspond to the scalar force equilibrium conditions for the external
joint loads:
Pkl = P11 + P21 + P31 + P41 = 0
k1
Mk is the moment of the external force vector acting at joint k with respect to point
0, the origin of the basic frame. We obtain relation (3) by taking Oat joint 4. Equation (b)
reduces to
—d(p11 + P21) + b(p22 + P32) = 0
Using
ci =L sin 8
b = L cos 0
we can write (c) as
which is relation 3.
We see that rows 2 and 5 arc independent. Thc remaining set (rows 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8)
contains only three independent rows. Now, we obtain B1 from by first taking a linear
combination of the rows (when the restraints are not parallel to the basic frame) and then
deleting the rows corresponding to the joint forces associated with the prescribed joint
displacements. Since has three linear dependent rows, it follows that we must introduce
at least three restraints. Initial instability will occur if—
1. An insufficient number of restraints are introduced (n4 > 5).
2. A sufficient number of restraints are introduced (/24 = 5) but the rows of B1 are
not linearly independent. We say the restraints are not independent in this case.
These cases are illustrated below.
Case 1
Fig. E6—8B
1 2
x2
m6
x1
SEC. 6—9. INITIAL INSTABILITY
We obtain B1 by deleting rows 6 and 8 (corresponding to P32 and P42). The system is
stable only when the applied joint loads satisfy the condition
Case 2
Fig. E6—8C
x2
rn = 6
—5
xl
We delete rows 4, 6, and 8. The number of restraints is sufficient (fld = 5) but the restraints
are not independent since r(B1) < 5. Actually, r(81) = 4. To make the system stable, at
least onc horizontal restraint must be introduced.
In Example 6—8, we showed that there are three relations between the rows
for a two-dimensional truss. These relations correspond to the force- and
moment-equilibrium conditions for the complete truss.
To establish the relations for the three-dimensional case, we start with the
equilibrium equations,
3 (jxl)
o
(2i—3)x 1
0
(6—66)
Sec. 5—2 for the moment,* the equilibrium equations take the form
PA,. = 0 (6—67)
=0 (6—68)
Both (6—70) and (6—71) must be satisfied. Either condition may control r,
depending on the arrangement of the bars.
REFERENCES
1. NORRIS,C. H., and J. B. WILBUR: Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. CRANDALL, S. H,, and N. C. DAHL: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
3, TIMOSNENKO, S.: Strength of Materials, Part 2, Van Nostrand, New York. 1941.
4. TIMoSISENKO, S., and D. H. YOUNG: Theory of Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1945.
5. MCMINN, S. I.: Matrices jbr Structural Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1962.
6. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, McGraw-
Hill, New York, 1966.
7. LIVIISLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
8. FENVES, S. J., and F. H. BRANIN: "Network-Topological Formulation of Structural
Analysis," J. Struct. Div., ASCE, Vol. 89, No. ST4, pp. 483—514, 1963.
* See Eq. 5—11.
PROBLEMS 143
PROBLEMS
6—1. Determine in,J, r, and for the following plane trusses:
Prob. 6—1
(a)
(b)
Prob. 6—3
2 .3
(a)
x2
X1 3
2
Ib)
x2 Prob. 6—4
I'
(d) Determine C.
(e) Verify that d = cxC.
6—5. Determine d for the three-dimensional truss shown.
6—6. Consider the d-c network shown. The Junctions are generally called
nodes, and the line connecting two nodes is called a branch. The encircled
numbers refer to the branches and the arrowheads indicate the positive sense
(of the current) for each branch.
PROBLEMS 145
Prob. 6—5
x3
4
(0, 1,0)
xI
(1,0,0) (1,1,0)
Prob. 6—6
0'
drop for branch n, indicated by is given by
= v,,,
We define v and e as
v= {v1, v2,.. . , v5} = general node potential matrix
e= {e1, e2, . . . , = general branch potential difference matrix
and write the system of branch potential difference—node potential relations as
e= .cjv
Determine d, using the branch-node connectivity table. Discuss how the truss
problem differs from the electrical network problem with respect to the, form
of ad. How many independent columns does ad have? In network theory, ad
is called the augmented branch node incidence matrix.
146 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Prob. 6—7
6X ksi
20 ksi
Prob. 6—10
GA
Ee
da Et
PROBLEMS 147
(a) Determine expressions for ES and E', the secant and tangent moduli.
(b) Determine expressions for k5 and kt.
(c) Suppose the material behaves inelastically for decreasing 4 Consider
the unloading curve to be parallel to the initial tangent. Determine the
force-elongation relation for AB.
6—li. Repeat Prob. 6—10, using the stress-strain relation
= (u +
Prob. 6—12
Prob. 6—13
LX2
I 'I.
Note the similarity between (b) and the linear elastic member force-
elongation relation. Show that the complete system of branch cur-
potential relations can be written as
e= = e0 + Ri
= R1(e — e0) = R1dv — R1e0
Equations (a) and (c) are the governing unpartitioned equations for a
linear-resistance d-c network. The partitioned equations are developed
in Prob. 6—23. It should be noted that the network problem is one-
dimensional, that is, it does not involve geometry. The d matrix
depends only on the topology (connectivity) of the system. Actually,
d corresponds to the C matrix used in Sec. 6—3 with i = 1.
6—15. Refer to Prob. 6—12, Suppose u11, u42, is52 are prescribed. Identify
B1 and B2.
6—16. Refer to Prob. 6—12.
(a) Develop the general form of
(b) Suppose is21, u42, are prescribed. The orientation of the local
frame at joint 5 is shown in the sketch. Determine B1 and B2.
Prob. 6—16
x2
PROBLEMS
x1 x2 x3
0
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
6—48. Consider the two-dimensional truss shown. The bars are of equal
length and 0 is the center of the circumscribed circle. The restraint direction
is degrees counterclockwise from the tangent at each joint. Investigate the
initial stability of this system. Repeat for the case of four bars.
Prob. 6—18
r (restraint direction)
t (tangent)
11 = 13
I.
If (a) has a nontrivial solution, the rank of B1 is less than m and the system is
initially unstable (see Prob. 1—45). Rather than operate on B1, to determine
r(B1), we can proceed as follows:
(1) We take the force in some bar, say bar k, equal to C:
Fk = C
150 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR AN DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 6
Prob. 6—21
6—22. Investigate the initial stability of the system shown. The restraint
directions are indicated by the slashed lines.
Prob. 6—22
-j
4
-t
3
I
c
PROBLEMS
6—23. We generalize the results of Probs. 6—6. and 6—14 for a network
having b branches and n nodes. Let
e branch potential duff, matrix = {e1, e2, -. . ,
row ii row k
=
It follows that (a) represents only n — independent equations, and one
1
Show that
dv = AV
Summarize the governing equations for the network.
(b) The operation
152
SEC. 7—2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 153
w w0 + JFdv = W(v)
where v0 is an arbitrary reference displacement. Since W is a function of v,
the increment in W due to an increment Ar can be expressed in terms of the
differentials of W when F is a continuous function of yr f
= dW + 4d2W +
dW
dW —Ar
dv
= F Au
(7—2)
d2W = d(dW)
w—rv0
vs V
R+
One can readily generalize (7—4) for the case of S particles. Let be the
first-order work associated with the forces acting on particle q and the
We consider the forces to be continuous functions of Au.
SEC. 7—2. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 155
dW = 0 for arbitrary
=
Equation (7—5) is the definition of the principle of virtual work for a system
of particles.
In general, some of the forces acting on the particles will be due to internal
restraints. We define dW5 as the first-order work done by the external forces
and dW1 as the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the particles.
Substituting for dW, (7—5) becomes
dW5 + dW1 = 0 for arbitrary
q=l,2 S
Now. let be the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on
the restraints. We use the subscript D for this term since it involves the
F1 /(Deformedl F1
I .
El
(Initial)
(Deformed)
F1 F1
II
Fig. 7—4. Work done on the mass particles and internal restraints.
As an illustration, consider the simple system shown in Fig. 7—4. For this
case, we have
dW,, = —F1 Au1 + F1 Au2
dW1 = F1 Au1 — F1 Au2
156 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
1- = J,,, F, de, = Wd(e,). We must use the rules for forming the differentials of a compound
function since e, depends on the joint displacements. Using (3—17), we can write
dWd
dW4 = de, = F, de,
de
The assembled form follows from (6—25). We just have to replace y,, with il,,:
de MI (7—9)
Substituting for de in (7—7),
?,TMI =
and requiring (a) to be satisfied for arbitrary results in the joint force
force equilibrium equations.
For the geometrically linear case, e where d is constant and de =
dM1 follows directly from e. We have treated the geometrically nonlinear
case here to show that the principle of virtual displacements leads to force-
equilibrium equations which are consistent with the geometrical assumptions
associated with the deformation-displacement relations.
Example 7—1
We consider a rigid member subjected to a prescribed force, P. and reactions R,, R2,
as in the diagram. There is no internal work since the body is rigid. Introducing the virtual
Fig. E7—1
Then,
dW = — + Au2 {R2 — =0
—
R2 = P
which are the force and moment equilibrium equations, in that order.
158 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
Example 7—2
We consider the outside bars to be rigid (see sketch). To obtain the force equilibrium
equation relating P and the internal bar forccs F1, F2, we introduce a virtual displacement,
Au1, of the point of application of F:
dWE = PAu1
dW0 F1 de1 + F2 de2
The first-order increments in the elongations are
de1 = Au1 cos El de2 = —Au2 cos El —Au1 cos U
where U defines the initial position. Then, equating dW5 and dW0,
dWE = (1WD for arbitrary Au1
P= (F1 — Fjcos 0
The force in bar 3 does not appear explicitly in the equilibrium equation, (c). It is possible
Fig. E7—2
Multiplying the constraint relation by —2, adding the result to (d), and collecting terms, we
obtain
Au1(P — F1 cos 0 — 2) + Au2(F2 cos 0 + 2) = 0 (f)
Finally, we require (f) to be satisfied for arbitrary Au1 and Au2. The equilibrium equations
are
P=F1cosO+A
F2cos6+2=O
and we recognize 2 as the force in bar 3.
e = =
Now, we visualize a set of bar forces AF, and joint loads, which satisfy
the force-equilibrium equations:
=
A force system which satisfies the equations of static equilibrium is said to be
statically permissible. Equation (b) relates the actual elongations and joint dis-
placements. If we multiply the equation for Ck by sum over the bars, and
note (c), we obtain the result
AFTe =
=
which is the definition of the principle of virtual forces:
The actual elongations and joint displacements satisfy the condition
AFTC — =0 (7-10)
for any statically permissible system of bar forces and joint loads.
The principle of virtual forces is independent of material behavior but is
restricted to the geometrically linear case. The statically permissible system
(AF, is called a virtual-force system.
To illustrate the application of this principle, we express cW and in
partitioned form,
where U2 contains the prescribed support movements. Using (a), (7—10) takes
the form:
AFTe — U2 = APr U1
160 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
Example 7—3
The truss shown (Fig. E7—3A) has support movements and is subjccted to a
loading which results in elongations (e1, e7) in the diagonal bars. We are coniidering the
outside bars to be rigid.
Fig. E7—3A
u,P
u = + — tan —
cos 6
This truss is statically indeterminate to the first degree. A convenient choice of force
redundant is one of the diagonal bar forces, say F2. The equation which determines F2 is
0
Fig. E7—3B
derived from the gcometric compatibility relation, which, in turn, is obtained by taking
a self-equilibrating force system consisting ofF2 = + I and a set of bar forces and reactions
required for equilibrium. The forces are shown in Fig. E7--3C.
Fig. E7—3C
— ens 6
0
Evaluating (7—14), we obtain
e1 + e2 = 0
To show that (a) represents a geometrical compatibility requirement, we note that the
elongation-displacement relations for the diagonal bars are
ucos6 e2 = —ucosO
Specifying e1 determines u and also e2. We could have arrived at Equation (a) starting
from Equation (b) rather than (7—14). Flowever, (7—14) is more convenient since it does
not involve any algebraic manipulation. We discuss this topic in depth later in Chapter 9.
162 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
We call the total strain energy function and the total potential energy.
One should note that VT exists only when F is a continuous single-valued function
of e. This requirement is satisfied when the material is elastic.
Equation (7—18) states that the joint force-equilibrium equations (P1 = B1F)
expressed in terms of the unknown displacements are the Euler equations for the
total potential energy. It follows that the actual displacements, i.e., the dis-
placements which satisfy the equilibrium equations, correspond to a stationary
value of 11,'
It remains to discuss how one generates the strain-energy function. By
definition,
dVT
and
=
where is the strain energy for bar). Since we are considering to be a com-
pound function of e1, Equation (b) is equivalent to
(7—19)
=
That is, the strain energy function for a bar has the property that its derivative
with respect to the elongation is the bar force expressed in terms of the elonga-
tion. Finally, we can express as
(7—20)
=
where e0 is the initial elongation, i.e., the elongation not associated with the
force. Actually, the lower limit can be taken arbitrarily. This choice corresponds
to taking as the area between the F-c curve and thee axis, as shown in Fig.7—5.
The total strain energy is obtained by summing over the bars. We can express
VTas
VT = 4(e — e0)Tk(e — eo) (7—22)
j=1
164 VARIATIONAL PRNCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
When the geometry is linear, A1, A2 are constant and is a quadratic function.
If the geometry is nonlinear, is a fourth degree function of the displacements.
Up to this point, we have shown that the displacements defining an equilib-
rium position correspond to a stationary value of the potential energy function.
To determine the character (relative maximum, relative minimum, indifferent,
neutral) of the stationary point, we must examine the behavior of the second
differential, in the neighborhood of the stationary point.
Operating on and noting that AP1 = 0 leads to
d2
(7—24)
= +
The next step involves expressing d2VT as a quadratic form in AU1. We restrict
this discussion to linear behavior (both physical and geometrical). The general
nonlinear case is discussed in Sec. 17.6 When the geometry is linear, we can
operate directly on (7—23) to generate the differentials of e,
de A1AU1
d2e = 0
Example 7—4
We establish the total potential energy function for the truss considered in Example 7—2.
For convenience, we assume no initial elongation or support movement. The strain
SEC. 7—5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 165
energy is
VT = +
Substituting for the elongations in terms of the displacement,
e1 =u1cosO e2= —u2cosO= —u1cosO
results in
= + cos2 0
and finally
= + cos2 0 — P1u1
where AF, represent a self-equilibrating force- system, i.e., they satisfy the
the following constraint relations:
B1 iW = 0
B2 AF
166 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
Our objective is to establish a function of F, whose Euler equations are (a) and
(b). We cannot work only with (a) since F is not arbitrary but is constrained
by the force-equilibrium equations,
P1 = B1F (fld equations in m variables)
We interpret as the first differential of a function
= eT = dV7 (7—26)
= (7—27)
That is, the complementary energy function for a bar has the property that its
derivative with respect to the bar force is the elongation expressed in terms of
the force. We express as
dF1 (7—28)
This definition corresponds to taking Vj' as the area bounded by the F-e curve
and the F axis as shown in Fig. 7—5. Also, the strain and complementary
energy functions are related by
+ = (7—29)
= + 4FTfF
Next, we define II. as:
1-Ic =
7—31)
= —
We can combine (e) and (f) into a single equation by introducing Lagrange
multipliers. Following the procedure described in Sec. 3—3, we add to (7—31)
the joint force equilibrium equations and write the result as:
+ (P1 — (7—32)
where . ,
contains the Lagrange multipliers. The Euler equa-
SEC. 7—5. COMPLEMENTARY ENERGY 167
Example 7—5
We consider the truss treated in Example 7—3. It is statically indeterminate to the first
degree with respect to the bars (statically detcrminate with respect to the reactions) and we
take
X = F2
The force influence matrices defined by (7—35) follow from the force results listed on the
sketches:
F0 = 0; 0; 0; 0; —tan 0; 0}
= {+1; +1; —cosU; —sin 0; —sin 0; —cos0}
P20 = P{—l; —tanG; +(an0}
=0
Assuming a bar is rigid is equivalent to setting f = 0 for the bar. Then, the comple-
mentary energy is due only to the diagonal bars:
= yr +
= ± e02F2 + + f2Fi')
We convert to a function of X by substituting
F1 = ± X
cos 0
F2 = +X
Finally, has the form
Comparing (h) with (a) of Example 7—3, we see that the Euler equation for is the
geometric compatibility equation expressed in terms of the force redundant.
The system is stable when A W < (I for all arbitrary permissible displacement
increments, that is, for arbitrary increments of the variable displacements. Now,
we let AW11 be the work done by the internal restraint forces acting on the
restraints. Since —AW1, we can express the stability requirement as
(7-38)
One can interpret AW0 as the work required to deform the system to the alternate
position and as the actual work done on the system.
When the behavior is continuous, we can express and AWE as Taylor
series expansions in terms of the displacement increments (see (7—2)):
+ +
= dW0 + +
We have shown that the first-order work is zero at an equilibrium position:
dWD — dWE 0
170 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
If we retain only the first two terms in (b), the general stability condition re-
duces to
d2 WD — d2 W5 >0 for all arbitrary permissible displacement increments
(7—39)
Fig. E7—6A
x1
j2
where F, e are the spring force and extension. Since the bar is rigid, the system has only one
degree of freedom, i.e., only one displacement measure is required to define the configura-
tion. It is convenient to take 0 as the displacement measure. The deformation-displacement
relations follow from the sketch:
e= u1 = L(sin 0 — sin
0)
0 — sin
and
de = (cos 0)L
du, = (sin 0)L
Using (a) and (d), the principle of virtual displacements takes the form
dW0 — dWa = {F cos 0 — P2 sin 0) (L AO) = 0 for arbitrary AG
The potential energy function for this system has the form
= — P2u2
= 4kL2(sin 0 — sin 0)
Let 0* represent a solution of(g). Applying (m) to 0* results in the following classification:
REFERENCES
P2
stable COS 0* >
neutral cos3
P2
unstable cos3 0'
dP2
neutral o
dO
dP2
unstable
A transition from stable to unstable equilibrium occurs at point A, the peak of the
deflection curve. The solution for 0 is different in that its stable segment is the linear
solution and the neutral equilibrium point (P2 kL) corresponds to a branch point,
Both the linear and nonlinear branches are unstable.
Fig. E7—6B
REFERENCES
1 WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1953.
2. LANGHAAR, H. L,: Energy Methods in Applied Mechanics, Wiley, New York, 1962.
3. REISSNeR, E.: "On a Variational Theorem in Elasticity," J. Math. Phys., Vol. 29,
pages 90-95, 1950.
4. ARGYRIS, i. H., and S. KIsLseY: Energy Theorems and Structural Analysis, Butter-
worths, London, 1960.
5. CI.IARLTON, T. M.: Energy Principles in Applied Statics, Blackie, London, 1959.
6. HOFF, N. J.: The Anal vsis of Structures, Wiley, & New York, 1956.
7. K.: Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968.
174 VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES FOR AN IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 7
PROBLEMS
7—1. Consider the two-dimensional symmetrical truss shown. Assume
= 03 = 0.
(a) Determine the first two differentials of e1 and ez by operating on the
expanded expression (equation 6—19) for e.
(b) When a b, we can neglect the nonlinear term involving u12 in the
expressions for e and Specialize (a) for this case.
(c) When a b, we can neglect the nonlinear term involving u11 in the
expressions for e and Specialize (a) for this case.
Prob. 7—1
x2
T
3
21
F= C1e + 4C2e3
where a is related to the independent variable u by
a u + 1u2
(a) Determine the first two differentials of the work function, W = W(u),
defined by
W F de
=
(b) Suppose (a) applies for increasing e and
F= C1(e —
Prob. 7—5
x2
- 7—6. Refer to Prob. 6—23. One can develop a variational principle similar
to the principle of virtual forces by operating on the branch potential differ-
ence—node potential relations. Show that
AiTe=0
for any permissible set of current increments. Note that the currents must satisfy
the node equations
ATi 0
Deduce Kirchhoff's law (the sum of the voltage drops around a closed loop
must equal zero) by suitably specializing Lsi in (a). Illustrate for the circuit
shown in Prob. 6—6, using branches 1, 2, 4, and 6.
7—7. By definition, the first differential of the strain-energy function due to
an increment in U1 has the form
write as
(a) Using (b), show that the system of if joint force-equilibrium equations
expressed in terms of the joint displacements can be written as:
ÔU(k k=
Equation c is called Castigliano's principle, part I.
(b) Show that an alternate form of (c) is
P(k=
Note that (d) is just the expansion of (c). Rework P rob. 7—2, using (d).
7—8. Determine V(e), dv, and d2V for the case where the stress-strain
relation has the form (see Prob. 6—10)
a= — be3)
7—9. Determine V*(F), dV*, and d2V* for the case where the stress-strain
relation has the form
= (a + ca3)
UkJ =
0Pkj
ef e0,j +
Inverting (a), we can express as a function of e1.
= —
= (d)
P
Prob. 7—12
Linear
translational
restraint
Rigid rod
178
SEC. 8—2. OPERATION ON THE PARTITIONED EQUATIONS 179
P1 = B1F eqs.)
P2 = B2F (r eqs.)
F = F, + kA1U1 (in eqs.)
F, = k(—e0 + A2tJ2)
The unknowns are the in bar forces (F), the r reactions (P2), and the na joint
displacements (U1). One can consider F, to represent the initial bar forces,
that is, the bar forces due to the initial elongations and support movements
with U1 0. The term kA1U1 represents the bar forces due to U1. When the
material is linear elastic, k and e0 are constant. Also, = BT when the geometry
is linear.
We obtain a set of equations relating the flj displacement unknowns, U1,
by substituting for F in (a). The resulting matrix equation has the form
(B1kA1)U1 = — B1F1
We solve (8—i) for U1, determine F from (e), and P2 from (b). The coefficient
matrix for U1 is called the system stiffness matrix and written as
One can interpret as representing the initial joint forces due to the initial
elongations and support movements with U1 = 0. Then — B1F1 represents
the net unbalanced joint forces.
When the geometry is linear, K1 reduces to
1
If the material is linear, k is constant and positive definite for real materials.
Then, the stiffness matrix for the linear case is posiLive definite when the system
is initially stable, that is, when r(B1) Conversely, if it is not positive
definite, the system is initially unstable.
If the material is nonlinear, k and e0 depend on e. We have employed a
piecewise linear representation for the force-elongation curve which results in
linear relations. However, one has to iterate when the limiting elongation
for a segment is exceeded.
The geometrically nonlinear case is more difficult since both A and B depend
on U1. One can iterate on (8—1), but this requires solving a nonsymmetrical
system of equations. It is more efficient to transform (8—1) to a symmetrical
system by transferring some nonlinear terms to the right-hand side. Nonlinear
analysis procedures are treated in Sec. 8—4.
Even when the behavior is completely linear, the procedure outlined above
for generating the system matrices is not efficient for a large structure, since
it requires the multiplication of large sparse matrices. For example, one obtains
the system stiffness matrix by evaluating the triple matrix product,
=AfkA1
One can take account of symmetry and the fact that k is diagonal, but A1 is
generally quite sparse. Therefore, what is needed is a method of generating K
which does not involve multiplication of large sparse matrices, A method
which has proven to be extremely efficient is described in the next section.
= F0, +
=
where n4, n. denote the joints at the positive and negative ends of barn. One
can consider F0, as the bar force due to the initial elongation with the ends
fixed (un, = 0). Now, we let be the external joint force matrices
required to equilibrate the action of Noting (6—43), we see that
=
(8—4)
p,I_ =
Substituting for (8—4) expands to
= + —
pn_ =
One can interpret (b) as end action—joint displacement relations since the
elements of ± are the components of the bar force with respect to the
basic frame.
Continuing, we let
(8—5)
We have defined
— p2, . . , (U X 1)
= {u1, u2 (ii x 1)
as the general external joint force and joint displacement matrices. Now, we
write the complete system of if joint force-equilibrium equations, expressed in
terms of the displacements, as
= + (8—7)
(Partitioned Form is j x 1)
in row
8—8
in row n.
if (Partitioned Form is j x j)
+k, in row column
— k,, in row column
—ku in row n_, column
n
Example 8—1
The connectivity table and general form of if and for the numbering shown in
Fig. E8—l are presented below:
Fig. E8—l
0
4 3
182 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
Bar 1 2 3 4 5
+joint 1 2 2 4 2
—joint 4 1 3 3 4
U1 U2 U3 U4
P2 —k2 k2 + k3 + k5 —k3
--k3 k3 + k4 —k4
—k1 —k5 —k4 k1 + k4 + k0
L' UT ftT
Pai 0.1PI — 0,2P2
P0.2
L' pT
0,212 r
L' nT
0,3P3
r0,SPS
øT
,10 = UT t' UT
Po, 3 — 0. 3P3 — 0, 4P4
uT L'
Po, 4 — 0, 1I'I 1 0, 41'4 0. 5P5
Example 8—2
The external force matrix, involves and the displacement matrices for those joints
connected to joint j by bars. Now, corresponds to row j and ii,, to column j of ir. By
suitably numbering the joints, one can restrict the finite elements of X' to a zone about
the diagonal. This is quite desirable from a computational point of view.
Fig. E8—2
Sect. 1
0 fs (71
ft®
(-I
2: L6
©
-.
-..- —--
/ \ %._ —--
3
',. / ;
Consider the structure shown. We group the vertical joints into sections. The equi-
librium equations for section k involve only the joints in section k and the adjacent sections.
For example, the equations for section 3 (which correspond to P6) will involve only
the displacement matrices for sections 2, 3, 4. This suggests that we number the joints by
section. The unpartitioned stiffness matrix corresponding to the above numbering scheme
SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD
is listed below. Note that has the form of a quasi-tridiagonal band matrix when it is
partitioned according to sections rather than individual joints. The submatrices for this
truss are of order 4 x 4,
U' U2 U3 U4 U6 U7 U8
+k6
-+ U
-+
We write the system of joint force-equilibrium equations referred to the local
joint frames as
= + (8—10)
The transformation la'vs for the submatrices of and follow from (6—57).
=
T
= (8—11)
€,n= 1,2,...,j
184 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
Example 8—3
F F0 + kda/1 = F0 + kyC'W
Then, substituting for F in (a) and equating the result to (8—7) leads to
=
=
The matrix, DTkY, is a quasi-diagonal matrix of order im. The diagonal submatrices arc of
order i, and the submatrix at location n has the form, We have defined this product
as k,,. Then, if we let
= [ki
I. r,T
2p272
k5
we can express as
= CTk5c
Carrying out (8—9) for n = 1, 2 m is the same as evaluating the triple matrix product.
Obviously, (8—9) is more efficient than (f).
The introduction of displacement restraints can be represented as
P=
11
(g)
= D1dP
=
and
= DTU = DfU1 + (h)
SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 185
Substituting (g) and (h) in (8—7) and equating the result to (8—13), we obtain
K,, = =
t—12
P0. = DsCTDke0 —
I= 0
(8—15)
= Ii
2. On Add terms in due to
t C
X(qUq
(8—16)
j
ease B: Partial Restraint—Local Frame
We suppose the rth element in is prescribed.
= = prescribed
= unknown
186 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
4=
Step I —Assemblage of Basic Matrices
j=1,...,i
As an illustration, suppose r = 2. Then, in (b), we read in
In (c), we read in
—5 —5
Psi P53
1 0 0 [0 0 0
E5= 0 0 0 Gs=IO 1 0
0 0 1 [0 0 0
SEC. 8—3. THE DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD 187
1°
In —5
=
3. Postmultiply column q of it" by (Eq
irtq = 1, 2, . .
.
4. Add Gq to irqq
= it"qq + Gq
5. Add and to
= P'N,q + U +
The operation on row q and column q are summarized below.
On Jr
= .YV'eq(E9R0")T
X'qq = (Eq R°").Y(qq(Eq +
—
—
1' 2 I
Oiz
2PN, — R0q,
q 1, 2,. . . ,j (8—18)
I?'N,q = + +0
When ir is symmetrical (this will be the case when the system is geometrically
linear), we can work only with the submatrices on and above the diagonal. The
contracted operations for, the symmetrical case are threefold:
= —
it"eq(EqR°")T (8—19)
€= 1,2,...,q.— 1
188 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
q
q— Ttlq* + +
(8—20)
it'qq = + Gq
— — *
= (8—21)
The operations outlined above are carried out for each restrained joint.
Note that the modifications for joint q involve only row q and column q. We
denote the mOdified system of equations by
= (8—22)
[K11 Olfuil —
f—P0,1 —
-
-fJ - +
— N
U [1°?, J
= rVp
where H is a permutation matrix. It follows that
= HT[K11
It is more convenient to work with (8—22) rather than (a) since the solution
of (8—22) yields the joint displacement matrices listed in their natural order,
that is, according to increasing joint number. Once ciii' is known, we convert
the joint displacement matrices to the basic frame, using
uq =
Example 8—4
Fig. E8—4
/50
/Ii
Bar(n) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
+joint(n+) 1 3 1 3 4 3 5 3 5 6 5
—joint(n...) 2 1 4 2 2 4 3 6 4 4 6
2. Assemblage of
We consider the geometry to be linear. Then, = and = Applying
(8—9) results in listed below.
190 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
N 1 2 3 4 51 6
+k7+k8
ri 01 [0 0
E4=[ G4=[0
oj
= {O,ii42j =
ir22
)r33 ir34
.X44 ir4,5
Sym
E4ir46(E6R°6)T — —
+ G4 + + --
ir56(E6R°6)T —
,
(E6R°6)iq66(E6R°6)T E6R°6(—
+ G6
= — u,,_) + — —
—
— ci,, =
To allow for the possibility of retaining only certain nonlinear terms, we write
(a) as
fi,, — = (u,,÷ — u)Tg,
= — u,,..) + — u,,) (8—25)
= Yh(ufl. — u,,_)
where k, are constant for a segment. They have to be changed if the limit
of the segment is exceeded or the bar is unloading. Since is unknown, one
has to iterate, taking the values of k, Ae0 corresponding to the initial equilibrium
position as the first estimate. This is equivalent to using the tangent stiffness.
The initial elongation, Ae0, is included to allow for an incremental temperature
change. Substituting for (8—28) takes the form
At' _AC'
— Q + I
+ if Ct
72
(8—29)
Finally, we substitute for Lw,, in (8—24) and group the terms as follows:
where
= Fag,, +
= (8—31)
= -i- + +
We interpret k7 as the tangent stiffness matrix. The vector, L\p9, contains linear,
quadratic, and cubic terms in We have included the subscript g to indicate
that it is a nonlinear geometric term.
We write the total set of incremental joint equilibrium equations as
= + M'0 + (8-32)
where is assembled using (8—9) and MPO + with (8—8). Note that
is symmetrical. Finally, we introduce the displacement restraints by ap-
plying (8—19)—(8—21). The modified equations are
= — — (8-33)
It is convenient to include the prescribed incremental support displacement
terms in so that involves only the incremental temperature and
the variable displacement increments. The contracted equations are
K1,11 AU1 = — AP0,1 — AP9,1 — 1(1,12 AU2 (8-34)
where K1, is symmetrical.
We cannot solve (8—33) directly for since contains quadratic and
cubic terms in MI. There are a number of techniques for solving nonlinear
algebraic equations. t We describe here the method of successive substitutions,
which is the easiest to implement, but its convergence rate is slower in com-
parison to most of the other methods.
First, we note that and are independent of A'1/1. They de-
pend only on the initial equilibrium position and the incremental loading. We
combine and and write (8—33) as
Now, we let represent the nth estimate for LXa/IJ and determine the
(n + 1)th estimate by solving
)p* L\cW(n+ = — &?P (8—36)
S = (8—38)
STQ = A9* —
We have already evaluated the above terms. Using (8—26), (8—27), and (8—29)
with Ae0 = 0,
+ — — Au,,) (b)
¶ Iterative techniques are discussed in greater detail in Secs. 18—7, 18—8, 18—9.
_____
HT[Kt.11
(8—41)
We illustrate the application of both the total (8—13) and incremental (8—34) formulations
to the truss shown in Fig. E8—5A. To simplify the analysis, we suppose the material is
linearly elastic, k1 = k2 = k, and there are no initial elongations or support movement.
Fig. E8—5A
b <<d
x2
d d_____
—b] —b]
Using (c),
1
I
Pi —b + u12]
12 —b +
112 —b +
Finally, the force-equilibrium equation for joint I follows by applying (8—6) to both bars.
= (k1 + k2)u1 = k(11r71 ± 11212)U1
Jusi
0 — u12)(b
and
F1 = — (h —
F2 = — (b —
The diagonal form of the coefficient matrix is due to the fact that we neglected u11 in the
expressions for y and This approximation uncouples the equations. Note that (g) is
the first equation in (8—13) with U2 and P0 set to 0.
Solving the first equationt in (g). we obtain
I (J\2
Pti
The corresponding bar forces are
Pi
This result is actually the solution for the linear geometric case.
The expression for and the corresponding bar forces follow from the second equation
[2k 1
P12 — u12)(b — 1u12)j 012
k 1 P12
F1 = F2 = — — (b — 2u12)u12 =
L 2b—u12
L
We can write (k) as
L2
U12 =——
2k (b — u12)(b 1
and solve (m) by iteration. Alternatively, one can specify u12 and evaluate from (k).
The latter approach works only when there is one variable. The solution is plotted in
Fig. E8-5B.
A
9
(I +
0
b
We describe next the generation of the incremental equations which follow from (8—26)—
(8—32). Applying (8—26), (8—27) to (b)—(d) results in
= d[i,, = = [o
n=l,2
We arc assuming no initial elongation. Then,
k = k(de,, +
The tangent stiffness matrix and incremental geometric load term are defined by (8—31).
Using (n), we obtain
+ u12)
= Sym + u12)2 +
(Au12)2
198 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: DEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
Finally, we assemble the incremental equilibrium equations for joint 1 using (8—30).
Ap1 = + k, 2)Au1 + Ap1, i + Al)9. 2 (r)
Note that (s) is (8—34). Also, the incremental equations are uncoupled.
We restrict the analysis to only 112 loading. Setting F1 = F2 in (s) results in
where F is determined from (e). The coefficient of Au12 is the tangent stiffness with respect
to u12.
= + + u12)2) (u)
du12 L L
k=0 (w)
,t2EI3
b = (y)
Lastly, we outline how one applies the method of successive substitution to (t). For
convenience, we drop the subscripts and write (t) as
Ltu = —
=— (aa)
= (bb)
Generalizing (bb),
= —
The convergence is illustrated in Fig. E8—5C. Case (b) shows how the scheme diverges
Fig. ES—5C
— (a)
Lip
Ib)
The first term is the linear stiffness matrix. We interpret the second term as a
geometric stiffness. The bar forces are determined from a linear analysis of
the truss. If the loading is defined in terms of a single load parameter, we
can write (8—44) as
F,, =
(8—45)
k,,,, = k1,,, + ).k9,
The tangent stiffness matrix is generated by applying the Direct Stiffness Method
to each term in (8—45). We express the actual and modified matrices as
K,, = K1, ,i + Kg, ii (8—46)
and
= + (8—47)
Mt' = 0
1,1
1 0 0
AU2C1 +C2
o o i
This solution must be disregardcd since AU2 is actually a null matrix.
Example 8—6
Consider the system shown. We suppose the bars are identical, the material is linearly
elastic, and there is no support movement,
The geometry change is negligible under a vertical load and we can use the linearized
stability criterion. Working with the undeformcd geometry, we have
F1 = F2 = —
= = —
F
Matrix iteration (Ref. 1) is a convenient computational scheme for determining 2,,. We apply
jtto
(—K9,,1)AU1 = AU1
A Fig. £8—B
d <<b
12
We let k1 = k2 = k. The system stiffness matrices follow from (8—44) and (8—45).
= + k€ 2 = +
0
(b)
— 21
-
and
= k8,1 + k9,2 = — (g5 + g2) (c)
—b] —b]
L L (e)
i[l 0
0
0
0
(d)2
= 11e,ii + AKçj,ji = 2k (g)
(b)2
0 0 0
SEC. 8—5. LINEARIZED STABILITY ANALYSIS 203
Neutral equilibrium (K1, is semidefinite) occurs at
2kb
\\L) L \,LJ
Note that (g) has only one eigenvalue instead of two. This is a consequence of our using
approximate expressions for Equations (e) instead of the exact expressions. At 2 =
the system is neutral with respect to Au1 i.e., the buckling mode is antisymmetric.
Neutral equilibrium also occurs when the bars either buckle or yield. The value of 2
for Euler buckling of the bars is
2b 2b k2EIl 2AEb/irp'\2
= — =
eb
L LLL2J I
L \L
Comparing (h) and (i), we see that Euler buckling of the bars controls when
d> irp
The exact expression for g, is
I,.
If we work with (k),
Kg,jj =
(d)2
K1, = K,, + = 2k —2
(b)2
0
In this case, there are two characteristic values and therefore two critical values of 2.
(d\2
1
= 2kb
(Ii)
2cr. 2 2kb Acri
C)
The second root corresponds to neutral equilibrium with respect to Au12. For this example,
d b, and the first root defines the critical load.
It is of interest to compare 2cr 2 with the buckling load found in Example 8—5. There
we considered d b and followed the nonlinear behavior up to the point at which the
slope of the P12 — u12 curve vanished (neutral with respect to Au12):
1(1 = 0 = (0)
du12 mex
The linearized result is significantly higher than the true buckling load. In general, the
linear buckling load is an upper bound. How close it is to the actual value will depend on
the geometry and loading. When d << b, it is quite close, while it considerably overestimates
the true load for d b.
204 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
REFERENCES
1. C. FL, and J. B. WILCUR Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. HALL, A. S.. and R. W. W00DHEAD: Frame Analysis. Wiley, New York, 1967,
3. ARGYRIS, J. H. and S. Kelsey: Energy Theorems and StruciuralAnalysis, Butterworths,
London, 1960.
4. LIVESLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, 1964.
5. DC VEUBEKE, B. F., Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, 1964.
6. MARTIN, H. C. Introduction to Matris Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1965.
7. ARGYSIS, J. H.: Recent Advances in Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon
Press, 1964.
8. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matric Computer Analvsis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
9, PRZEMIENIECKI, J. S.: Theory of Matrix Structural Aizah'sis, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
10. THOMPSON, J. M. T. and A. C. WALKER: "The Nonlinear Perturbation Analysis of
Discrete Structural Systems," Jut. J. Solids Structures, Vol. 4, 1968, pp. 757—768.
11. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Structural ,S'vsse,'ns—Statics. Dynamics, and Stability, Prentice-
Hall, 1970.
12. RALSTON, A.: A First Course in Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1965.
PROBLEMS
8—1. Consider U2 and P1 to he prescribed and the behavior to be physically
linear. —
Prob. 8—2
E=3X ksi
Bar areas = 3
Coefficient of
thermal expansion =
6 X 106/°F
Prob. 8—3
20' 10'
E=3X
I
ksi
Initial elongation of = in.
6 kips
I
x2
Prob. 8—4
0 ©
807 0 605
206 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
20'
Prob. 8—5
Bar Area
I 3a
I
2 4a
3 3a
4 4a
5 2.5a
Y3
Prob. 8-6
8—7. Determine the load-deflection relation for the system shown. Consider
the material to be linearly elastic and the bars to bc identical, Assume no initial
elongation or support movement.
8—8. Investigate the elastic stability of the system shown. Assume the
material is linearly elastic and no support movements. Use the linearized
stability criterion and work with the exact expression for Rework the
problem, considering d b and using the corresponding approximate expres-
sion for
8—9. Determine the lowest critical load for the truss shown. Assume the
material is linearly elastic and all bars have the same stiffness.
wp Prob.8—7
0 d <<b
—
k1 —Ic2
_AE
—-•y-
x1
H K2
Prob. 8—S
2¼
Prob. 8—9
T
20'
H
208 DISPLACEMENT METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 8
= + = ±
where d, contain linear displacement terms. This form is dictated by our
choice of matrix notation. In order to expand (a), we must shift from matrix
to indicial notation.
For convenience, we employ the summation convention. If a subscript is
repeated in a term, it is understood the term is summed over the range of the
repeated subscript. An example is
(j = 1, 2 n)
We write the ith equilibrium equation for tile system as (this representation
is suggested in Ref. 8-40):
+ KIJkU,, + = 2P1
where i, j,k, range over the total number of unknowns, U1 is the total value
of the jth displacement unknown, 2 is a load parameter, defines the load
distribution, and the K's are constants which can be interpreted as second-,
third, and fourth-order tensors. The second-order tensor, is the linear
stiffness matrix.
+ — u)T
= + —
(f)
l.Pn_j (U,,J
Show that
k11 =
+ (Ii)
=L
=
where c is defined by
[1 {::} = cu (i)
Discuss how you would locate the appropriate addresses for the bar
stiffness tensors in the system tensors. What symmetry properties do
the k's exhibit? Do these properties also apply for the system tensors?
(b) Develop the incremental equations relating Au, AA and compare with
(8—30).
(c) Specialize the incremental equations for linearized stability analysis.
8—11. For the structure sketched:
Prob. 8—11
The basic equations for the linear geometric case have the form
P1 = B1F
e = BfU1 + e0 + fF
P2 = B2F
where the elements of B1 and B2 are constants. Equation (a) represents linear
equations relating the na prescribed joint forces and the in unknown bar forces.
For the system to be initially stable, r(B1) = that is, the rows of B1 must
be linearly independent. This requires in In what follows, we consider
only stable systems. If in = the system is said to be statically determinate
since one can find the bar forces and reactions using only the equations of
statics. The defect of (a) is equal to in — nd = q, and is called the degree of
indeterminacy. One can solve (a) for na bar forces in terms of the applied forces
and q bar forces. We refer to the system defined by the na bars as the primary
structure and the q unknown forces as force redundants. In order to determine
F, q additional equations relating the bar forces are required. These equations
are called compatibility conditions and are obtained by operating on (b) which
represents m relations between the na unknown displacements and the bar
forces.
The general procedure outlined above is called the Jbrce or flexibility
method. This procedure is applicable only when the geometry is linear. In
what follows, we first develop the governing equations for the force method
by operating on (a)—(c). We then show how one can establish the compatibility
equations using the principle of virtual forces and discuss the extremal character
of the force redundants. Finally, we compare the force method for a truss with
the mesh method for an electrical network.
210
SEC. 9—2. GOVERNING EQUATIONS—ALGEBRAIC APPROACH 211
B1 =[B11 B12]
x nil ii "a) I
(na x q)
B2 [B21 B22]
(rxm) (rxn4) (rxq)
(na x 1)
=
F2
(qx 1)
Since Bit! 0, we can solve (9—2) for F1, considering P1, —B12 as right-
hand sides. The complete set of q + 1 solutions is written as
F1 = F1,0 + Fl,F,F2 (9—4)
P2 = P2,0 +
P2,o = B21F1,0 (9—6)
= B21FI,F2 + B22
We consider next (b). Partitioning e, e0, and f,
(fl4X 1)
(nixl) e1
c
e = ——— = (9—7)
C2
(q< 1)
j
ii
-
L 0 f2
(q x q)
212 FORCE METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
Then, premultiplying (9—8) by Ff, adding the result to (9—9), and using
(a), (9—6) leads to
The first form, (9—10), shows that the equations are actually restrictions on
the elongations. One can interpret (9—10) as a compatibility condition, i.e.,
it must be satisfied in order for the bars tofit in the deJbrmed structure defined
by U1. The second form, (9—11), follows when we express the elongations in
terms of the bar forces. Finally, we substitute for F1 and write the result as
122F2 d2 (9—12)
where
f122 C
T
t'T
1, F2t1' t,F2 1O...43
.1 —
U2 — —e2,0 —
r'T ( + v
+ nT f'r
The coefficient matrix, f22, is called the flexibility matrix for F2. One can show
that f22 is positive definite when the bar flexibility factors in f2 are all positive.t
If the material is physically nonlinear, f. and e0,, depend on F1. Iteration
is minimized by applying the loading in increments and approximating the
force-elongation relation with a piecewise linear representation. The incre-
mental equations are similar in form to the total equations4 We just have
to replace the force, displacement, and elongation terms with theit incremental
values and interpret las a segmental (tangent) flexibility.
At this point, we summarize the steps involved in the force method.
We see from (9—15) that the kth column of Br,' contains the bar forces in the
primary structure due to a unit value of the kth element in P1. Also, it follows
from (9—6) that the kth column of B2 contains the reactions due to a unit
value of the kth clement in P,. Now, we obtain the kth element in U1 (which
corresponds to the kth element in P,) by multiplying the kth column of Br1' by
the kth column of B21Br,' by Of. and adding the two scalars. Then, letting
F,pJk = F, due to an unit value of PJJ, with F2 = 0
(9—14)
P2.pj,, = P2 due to an unit value of with F2 0
we can write the expression for as
0,ik I —
nT fl —
Note that one works with the statically determinant primary structure to
mine the displacements.
Example 9—1 —
Step 1: Determination of F,, o, P2, F,, F2, and P2 F2
For the truss shown in Fig. E9—IA,
= 2 in 3 q= 1
Fig. E9—1A
2
10 kips I
20 kips
Fig. E9—1B
3.33 1/2
2.50
3/8
—20.83
10 kips
20 kips
x
= =
f2 [f3] = 0.8(2 x
Equation (a) actually represents a restriction on the elongations. The original form of (a)
follows from (9—10).
— 8e1 — a —
—.
Equation (b) reduces to (a) when we substitute for the elongations in terms of the bar forces.
We apply a unit load at joint 1 in the X1 direction and determine the bar forces in the
primary structure and the reactions (P32, P41) corresponding to the nonvanishing prescribed
displacements
1
216 FORCE METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
Equation (b) states that the virtual bar forces cannot lead to increments in the
prescribed jOint loads, i.e., they must be self-equilibrating.
Now, using (9—4), (9—5), we can write
F
= {Fio}
+
where
B1
and
B1 = 0
Then
AF2
=
satisfies (b) for arbitrary AF2. The reactions due to AF2 are obtained from
(9—6):
A?2 = B2 AF = P2 F2
= P2,F,
=
and (7—37) coincides with (i). We have written the expanded form of (i) as
f22F2 = d2
for the linearly elastic case. One can show that the stationary point corresponds
to a relative minimum value of H. when the tangent flexibility factors for the
redundant bars are all positive. t
application of Kirchhoff's laws and is called the mesh method. Various phases
of the electrical network formulation are discussed in Probs. 6—6, 6—14, and the
governing equations for a linear resistance d-c network are developed in Probs.
6—14, 6—23. We list the notation and governing equations for convenience:
b = number of branches
n number of nodes
N=n—1
M—b—N=b—n+1
= potential at node j with respect to the reference potential,
k+, k = nodes at positive and negative ends of branch k
= current in branch k, positive when directed from node k_ to node
ek = potential drop for branch k = Vk. — Vk+
e0, k = emf for branch k
= resistance for branch k
The governing equations expressed in matrix notation are (see Prob. 6—23):
An = 0 (N eqs.) (9—16)
e = AV = e0 + Ri (b eqs.) (9—17)
where
i
e = {ej, e2, . . , (9—18)
v={V1,V2
R1
R2
R=
Rb
Example 9—2
oriented. The connectivity relations for a network are topological properties of the cor-
responding oriented graph.
Consider the oriented graph shown. We list the branch numbers vertically and the node
numbers horizontally. We assemble d working with successive branches. Finally, we
obtain A by deleting the last column (cot. 4) of d.
Fig. E9—2
2
Node
Branch I 2 3
1 —1 +1
2 +1 A
3 +1 —.1
—1
—1
Since tAil 0, we can solve for i1 in terms of i2. We write the solution of the
node equations as
i= Ci2
(9—22)
[Cii.I'2
= I
Eliminating V from the second equation in (9—24) and using (9—23), we obtain
e2 + CTe1 = 0 (9—26)
The coefficient matrix for i2 is positive definite when the branch resistances
are positive. This will be the case for a real system.
The essential step in the solution involves solving (9—21), that is, finding C1.
Note that C1 corresponds to for the truss problem. Also, the branches
comprising A1 (and i1) correspond to the primary structure. Although the
equations for the truss and electrical network are similar in form, it should be
noted that the network problem is one dimensional whereas the truss problem
involves the geometry as well as the cpnnectivity of the system. One can as-
semble C1 using only the topological properties of the oriented graph which
represents the network. To find the corresponding matrices (F1, 0 and
for a truss, one must solve a system of linear equations. In what follows, we
describe a procedure for assembling C1 directly from the oriented graph.
A closed path containing only one repeated node that begins and ends at
that node is called a mesh. One can represent a mesh by listing sequentially
the branches traversed. A tree is defined as a connected graph having no
SEC. 9—4. COMPARISON OF THE FORCE AND MESH METHODS 221
Now, we take the elements of i2 as the chord (mesh) currents. Then i1 represents
the required branch currents in the tree. We assemble C1 working with the
columns. The column corresponding to involves only those branches of the
tree which are contained in mesh j. We enter (+1, — 1,0) in row k of this
column if branch k is (positively, negatively, not) included in mesh j.
Example 9—3
For the graph in example 9—2, N = n — 1 = 3 and b = 6. Then M = b — N = 3
and we must remove 3 branches to obtain a tree. We take branthes 4 , 5 , and 6 as the
chords. The resulting tree is shown in Fig. E9—3. We indicate the chords by dashed lines.
2 Fig. E9—3
1
3
222 FORCE METHOD: IDEAL TRUSS CHAP. 9
The meshes associated with the chords follow directly from the sketch:
mesh4
mesh5
mesh6
To assemble C1 we list the branches of the tree vertically and the chord numbers hori-
zontally. We work with successive columns, that is, successive chords. The resulting matrix
is listed below. Note that C1 is just the matrix equivalent of(a).
4 5 6
1 —l• 0 +1
1
Branches —
ofthe 2 +1 +1 0
tree
3 0 —1 —1
1
The matrix, C = {C1, Im}, is called thc branch-mesh incidence matrix. Using
(9—23), we see that A and C have the property
(N x Ill)
ATC = 0 (9—29)
The rows of CT define the incidence of the meshes on the branches. Equation
(9—30) states that the sum of the potential drops around each mesh must be
zero and is just Kirchhoff's voltage law expressed in matrix form. The matrix
PROBLEMS 223
REFERENCES
1. C. H., and J. B. WILBUR: Elementa,'v Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
2. HALL, A. S., and R. W. W000HEAD: Frame Analysis, Wiley. New York, 1967.
3. MORICE, P. B.: Linear Structural Analysis, Ronald Press, New York, 1969.
4. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matrix computer Analyris of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
5. PRZEMIENIECKI, J. S.: Theory of Ma/rLr Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill, 1968.
6. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Structural Systems—Statics, Dynamics, and Stability, Prentice-
FlaIl, 1970.
7. Di MAGGIO, F. D., and W. R. SNLLERS: "Network Analysis of Structures," Eng.
Mech. Div.. A.S,C.E., Vol. 91, No. EM 3, June 1965.
8. FF.NVE.S, S. .1., and F. H. BRANIN, JR.: "Network-Topological Formulation of Struc-
tural Analysis," J. Structures Div., A.S.C.E. Vol. 89, No. ST4, August 1963.
PROBLEMS
9—1. Show that the coefficient matrix f22 is positive definite for arbitrary
rank of F1 P2 when is positive definite. Use the approach suggested in
Problems 2—12 through 2—14.
9—2. Solve the following system using the procedure outlined in Sec. 9—2.
TakeX1 {xi,x2}
2 1 0 0 0 x1 3
2 2 0 0 0 x2
+
3 4 l.Y25 00 1 0 X3 1
12 0002 x4 2
Prob, 9—6
x2
xl
15' 15'
(1) Material is linear elastic and the flexibility factors are equal.
(2) Only u42 is finite. Take = {u42 }
(3) Only initial elongation for bar 4.
Prob. 9—i
2
x2
x1
Then
— = AFT de
Express d2fl, as a quadratic form in AF2. Consider the material to be nonlinear
elastic and establish criteria for the stationary point to be a relative minimum.
9—9. Consider the oriented linear graph shown.
Prob. 9—9
(a) Determine A.
(b) Determine C.
(c) Verify that ATC = 0.
Part III
ANALYSIS OF A
MEMBER ELEMENT
10
Governing Equations for
a Delormable Solid
10—1. GENERAL
The formulation of the governing equations for the behavior of a deformable
solid involves the following three steps:
1. Study of deformation. We analyze the change in shape of a differential
volume element due to displacement of the body. The quantities re-
quired to specify the deformation (change in shape) are conventionally
called strains. This step leads to a set of equations relating the strains
and derivatives of the displacement components at a point. Note that
the analysis of strain is purely a geometrical problem.
2. Study of forces. We visualize the body to consist of a set of differential
volume elements. The forces due to the interactions of adjacent volume
elements are called internal forces. Also, the internal force per unit
area acting on a differential area, say dAd, is defined as the stress vector,
this step, we analyze the state of stress at a point, that is, we
investigate how the stress vector varies with orientation of the area
element. We also apply the conditions of static equilibrium to the
volume elements. This leads to a set of differential equations (called
stress equilibrium equations) which must be satisfied at each point in
the interior of the body and a set of algebraic equations (called stress
boundary conditions) which must be satisfied at each point on the
surface of the body. Note that the study of forces is purely an equilibrium
problem.
3. Relate forces and displacements. In this step, we first relate the stress
and strain components at a point. The form of these equations depends
on the material behavior (linear elastic, nonlinear elastic, inelastic, etc.).
Substitution of the strain-displacement relations in the stress-strain
relations leads to a set of equations relating the stress
and derivatives of the displacement components. We refer to this
system as the stress-displacement relations.
229
230 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
The governing equations for a deformable solid consist of the stress equilib-
rium equations, stress-displacement relations, and the stress and displacement
boundary conditions.
In this chapter, we develop the governing equations for a linearly elastic solid
following the steps outlined above. We also extend the variational principles
developed in Chapter 7 for an ideal truss to a three-dimensional solid.
In Chapter 11, we present St. Venarit's theory of torsion-fiexure of prismatic
members and apply the theory to some simple cross sections. St. Venant's
theory provides us with considerable insight as to the nature of the behavior
and also as to how we can simplify the corresponding mathematical problem
by introducing certain assumptions. The conventional engineering theory of
prismatic members is developed in Chapter 12 and a more refined theory
for thin walled prismatic members which includes the effect of warping of the
cross section is discussed in Chapter 13. In Chapter 14, we develop the engi-
neering theory for an arbitrary planar member. Finally, in Chapter 15, we
present the engineering theory for an arbitrary space member.
c• => (b)
f=
g = bk(xkxe
fg = alJbk,xlxfxkx(
= DIJk(XIXJXkX(
4. Let represent square second-order arrays. The inner product is defined as the
sum of the products of corresponding elements:
In order to represent this product as a matrix product, we must convert cki, ejj over to
one-dimensional arrays.
corresponding set for a second reference frame is related to the first set by
—
— k
(10—4)
= cos
1, 2, 3
and it follows that the set of orthogonal components of a vector are a first-order
cartesian tensor. We know that the magnitude of a vector is invariant. Then,
the sum of the squares of the elements of a first-order tensor is invariant.
(10—6)
The transformation (10—8) is orthogonal and the trace, sum of the principal
second-order minors, and the determinant are invariant.t
=
fl(2)
where
=
=
b12 b22 b23 b11 b13
L 7
+ 7 7
+
021 022 032 033 1733
Excluding rigid body motion, the displacement from the initial undeformed
position will be small for a solid, and it is reasonable to take the initial Cartesian
coordinates (xi) as the independent variables. This is known as the Lagrange
Undeformed
dp
F' (Deformed)
i3
112
= /
= (10—12)
= = (10—13)
The extensional strain, r, is defined as the relative change in length with respect
234 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
(1
d r', I
xa
— '/12
p.-
dp'1
x2
t This is the definition of Lagrangian strain. In the Eulerian approach, the cartesian coordinates
for the deformed state are taken as the independent variables,
=
and the strain is defined as
= (1 —
See Prob. 10—4. It is known as Green's strain tensor. The elements, are also called the
components of finite strain. They relate the difference between the square of the initial and deformed
lengths of the line element, i.e., an alternate definition of Cjk
— ds2 = 2eJkdxJdxk
SEC. 10—3. ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION; CARTESIAN STRAINS 235
Specializing (10—17) for lines parallel to X,, shows that is related to the
shearing strain.
(I + + = 2e13 = (10—18)
Equations (10—15) and (10—17) are actually transformation laws for exten-
sional and shearing strain. The state of strain is completely defined once the
strain tensor is specified for a particular set of directions. To generalize these
expressions, we consider two orthogonal frames defined by the unit vectors
and (see Fig. 10—3), take the initial frame parallel to the global frame
= ti), and let = 15 tk. With this notation:
+ = )
(10—19)
(1 + + =
The strain measures (e, y) are small with respect to unity for engineering
materials such as metals and concrete. For example, e for steel.
Therefore, it is quite reasonable (aside from the fact that it simplifies the
expressions) to assume r, y in the strain expressions. The relations for
1
= + Un, j)l,n
=
236 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID Cl-lAP. 10
x3
t3
t2
/ t,3
033
sin 0j3 =
1 +
1421
sine12
(1 + 81)cos 0j3
)2
(1 + + + uj 1
Also, by definition,
03,1 (1 +
1 013 —
SEC. 10—3. ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION; CARTESIAN STRAINS 237
1= (1 + {1 — A}112 — 1
(10—23)
A= sin2 013 + cos2 013 sin2 012
— + + — + + (10—25)
In what follows, we assume small strain and express the derivatives and exten-
sional strain (see Equation (d)) as
u3. 1 = 0(013) 1= 0(012,
n2
U1 1— t/12, "13
a11 = u1, + + (f)
dx1
dx1
1123 dx1
X1,u1
In the linear geometric case, the rotations are neglected with respect to strain.
Formally, one sets 012 = 613 = 0 in (f) and the result is a linear relation between
strain and displacement, -
a11 (g)
Note that, according to this approximation, the deformed orientation coincides
238 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMA8LE SOLID CHAP. 10
with the initial orientation. The general relations for the linear geometric case
(small strain and infinitesimal rotation) are
= en = (no sum)
(10—26)
= = + ui,,
The next level of approximation is to consider 62 to be of the same order
as strain.
02 = 0(s) << 1
sin 0 0 (10—27)
cos 6 1
ci u11 + + (h)
The complete set of strain-displacement relations for small strain and small-
finite rotation are listed below for reference.
= = + + (no sum)
(10—28)
-
= + + Uk iUk. j
I k
Note that the truss formulation presented in Chapter 6 allows for arbitrary
magnitude of the rotations.
We have shown that linear strain-displacement relations are based on the
following restrictions:
1. The strains are negligible with respect to unity, and
2. Products of the rotations are negligible with respect to the strains.
The first condition will always be satisfied for engineering materials such as
metals, concrete, etc. Whether the second restriction is satisfied depends on
the configuration of the body and the applied loading. If the body is massive
in all three directions, the rotations are negligible with respect to the strains
for an arbitrary loading. We have to include the nonlinear rotation terms in
the strain displacement relations only if the body is thin (e.g., a thin plate or
slender member) and the applied loading results in a significant change in the
geometry. As an illustration, consider the simply supported member shown
SEC. 10—3. ANALYSIS OF DEFORMATION; CARTESIAN STRAINS 239
in Fig. 10—5. We can neglect the change in geometry.if only a transverse loading
is applied (case 1). However, if both axial and transverse loads are applied
(case 2), the change in geometry is no longer negligible and we must include the
nonlinear rotation terms in the strain-displacement relations.
/3jklk
(10—30)
I3jk — +
+ for small strain
We will utilize (10—30) in the next section to establish the stress equilibrium
equations for the geometrically nonlinear case.
Equations (10—30) reduce to
(10—31)
/ =dxji1
ii
hm (10—33)
AA, -. I)
Note that has the units of force/area. Also, it depends on the orientation
of the area element, i.e., on the direction of the outward normal. We do not
allow for the possibility of the existence of a moment acting on a differential
area element. One can include this effect by defining a vectort
in addition to a stress vector.
We consider next the corresponding area element in the —rn face. From
Newton's law,
=
and it follows that
= —ö,,, (1O—34)
The stress vector has the same magnitude and line of action but it's sense is
reversed.
Body I Body 2
The force vectors acting at the centroids of the faces are shown in Fig. 10—8.
The term M0 represents the change in due to translation from Q to the
centroid.
For equilibrium, the resultant force and moment vectors must vanish. In the
limit (as P Q), the force system is concurrent and therefore we have to
242 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
consider only the force equilibrium condition. From Fig. 10—8, we have
- - - —
Now, AA1 is the projection of AAq on the X2-X3 plane. Noting that the projec-
tion of LxAq on a plane is equal to AAq times the scalar product of and the
unit normal vector for the plane, and letting aqj be the direction cosine for the
q direction with respect to the direction, we can write
AA.
= = cos(q, X1) = (10—36)
x2
i2
I
+
x3
+ 2)LXA2
Equation (10—37) is the transformation law for the Stress vector. The com-
ponent of 5q in a particular direction is equal to the scalar product of 6q and
a unit vector pointing in thedesired direction. Now, we express the stress
vectors in terms of their components with respect to the coordinate axes
(j = 1, 2, 3).
-
j = 1,2,3 (10—38)
= aqklk
SEC. 10—4. ANALYSIS OF STRESS 243
Note that the first subscript on a stress component always refers to the flice,
and the second to the direction. For example. a12 acts on the X1 face and
points in the X2 direction. The positive sense of the components for a negative
face is reversed since The normal (a13) and in-plane (afk) com-
ponents are generally called normal and shearing stresses. This notation is
illustrated in Fig. 10—9.
x2
ta22
T
FIg. 10—9. Notation for stress components.
aqn,
Letting
We generalize (c) for two orthogonal frames specified by the unit vectors
(see Fig. 10—3) where
t. = -ii
(10—40)
t3 = cJ3k:k
i3 +
dfl3
dr13
+ (— di73
ant
(10-42)
and
= 0 x = 0 (10—43)
The scalar force equilibrium equations are obtained by expanding the vector
equations using (10—38).
Equations (10—44) must be satisfied at each point in the interior of the body.
Also, at the boundary, the stress components must equilibrate the applied
surface forces.
We define as the outward normal vector at a point on the deformed surface
and write
= (10—46)
Initia'
(I + €2)dx2
/ Deformed
dX2[ Lagrange
(1 +e1)dxj
dx1
4
U12
(I
Eu'er
drj1
(I
x2
+ hk 0
CXj
(10—49)
For the geometrically nonlinear case, we work with stress measures referred
to the deformed directions (see Fig. 10—6) defined by the unit vectors, We
define as the stress vector per unit initial area acting on the face which
initially is normal to the direction, b* as the force per unit initial volume, and
as the force per unit initial surface area. Figure .10—12 shows this notation
for the two-dimensional case. The stress and force vectors are considered to be
functions of the initial coordinates (xe).
The equilibrium equations at an interior point are
+ b* = 0 (10—50)
(X1
(1 + x 0
The set, is called the Kirchhoff stress tensor. Substituting for using
(10—30), results in the following scalar equations, which correspond to (10—44)
and (10—45): -
+ b7 = 0 1,2,3 (10-52)
(10—53)
1, 2, 3
= (10—54)
and have the form
*_
pnj —
k
—
SEC. 10—4. ANALYSIS OF STRESS 247
These equations apply for arbitrary strain and finite rotation. For small
strain, we neglect the change in dimensions and shape of the volume element.
This assumption is introduced by taking
(10—56)
Since the deformed unit vectors are orthogonal (toe 1), the Kirchhoff stresses
now comprise a second-order cartesian tensor and they transform according
p2
x2
p,,ds
1,, = 4
—oj dx2
/ pn = ij
dx2
dx1
c4 dx1
(1 e2)dx2
/
dx2
dx
(1 + €1)dx1
x1
tSeeProb. 10—11.
See Prob. 10—18. The forces are in equilibrium. is. they satisfy (10—50).
SEC. 10—5. ELASTIC STRESS-STRAIN RELATIONS 249
This definition applies for arbitrary strain. Once V is specified, we can obtain
expressions for the stresses in terms of the strains by differentiating V. Since V
is continuous, the stress-strain relations must satisfy (10—58), which requires
(10—62)
43e1j
In what follows, we restrict the discussion to small strain and a linearly elas-
tic material, i.e., where the stress-strain relations are linear. We also shift from
indicial notation to matrix notation, which is more convenient for this phase.
We list the stress and strain components in column matrices and drop the
superscript k on the Kirchhoff stress components:
=
= {e11, e22, e33, 2e12, 2e23, 2e31} (10—63)
=
With this notation,
(10—64)
where a° contains the initial strains not associated with stress, e.g., strain due
to a temperature increment, and A is called the material compliance matrix.
We write the inverted relations as
= D(a — a°) (10—68)
Since V > 0 for arbitrary (E — a°), D and A are positive definite matrices.
There are 21 material constants for a linearly elastic Green-type material.
The number of independent constants is reduced if the material structure
t See Prob. 10—6, 10—13.
250 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
Fig. 10—13. Rotation of axes for symmetry with respect to the X2-X3 plane.
For (c) to be satisfied, the coefficients must vanish identically. This requires
£434 = a15 = 0
a24 = £435 = 0
a34a350
We consider next the expansions for The symmetry conditions require
a46 = a56 = 0. By rotating 1800 about X1, we find
a16 = = a36 = a45 0
A rotation about the X3 axis will not result in any additional conditions.
Finally, when the strains are referred to the structural symmetry axes, the
stress-strain relations for an orthotropic material reduce to
a11 a12 0j3
a12 a22 a23 0 a1,
-
— (10-70)
£444 0 0 a12
-—
0 0 0 a23
Y31 0 0 a66 (733
a1 = AT + — !(733
—
1 V32
—-----a33
E2
(10—71)
1
= /13 AT + a33 — — —i—-
1 1 1
Y12 = Y23 = Y31 =
where E4 are extensional moduli, are shear moduli, Vjk are coupling coeffi-
cients, and AT is the temperature increment. The coupling terms are related by
(10-72)
E2 E1 E3 E1 E3 E2
252 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
= AT + — (a22 +
= PAT + — — (10—74)
= pAT + — va27)
1 1
y23
2(l+v)
Yi2 Y31
= p AT + (at, — + akk))
(10—75)
2(1 + v)
F
Note that now there are only two independent constants (F, v). The coupling
coefficient, v,is called Poisson's ratio.
The inverted form of (10—75) is written as
a= a0 + + + +
a0 = (10—76)
= + 2G)pAT
t See Prob. 10—19 for the inverted form of (10—7 1).
IO--21.
§ See Prob. 10—22.
SEC. 10—6. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 253
virtual displacements,
5WD =
= J — dx2dx3 (10-81)
where is the direction cosine for the initial outward normal (n) with respect
to the direction. Operating on the left-hand term and equating coefficients
in the volume and surface integrals leads directly to (10—50) and (10—54).
The principle of virtual displacements applies for arbitrary loading (static
or dynamic) and material behavior. When the behavior is elastic and the loading
is independent of time, it can be interpreted as a variational principle for the
displacements. The essential steps required for the truss formulation are de-
scribed in Sec. 7—4. Their extension to a continuous body is straightforward.
When the behavior is elastic,
=
Letting VT denote the total strain energy, the left-hand side of (10—80) reduces to
dx1 dx2 dx3 fJJ öVdx1 dx2 dx3 =
We consider the surface area to consist of 2 zones as shown in Fig. 10—14.
+
where displacements are prescribed on
U1 on cd (10—82)
We also consider the surface and body forces to be independent of the displace-
ments. With these definitions, the principle of virtual displacements is trans-
formed to
= 0 for arbitrary admissible
(1084)
fl,, = VT cIx1 dx2 dx3 —
PH
Example 10—2
Direct methods of variational calculus such as Rayleigh-Ritz, Galerkin, weighted resid-
uals, and others are applied to fl,, to determine approximate solutions for the displacements.
In the Rayleigh-Ritz method, one expresses the displacements in terms of unknown param-
eters, q, and prescribed functions, x2, x3),
U1 = +
where
>
= 0 forj = 1. 2
H, = Const. + qTQ +
q = (3N x 1)
. . . . . .
K is symmetrical
GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
256
Finally, requiring to be stationary for arbitrary c5q leads (for linear behavior) to
Kq = Q
The strains are evaluated by operating on (a) and the stresses are determined from the
stress-strain relations.
Polynomials and trigonometric functions are generally used to construct the spatial
distribution functions. The mathematical basis for direct methods is treated in numerous
texts (see Refs. 9, 10).
+ + = 0 = 1,2,3
+ + Au1 0 J = 1, 2, 3 (10—87)
3. Stress-Strain Relations
= D
4. Strain-Displacement Relations
= 3 + AUJ, + AIIm, j + Urn, j Am,
Au1 = 0
u1=fl
Once the strains are known, we can find the displacements by solving (a) and
enforcing (b). The principle of virtual forces is basically a procedure for deter-
mining displacements without having to operate on (a). It applies only for
linear geometry. We developed its form for an ideal truss in Sec. 7—3. We will
follow the same approach here to establish the three-dimensional form.
The essential step involves selecting a statically permissible force system,
i.e., a force system which satisfies the linear equilibrium equations. For the
continuous case, the force system consists of stresses, surface forces,
on and reactions, on Static permissibility requires
Ac31,3 = 0
= on (10—88)
= on
If we multiply e13 by Ac13, integrate over the volume using (10—81), and note the
static relations, we obtain the following identity,t
Acr13 dx1 dx2 dx3 = u1 + $ Th (10—89)
0,,
which is referred to as the principle of virtual forces (or stresses). This result is
applicable for arbitrary material behavior. 1-lowever, the geometry must be
linear.
Suppose the translation at a point Q on in the direction defined by is
desired (see Fig. 10—15). Let d0 be the displacement. We apply a unit force
at Q in the tq direction and generate a statically permissible stress field.
(1) 1q at point Q Acr and
A second application is in the force method, where one reduces the governing
equations (stress equilibrium and stress displacement) to a set of equations
involving only force unknowns. We start by expressing the stress field in terms
of a prescribed distribution and a "corrective" field
+ cit, (10—91)
The governing equations for the force redundants were obtained by enforcing
geometric compatibility, i.e., the bar elongations are constrained by the require-
ment that the deformed bar lengths fit in the assembled structure.
Geometric compatibility for a continuum requires the strains to lead to
continuous displacements. One can establish the strain compatibility equations
by operating on the strain- displacement relations. This approach is described
in Prob. 10—10. One can also obtain these equations with the principle of
virtual forces by taking a self-equilibrating force system. Letting Aox, Apc denote
the virtual stress system, (10--89) reduces to
dx1 dx2 dx3 = (10—94)
Example 10—3
If the stress components associated with the normal direction to a plane are zero, the
stress state is called planar. We consider the case where = = 033 = 0. The
equilibrium equations and stress-boundary force relations reduce to
+ + b1 = 0
012 5 + 2 + b2 = 0
+ a,,2o21
= + •z,,2a22
The stress field, oi,, must satisfy (a) with h1 = h2 = 0 and also p,,1 = = 0 on
We can satisfy the equilibrium equations by expressing in terms of a function, as
follows:t
= 033 =
=
The boundary forces corresponding to are
Pa
= OS
+ a2 11 — y52 12)dx1
if
— f CS Ps
0
,i
and requiring (f) to be satisfied for arbitrary results in the strain compatibility equation,
+ — 0
We express (g) in terms of by substituting for the strains in terms of the stresses.t
p = p° + 0101 + 0209 + +
p° = p
= 0 (i = 1, 2,
One should note that (10—97) are weighted compatibility conditions. The
true stresses must satisfy both equilibrium and compatibility throughout the
domain. We call the corrective stress field since it is required to correct the
compatibility error due to
For completeness, we describe here how one establishes a variational principle
for Our starting point is (10—94) restricted to elastic behavior. We define
= according to
c5V* = = (10—99)
and call V* the complementary energy density. The form of V* for a linearly
elastic material is
= + (10—100)
This form is called the principle of stationary complementary energy and shows
that the true stresses correspond to a stationary value of
Since is linear in the second variation of reduces to
(52fl = = dx1 dx2 dx3 (10—104)
(10—107)
fa=d
The classical stability criterion specialized for elastic material and linear geometry requires
SCTD, & > 0 for arbitrary Sc which, in turn, requires D, to be positive definite. Since
A, D1', it follows that A must be positive definite for a stable material.
262 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
Operating on
c52fl = LtaTfLui (10—108)
and noting that ö211. > 0, we conclude that f is positive definite.
REFERENCES
I. CRANDALL, S. J., and N. C. DAHL: An Introduction to the Mechanics of Solids,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
2. BISPLINGHOFF, R. L., MAR., J. W., and T. H. H. PlAN: of Deformable Solids.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Mass., 1965.
3. WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-I-jill, New York, 1953.
4. TIMOSHENKO, S. J., and J. N. GooDiag: Theory of Elasticity, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1970.
5. SOKOLNIKOFF, I. S.: Mathematical Theory of Elasticity, 2d ed. • McGraw-Hill. New
York, 1956.
6. FUNG, Y. C.: Foundations of Solid Mechanics, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
7. LEKIINITSKU, S. G. Theory of Elasticity of an Anisotropic Elastic Body, Holden-Day,
San Francisco, 1963.
8. WAsmzu, K. Variational Methods in Elasticity and Plasticity, Pergamon Press, 1968.
9. HLDEBRAND, F. B.: Methods of Applied Mathematics, Prentice-Hall, 1965.
10. CRANDALL, S. J.: Engineering Analysis, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1956.
PROBLEMS
10—1. Write out the expanded form of the following products. Consider
the repeated indices to range from 1 to 2.
(a)
(b) + u1, where =
± Urn, + Urn. k) —
10—2. Let f be a continuous function of x1, x2, x3. Establish the trans-
formation laws for and (3Xk.
10—3. Establish the transformation law for Jbk where are cartesian
tensors.
10—4. Prove that
eJk = — ôJk)
10—6.
(a) Specialize (10—19) for small strain and write out the expressions for
in terms of ei, 62, . . P13•
(b) Let = P12, P23, y31}. We can express the strain trans-
formation (small strain) as
=
Develop the form of using the results of part a.
(c) Evaluate TE in terms of cos 0, sin 0 for the rotation shown below.
Comment on the transformation law for the out-of-plane shear strains
P32.
Prob. 10—6
x2
Determine the expression for EJk in terms of the displacements. Compare the
result with (10—21).
10—8. Consider the case of two-dimensional deformation in the X1-X2
plane (83 = P13 = P23 = 0). Let be the extensions in the a, b, c direc-
6b,
tions defined below and let 6N = {8a, 6b, We can write
= BE
C=
Prob. 10—8
xz
-a
where
1 (CII,,
eflk = ek, = — +
2 \CXk
x2 Prob. 1O—13
x,t
xl
(d) Plane stress refers to the case where a13 = a23 = a33 = 0. We work
with reduced stress and strain matrices,
Er {a11, a22,
=
and write the transformations in the same form as the three-dimensional
case:
a' =
a' =
266 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR A DEFORMABLE SOLID CHAP. 10
Evaluate T,. from part c above and T, from Prob. 10—6. Verify that
13
a11 = t1'.22 —
b1 dx1
a22 = tI'. ii — fx7 b2 dx2
a12 = —1//,12
The notation for body and surface forces is defined in the following
sketch.
Prob. 10—14
x2
x1
Pi — b1 dx1
P2 = T t/"1 — b2 dx2
am = + a22 + a33)
Rather than work with we can express it as the sum of two tensors,
—
— L
aU
PROBLEMS 267
= + P.k
/=
10—19. Verify that the inverted form of(l0—71) is
D(e —
where
D11 = E1/C3 D12 D13 C4D11
D22 = E2/C1 + (C2/C1)D12
D23 = v32E2/C1 + (C2/C1)D13
D31 = E3 + v31D13 + v32D23
and
C1 = 1 —
C2 = v21 + v31v32(E2/E3)
E2C1
C4 = v31 + "32
(b) Let
a22, cri2}
C= 62, Y12}
C=
Verify that D has the following form:
V2t 0
I
1
G
(1 —
n =
E2
Assuming X1-X2 in the sketch are material symmetry directions,
determine D' for the X'1-X'2 frame. Use the results of Prob. 10—13,
10—20. What relations between the properties are required in order
for D' to be identical to D?
Prob. 10—21
x2
xI
10—22. Verify (10—73). Start by requiring equal properties for the X2 and
X3 directions. Then introduce a rotation about the X1 axis and consider the
expression for Isotropy in the X2-X3 plane requires
I.
Y23 =7
023
10—23. Verify that the directions of principal stress and strain coincide for
an isotropic material. Is this also true for an orthotropic material?
10—24. Equations (10—76) can be written as
a11 = a°&1 + + 2Ge11
where is the volumetric strain. Using the notation introduced in Probs. 10—9
and 10—15——
(a) Show that
= Ka,, + a0
PROBLEMS 269
where K is the bulk modulus = (E/3(1 — 2v)). Discuss the case where
= — +
= +
Determine and for the isotropic case.
(d) When v = = We must work with 7 stress measures ('u' Urn)
and the mean stress has to be determined from an equilibrium con-
sideration. Summarize the governing equations for the incompressible
case.
.10—25. Prove (l0--81) for the two-dimensional case. Is this formula re-
stricted to a specific direction of integration on the boundary? Does it apply
for a multi-connected region, such as shown in the figure below?
Prob. 10—25
=0 for arbitrary
where
= — — dx2
— — —
= Kirchhoff stress
= Lagrange strain = + + 1u,,,,
'23 jJx2x3 dA = 0
One can work with an arbitrary orientation of the reference axes, but this will
complicate the derivation.
St. Venant's theory of torsion-flexure is restricted to linear behavior. It is an
exact linear formulation for a prismatic member subjected to a prescribed
t The case where the cross-sectiona' shape is constant but the orientation varies along the
centroidal axis is treated in Chapter 15.
271
272 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. it
x2
F3
M1 = JJ(x2cr13 — x3c12)dA
(11—3)
M2 = JJx3crj1 dA
M3 = dA
The internal force and moment vectors acting on the negative face are denoted
byF_,M_. Since
F_ = —F÷ M_ = (11—4)
it follows that the positive sense of the stress resultants and couples for the
negative face is opposite to that shown in Fig. 11 —1.
We discuss next the pure-torsion case, i.e., where the end forces are statically
equivalent to only M1. We then extend the formulation to account for flexure
SEC. 11—2. THE PURE-TORSION PROBLEM 273
t Problem 11—i treats the general case where the cross section rotates about an arbitrary point.
274 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Substituting for the shearing stresses and noting that Gk1 is constant lead to
the differential equation
(11-12)
2 — x3) + + x2) = 0
(11—14)
— (on S)
J J OX2 JJ ('X3
To proceed further, we need certain integration formulas. We start with
dA = (IS
if
which is just a special case of (10—81). Applying (11—15) to dA leads to
Green's theorem,
JJV2VJdA +
0X2
11—16
.1 ôn
dS = 0
— = 0
#(XH2x3
(j=2,3)
cxi ax2 ax2j ox3 \ ax31
Integrating (e),
(j=2,3)
and then substituting for the normal derivative, verifies (h).
The constant k1 is determined from the remaining boundary condition,
= J$(x2c13 — x3c12)dA (11—17)
276 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Gk1J
where J is a cross-sectional property,
+ — X3 dA
= if +
At this point, we summarize the results for the pure-torsion problem.
1. Displacements
=
02
U3 = W1X2
= k1x1
k1 =
(if
2. Stresses
M3
J \(;X2
(11—20)
A'11
0j3 = —H + X2
J
3. Governing Equations
mA:
on S: —
It is possible to obtain the exact solution for for simple cross sections.
The procedure outlined above is basically a displacement method. One
can also use a force approach for this problem. We start by expressing the
shearing stresses in terms of a stress function so that the stress-equilibrium
equation (Equation 11—li) is identically satisfied. An appropriate definition is
012
X3
(11—21)
013
The shearing stresses for the 2, v directions, shown in Fig. 11—3, follow directly
from the definition equation
01A
cv
(11—22)
0lv = — CA.
SEC. 11-2. THE PURE-TORSION PROBLEM 277
Taking S 900 counterclockwise from the exterior normal direction, and noting
that the stress boundary condition is = 0, lead to the boundary condition
fort/i,
= const on S (11—23)
We establish the differential equation for t/i by requiring the warping function
be continuous. First, we equate the expressions for a in terms of t/i and
M1
a12 = — x3)
a13 = = + x2)
Now, for continuity,
=
Operating on (a), we obtain
=
It is convenient to express t/.' as
(11—24)
t Equations (11—26) can be interpreted as the governing equations for an initially stretched
membrane subjected to normal pressure. This interpretation is called the "membrane
See Ref. 3.
The S direction is always taken such that n — S has the same sense as X2 — X3. Then, the
+ S direction for an interior boundary is opposite to the + S direction for an exterior boundary
since the direction for n is reversed. This is the reason for the negative sign on the boundary integral.
278 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
we can write
J= dA + (11—27)
dS 0 (11—28)
Js ('IS
x2
x3
Consider the closed curve shown in Fig. 11 —4. The shearing strain is
given by
Yis = ct52y12 + 0t53y13
Using (11—9), we can write (a) as
Yis = 2+ 3 — xacls2 +
= k1 + (11-29)
where p is the projection of the radius vector on the outward normal.t The
magnitude of p is equal to the perpendicular distance from the origin to the
tangent. Integrating between points P, Q, we obtain
= — + 2APQ) (11—30)
where
r50
APQ = J
p dS = sector area enclosed by the arc PQ and the
radius vectors to P and Q.
Finally, taking P =
5dS = 2k1A5 (11—31)
Note that the +S direction for (11—32) is from .X2 toward X3. Also, this result
is independent of the location of the origin.
Instead of using (11—9), we could have started with the fact that the cross
section rotates about the centroid. The displacement in the + S direction fol-
lows from Fig. 11—4:1
u,5 = x is) = w1p k1x1p (11—33)
Substituting for in
Yss = Us + s (11—34)
t This interpretation of p is valid only when S is directed from X2 to X3, i.e., counterclockwise
for this case.
See Prob. 11—14 for an alternate derivation.
§ This development applies for arbitrary choice of the +S direction. The sign of p is positive
if a rotation about X1 produces a translation in the +S direction. Equation (11—29) is used to
determine the warping distribution once the shearing stress distribution is known. See Prob. 11—4.
280 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
= (11—36)
.3 s
where n is the outward normal, A5 is the area enclosed by S, and the + S sense
is from X2 to X3. This result is valid for an arbitrary closed curve in the cross
section. We employ (11—36) to determine the values of 17 at the interior bound-
aries of a multiply connected cross section.
It is of interest to determine the energy functions associated with pure tor-
sion. When the material is linearly elastic and there are no initial strains, the
strain and complementary energy densities are equal, i.e., V =
We let
V V dA strain energy per unit length (11—37)
V= +
Substituting for Y12' '/13,
V= X3)
2
+( + x2)j
2
V= (11—38)
= + (11—39)
WI xl
dx1
their plane and rotate about X1. The relative rotation of the faces is
/((01 + dw1 '\
—dx1 — = dx1
dx1 ,i
and the first-order workdone by the external forces due to an increment in wj
reduces to
5WE = M1 ,Xk1 dx1
Now,
= = 5jJ dx2dx3 = óVdx1
for an elastic body. Then, expanding ö V.
x3
I
dl 2
d, 2
H-
FigS 11—6. Notation for rectangular section.
282 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
dt3
J = K1—
(11-41)
= K2t
where
192 (t'\ I
K1 = 1 — tanh
=
8 1 1
K2 = 1
— (2n+1)2 cosh A,,
2n+1 Id
d/t K1 K2
1 0.422 0.675
2 .687 .930
3 .789 .985
4 .843 .997
5 .873 .999
10 0.936 1.000
(We take d/t = in the exact solution.) The shearing stress varies linearly
across the thickness and
M1 3M1
cross section. Later, we shall extend the results obtained for this case to an
arbitrary thin walled open cross section. The governing equations for a simply
connected cross section are summarized below for convenience (see (11—26),
(11—27)):
= —2 (in A)
0 (on the boundary)
=
J = (1A
_:k,1,
=
J dx2 =
M1
= ——---—-- = 2——x2
J
t This applies for X3 counterclockwise from X2. The general requirement is the n — S sense
must coincide with the X2-X3 sense.
TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
284
The expression for developed above must be corrected near the ends
(x3 ± d/2) since it does not satisfy the boundary condition,
ti
This will lead to a12 0 near the ends, but will have a negligible effect on J
and Actually, the moment due to the approximate linear expansion for
is equal to only one half the applied moment:
I't/2 P4 /1
d x2a13 dx, = dt3) =
J
The corrective stress system (a12) carries M1/2. This is reasonable since, even
though is small in comparison to amax, its moment arm is large.
-f-s
t(s)
(11—43)
M1
a15, ma, = = Gkitrnax
SEC. 11—3. THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 285
The results for a single thin rectangle are also applied to a cross section
consisting of thin rectangular elements. Let t1 denote the length and thickness
of element i. We take J as
J= (11—44)
Asan illustration, consider the symmetrical section shown in Fig. 11—9. Apply-
ing (11—44), we obtain
3
1'ff + w4v
..i 3
bi
+ (Iw
I
Fig. 11—9. Symmetrical wide-flange section.
= + (1146)
\ 4rf/
where is the fillet radius and 0rn is given by (14—45), gives good results for
rf/t < 0.3. The stress increase can be significant for small values of rf/t. For
example, for Tf = 0,lt. Numerical procedures such as finite
differences or the finite element must be resorted to in order to obtain
exact solutions for irregular sections. -
—2 (in A)
(on the exterior boundary)
— ci (on the interior boundary, S,)
J — dA + = area enclosed by
S
— and +S sense from X2 toward X3,)
£ dS = —2A5
j on
We consider first the single cell shown in Fig. 11—10. The curve defines
the centerline. Since there is an interior boundary, we have to add a term
n
S.
Sect. E-E
involving C1 to the approximate expression for used for the open section.
We take as
+
tz 2n\ (11—47)
atn— +t/2
(a)
= C1 atn = — t/2
and is a reasonable approximation when S is a smooth curve.
Differentiating
b
(fl
and substituting (b) in the expressions for the shearing stress components lead to
0
M1 / + C1\
7) (11—48)
cr?5 +
The tangential shearing stress varies linearly over the thickness and its average
value is We let q be the shear stress resultant per unit length along S,
positive when pointing in the + S direction,
1/2
q cr15 (11—49)
= J —1/2
q (11—50)
The additional shearing stress due to the interior boundary (i.e., closed cell)
corresponds to a constant shear flow around the cell. One can readily verifyt
that the distribution, q = const, is statically equivalent to only a torsional
moment, given by
= (11—51)
where MI is the open section contribution and is due to the closure. Next,
we write
M1 = GkIJ it'll = Gk1J° = Gk1J' (11—54)
Then,
J= J0 + JC (11—55)
and it follows that
Jc
Jo
(11-56)
This result shows that we should work with a modified shear flow,
C q/(M1/J) (11—58)
rather than with the actual shear flow. Note that C C1 for the single cell.
It remains to determine C1 by enforcing continuity of the warping function
on the centerline curve. Applying (11—32) to we have
= (11—59)
Substituting for
M1C1
q/t
=
leads
(1160)
One should note that C1 is a property of the cross section. Once C1 is known,
we can evaluate .J from (11—52) and the shearing stress from
M1 (
(11—61)
+ -i—,)
Example 11—1
Consider the rectangular section shown. The thickness is constant and a, b are centerline
dimensions. The various properties are
CdS 2(a+h)
Cl =
We express J as
= +
For this section,
J° 1 (r'Y /
The section is said to be thin-walled when c< b. In this case, it is reasonable to neglect
Jo vs.
Fig. Eli—i
H
b -
+s, q I
r+tb
The strcss follows from (11—61),
M1C1/ t2'\ (I
= —-———ii
J t\,
± —-I
C11
= ± —s—
If the section is thin-walled, we can neglect the contribution of i.e., we can take
M1
= q/t =
We consider next the section shown in Fig. 11—li. Rather than work with
it is more convenient to work with the shear flows for the segments. We
number the closed cells consecutively and take the + S sense to coincide with
the X2-X3 sense. The +S sense for the open segments is arbitrary. We define
q3 as the shear flow for çellj and write
(11—62)
Note that is the value of on the interior boundary of cell j and the shear
flow is constant along a segment. The total shear flow distribution is obtained
290 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
q2. S2
x3
by superimposing the individual cell flows. Then, the shear flow in the segment
common to cells i andj is the difference between qj and q1. The sign depends
on the sense of S.
q= — q2 = — C2) for S1
(11—63)
q=q2—q1 forS2
The shearing stress is assumed to vary linearly ovcr the thickness. For con-
venience, we drop the subscripts on and write the limiting values as
cr = ±a° + Cr"
where
M1 /Cnet
cr=—1-t (11—64)
We determine J° from
(11—65)
segments
SEC. 11—4. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 291
Substituting for
MI = 2qjA1 + 2q2A2
+ C2A2)
in (b) leads to
-
+ A2C2) (11—66)
I = 1,2 (11-67)
where a12 involves the segment common to cells 1, 2, the continuity equations
take the following form:
+ a12C2 = (11—69)
a12C1 + a22C2 = 2A2
We solve this system of equations for C2, then determine f with (11—66),
and finally evaluate the stresses with (11—64).
We can represent the governing equations in compact form by introducing
matrix notation. The form of the equations suggests that we define
[a11
c = A a a121
a22j
(11—70)
Since ais varies linearly over the thickness, the open and closed stress dis-
tributions are uncoupled, i.e., we can write
= + toq
where
=
2G
(11-72)
aq)
—
i
a22 = tl + 2b) +
t2
+ +2 C2 = 2 dt1
—
c1 + + ±2 C2 = 2bt1
—
J= Jo + Jo
Finally, the shear stress intensities in the various segments are
M1 (C1
(k— +
=
M1 /C1 — C2
+t2
J t2 /
M1 (C2
+ t1
=7
M1
= t3
____
_____________
Fig. E11—2
t3 tl
03
1
Ii I
I
032 A2 h
X3
a'
M1
When d= b.
Cl = C2 = —s
2bt3
1 + 2-
13
and the section functions as a single cell with respect to shear flow.
Consider the prismatic member shown in Fig. 11—12. There are no boundary
forces acting on the cylindrical surface. The distribution of boundary forces
x2
x2
xI I +S
if
—_____ P2
We start by postulating expansions for the stresses. The stress resultants and
couples required for equilibrium at x1 are
=A4,r0
F2 = P2
M3 = P2(L — x1)
Introducing (a) in the definition equations for the stress resultants and couples
leads to the following conditions on the stresses:
dA = JJx3a13 c/A = 0
dA = P2(L — x1)
Jj712 c/A = P2
$fcrj3 c/A = 0
S$(x2a13 — x3cr12)dA —, 0
The expansion,
M3 P2
= = —
13 13
satisfies the first three conditions (i.e., F1, M3) identically since
The last three conditions (i.c., F2, F3, M1) require a12, a13 to be independent
of x1. This suggests that we consider the following postulated stress behavior:
P2
cru = ——--—x2 = — x1)x2
13 13
I P2
= u1 = (L — xj)x2
E1 E113
V1P2
= u2,2 =
V1
= —(L
El3
—. x1)x2
v1 v1P2
63 = u33 = = —7—(L — xj)x2
LI3
I
'Y12 = u1, 2 + u2, = = function ofx2, x3
1
Y13 U1 3 + U3, 1 = = function ofx2, x3
Y23 = U2,3 + U3,2 0
Integrating the first three equations leads to
u1 = (Lx1 —
1
+ f1(x2, x3)
E1 13
v1P2
(L — + .f2(xj, x3) (b)
=
v1P2
u3 = ——- (L — x1)x2x3 + x2)
El3
The functions f1, f2, f3 are determined by substituting (b) in the last three
equations. We omit the details and just list the resulting expressions, which
involve seven constants:
3. A line element on the X2 axis at the origin is fixed with respect to rotation
in the X2-X3 plane:
u2,3 = 0 at (0, 0, 0)
These conditions correspond to the "fixed-end" case and are sufficient to
eliminate the rigid body terms. The final displacement expressions are
= — — + — (11—75)
—
Vj 2 -
— x1)x2x3 + k1x1x2
El3
One step remains, namely, to satisfy the equilibrium equation and boundary
condition. The transverse shearing stresses are given by
1 v1P2
41,2 — k1x3 + —. x2)
2L13
(11—76)
1 v1P2
(7j3 4), + k1x2 — x2x3
LI3
Substituting for the stresses in (11—74), we obtain the following differential
equation and boundary condition for 4):
P2f'2v1 l\ (mA)
- 1
- 77
+
v1P2 C
12) +
The form of the above equations suggests that we express 4) as
4) = kjq5t — + + (11-78)
+
where is the warping function for pure torsion and 4)2. and 4)2d are harmonic
functions which define the warping due to flexure. Substituting for 4) leads
to the following boundary conditions for 4)2. and
2
2
+ (11—79)
2 )
One can show, by using (11—15), that
= 0
cn
dS = 0
SEC. 11—5. TORSION-FLEXURE WITH UNRESTRAINED WARPING 297
and therefore the formulation is consistent. Terms involving vj/E are due to
in-plane deformation, i.e., deformation in the plane of the cross section, and
setting v1/E = 0 corresponds to assuming the cross section is rigid. Then,
defines the flexural warping for a rigid cross section and represents the
correction due to in-plane deformation.
The shearing stress is obtained by substituting for in (11—76). We write
the result as
01j = + 01j,r + (j = 2,3) (11—SO)
2 2
2
P2
x2x3)
Since and depend only on the shape of the cross section, it follows that
and S2d are properties of the cross section. For convenience, we let
X3
1
(1184)
13\ £. J
and (11—83) reduces to
= — (11—85)
tSeeProb. Il—lO.
298 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
to the fiexural shear stress distribution. Then, defines the location of the
resultant of the flexural shear stress distribution with respect to the centroid.
The twist deformation is determined from
k1 + (11—86)
k1 =
The cross section will twist unless = 0. Suppose P2 has an eccentricity e3.
In this case (see Fig. 11—13), M1 = —e3P2, and
P2
k1 — e3)
x3
forthis case. Finally, it Ibilows thatt S2,. = 0 and S2d = 0. Generalizing this
result, we can state:
The resultant of the shear stress distribution due to fiexure in the
direction passes through the centroid when is an axis of symmetry
for the cross section.
x3
Shear center
We consider next the case where the member is subjected to P2, P3 and
at the right end (see Fig. 11—14). The governing equations for the P3 loading
can be obtained by transforming the equations for the P2 case according to
> X3 .-
U2 —* U3 U3—> —U2
(3
13
—---+-— —--*------
13 (3
3
r ((/33r, 3
'2 (11—87)
.v1G1 P3
d = L.
2 x2x31!
12
Vj i
= —i---
+ + (,b3d, 3]
D
t is even in x>, is odd in x3, and S2r, Ssd involve only integrals of odd functions of
300 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
where defines the location of the resultant of the flexural shear stress distri-
bution due to P3. One can interpret X2, x3 as the coordinates of a point,
called the shear center. The required twist follows from (11—90):
k1 (M1 + —
=
Since (see Fig. 11—14)
M1 + P2x3 — P3x2
(11—91)
= the applied moment with respect to the shear center = MT
we can write (a) as
k1 = (11—92)
To determine the twist deformation (and the resulting torsional stresses), one
must work with the torsional moment with respect to the shear center, not the
centroid. For no twist, the applied force must pass through the shear center.
In general, the shear center lies on an axis of symmetry. lithe cross section
is completely symmetrical, the shear center coincides with the centroid.
It is of interest to determine the complementary energy associated with
torsion-flexure. The only finite stress components are 012, aild Then
V* reduces to
= + + dA (a)
The contribution from follows directly by substituting (11 —89) and using
the definition equations for 13.
1 M2 M2
= (11-93)
+
Now, the total shearing stress is the sum of three terms:
1. a pure torsional distribution due to MT
2. the flexural distribution due to F2
3. the fiexural distribution due to F3
Each of the flexural distributions can be further subdivided into—
dr. the distribution corresponding to a rigid cross section (defined
by
2. dId, the distribution associated with in-plane deformation of the cross
section (defined by 4)jd)
We combine the flexural distributions and express the total stress as
C33 d12,t + C12,, + C12.d
= 013.1 + C13r + 013,d
where the various terms are defined by (11—81) and (11—87). For example,
F2 • F3
r= 13
2
13
2
The complementary energy due to pure torsion follows from (11—38) and
(11—92):
a as
F2 F3_
C12r —
2
3 3
= + dA (1196)
The coupling term, I/A23, vanishes when the cross section has an axis of
symmetry.
We consider next the coupling between or., and
JJ(a12,to12,r +
= 2 ± 2)
+ + x2) + dA
=
+ — + + (11—97)
MT ""F2 F3
+ dA = 0
— Jj 13 12
The remaining terms involve a,a, the shearing stress distribution due to in-
plane deformation of the cross section, We will not attempt to expand these
terms since we are interested primarily in the rigid cross section case.
Summarizing, the complementary energy for flexure-torsion with unre-
strained warping is given by
1 M2 M2 M2 I F2 FF F2
(11-98)
+ terms involving v1/E
where M1 + — We introduce the assumption of negligible
in-plane deformation by setting v1/E = 0. Similarly, we introduce the assump-
tion of negligible warping due to flexure (&3r by setting 1/A1 =
1/A2 1/A23 = 0.
In Sec. 11 —7, we develop an approximate procedure, called the engineering
theory, for determining the flexural shear stress distribution, which is based
upon integrating the stress-equilibrium equation directly. This approach is
similar to the torsional stress analysis procedure described in the previous
section. Since the shear stress distribution is statically indeterminate when the
cross section is closed, the force redundants have to he determined by requiring
the warping function to be continuous. For pure torsion, continuity requires
(see (11—32))
= 2G1k1A5
where the integration is carried out in the X2-X3 sense around S. and is the
area enclosed by S. To establish the continuity conditions for flexure, we
operate on (11 —81) and (11 There are four requirements:
j 2,3
2v1G1P2
(aisd)F2 dS X3 dA
(11—99)
2v1G1P3 rr
dS = ii X2 dA
El2 ,jj
4,
SEC. 11—6. EXACT FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS DISTRIBUTION 303
In the engineering theory of flex ural shear stress distribution, the cross section
is considered to be rigid, i.e., the distribution due to in-plane deformation is
neglected. The consistent continuity condition on the flexural shearing stress
4sajsdSO (11—100)
One can take the + S direction as either clockwise or counterclockwise. By
definition, the positive sense for coincides with the + S direction.
x2
rd3
— dt3
'2
A = dt
r
Fig. 11—15. Notation for rectangular cross section.
1. Warping functions
+
=
2
= 1
an
+
= +
2 )
304 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
2. Shearing stresses
012 = - + + + xi)]
F2 v1G1E2
= T13 3) + x2x3)
Determination of
The boundary conditions for are
l(d'\2 d
=0 atx3 =
2r = 4)2r
13 12 X2 —
13
012,r (11—101)
=
0j3,r 0
= (11—102)
Determinatio,, of
The boundary conditions for /2d are
1(d2 '\ d
2= + at x2 =
atx3 =
f3=0
It remains to solve V2f = 0 subject to (d).
Since the cross section is symmetricaL f must be an even function of x3 and
an odd function of x2. We express f as
(2nxx2)
f= B0x2 + B,, cos sinh
B,, = (±..Y
mr1 mtd
cosh ——
2nxx2\ 1
cosh
v1G1 P2 1/t\2 I
= —
.a t nnd
cosh—
t /J
1
[ sinh
2nirx2
—-—
v1G1 F2 t . 2n7tx3
cJl3,d = sin ——- (11—103)
E 13 n2 mid t
cosh— j
[ t
F2 2
2, ci
Specializing d for x2 0,
v1G1 F2 d2 2nnx3
(512, d)x20 = C,, COS
13 '1 t
where
1
1
2,, cosh 2,,
Now, C,, decreases rapidly with n. Retaining only the first term in (b) leads to the
following error estimate,
4 / 1
1
I5lz,di
2,. I cosh
Results for a representative range of d/t and isotropic material are listed below.
They show that it is reasonable to neglect the corrective stress system for a
rectangular cross section. The error decreases as the section becomes thinner,
i.e., as d/t becomes large with respect to unity:
d/t 1512,4/512.r
2 0.024
1 0.092
0.122
and also illustrate the determination of the shear center and the energy
efficients, 1/Ai (j 2, 3).
Figure 11—16 shows a segment defined by cutting planes at x1 and x1 + dx1.
Since the cross section is thin-walled, it is reasonable to assume that the normal
stress, Oh, is constant through the thickness and to neglect Also, we work
qA
xl
Fig. 11—16. thin-wafled segment.
with the shear flow, q, rather than with Integrating the axial force-equi-
librium equation,
— + —(a11t) 0
C2S
Equation (11—104) is the starting point for the engineering theory of shear
stress distribution. Once the variation of over the cross section is known,
we can evaluate q. Now, we have shown that the normal stress varies linearly
over the cross section when the member is subjected to a constant shear (F2, F3
308 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
constant) and the end sections can warp freely. Noting that the member is
prismatic, the derivative of for this case is
— X3 dM2 x2dM3
— 12 dx1 13 dx1
3 '2
X3 + X2
12 13
The integrals represent the moment of the segmental area with respect to X2, X3
and are generally denoted by Q2, Q3:
rs
x3tdS = Q2(S,SA)
Q2 =j (11—105)
x2t c/S = Q3(S, SA)
=
With this notation, (b) simplifies to
F2 F3
q= — — —-Q2 (11—106)
13
Equation (11—106) defines the shear flow distribution for the case of negligible
restraint against warping, i.e., for a linear variation in normal stress. Note
that q is positive when pointing in the + S direction.
We consider first the open section shown in Fig. 11—17. The end faces are
unstressed, i.e.,
= =0
Taking the origin for S at A, (11—106) reduces to
F2 F3
q= f-Q2 (11-107)
Q3 =J5x2tdS Q2 =$x3tdS
We determine Q2, Q3 and then combine according to (11—107).
The shearing stress distribution corresponding to F2,
q=
satisfies
ffai2 c/A = F2
dA = 0
x3
B I Shear center
X2
Centroid
Jjui2dA =
dS
J
Equation (b) requires
rsa
J0
=
=0
Now,
Integrating (e) by parts and noting that X2, X3 are principal centroidal axes,t
we obtain
=
— J" dS = 13
= x2x3t dS = 0
— J
The shear stress distribution predicted by (a) is statically equivalent to a
force F212. To determine the location of its line of we evaluate the
moment with respect to a convenient moment center. By applying the same
argument, one can show that the shear flow corresponding to F3 is statically
Example 11—3
Consider the thin rectangular section shown. We take + S in the + X2 direction. Then,
+ q points in the +X2 direction and q/t = The various terms are
tx2 dx2 =
= j -d(2 2 4 —
F2 tF2 (d2
q=
q F2/'d2 2
—
This result coincides with the solution for obtained in Sec. 11—6. Actually, the engi-
neering theory is exact for a rigid cross section, i.e., for r1/E = 0.
Fig. E11—3
x2
I +
Example 11—4
We determine the distribution of q corresponding to F2 for the symmetrical section
of Fig. Eli —4A. Only two segments, AB and BC, have to be considered since 1Q31 is
symmetrical.
Segment AB
=
q =
Pg. E11—4A
IC d
tw
tf
It
I,
H
Segment BC
We measure S from B to C. Then,
= + —
q= [hh1t1 + — xi)]
Note that the actual sense of q is from C to B. The distribution and sense of q are shown
in Fig. E1I—413.
It is of interest to evaluate A2. Specializing (11-96) for a thin-walled section,
dS
=
fl
if dA
5
and substituting for q yields
1 1 2dS
=
We let
j
= area of the web =
A1 = total flange area = 2b1t1
A2 = kA,.
The resulting expression for kis
lÀ,.
I
3Af\ 6A1
2A F id, l/bf\2
312 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
x2 Fig. E11—48
.4
— X2)
x3
4.
This factor is quite close to unity. For example, taking as typical, for a wide-flange section,
= 2ç
(If = 3,
1..
we find
.4f =
k= 0.95
The shearing stress corresponding to F3 varies parabolically in the flanges and is zero in
the web. Each flange carries half the shear and
1 61 1
A3 — 5 A1 — 5 hr1
Examp'e 11—5
Cross-Sectional Properties
This section (Fig. Eli —5A) is symmetrical with respect to X2. The shift in the centroid
from the center of the web due to the difference in flange areas is
b2t2 —
(a)
b,t1 + b2t2 +
We neglect the contribution of the web in '2 since it involves
12 + ('2)2 = + (b)
SEC. 11—7. ENGINEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS 313
Determination of
Taking S as shown in the sketch, we have
= t[(b)2
t2 [,"b2\2
—X32 (c)
Fig. E11—5A
x3
I
I Centroid
Distribution of q Corresponding to
The shear flow corresponding to F3 is obtained by applying
p3
q= Q2
and is shown in Fig. El 1—SB. The shear stress vanishes in the web and varies parabolically
in each flange.
Integrating the shear flow over each flange, we obtain
= F3
Then, the distribution is statically equivalent to F373 acting at a distance e from the left
flange, where
R2d (12)2
e = =
R 12
Since X2 is an axis of symmetry, the shear center is located at the intersection of R and X2,
314 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Fig. E11--58
R = F3
q
1'3t2frbf\2 2
12
X3
R1
The coordinates of the shear center with respect to the centroid are
,c3 0
(I
= e —(1 +
=d —
L12 2
We consider next the closed cross section shown in Fig. 11 —18. We take the
origin for S at some arbitrary point and apply (11-106) to the segment Se-S:
F2 F3
q= q1 — -1—Q3 — (11— 108)
13 12
= Q3 =
where q1 is the shear flow at P. The shear flow distribution is statically indeter-
minate since q1 in unknown. We have previously shown that q q1 = con-
SEC. 11—7. ENGINEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS 315
0 (11—109)
== j = 2,3 (11—111)
Substituting for
1 =
— 2BJQk + (j k;j, k 2,3)
'k
and noting that
.1
we obtain
2dS dS
(11—112)
42j
QkT
which applies for an arbitrary single cell.
Example 11—6
We illustrate the determination of for the square section of Fig. Eli —6A. It is
Fig. E11—6A
2z
Cross-Sectional Properties
= a2
(a3\ a2 3
= + = 4a3t
= (at)(a/2) —
5a1 10
it
fdS
= 3.5-
a
t
SEC. 11—7. ENGINEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS 317
Determination of
We start at P and work counterclockwise around the centerline. The resulting distribu-
tion and actual sense of q due to arc shown in Fig. Eli —6B. Note that + Q2 corresponds
to a negative i.e., clockwise, q.
Fig. E11—6B
Evaluation of B3
By definition,
1
" dS
B3=
rds.
it I
Using the above results, and noting that the area of a parabola is equal to (2/3) (base) x
(height), we obtain
I dS
+
a3
B3 =
t
j F3/21
I
q — a 1.21
I F3
i F3
30
6a
F3f 4 Q2
Finally, the coordinates of the shear center with respect to the ccntroid (which is A units to
the right of 0) are
16
x2 = e — LI = +
X3 = 0
Torsional Shear
The shear flow for pure torsion is due to Mr, the torsional moment with respect to the
shear center. For this section,
Mr 5L2F3 + M1 —
We apply the theory developed in Sec. II —4. One just has to replace M1 with MT in
SEC. 11—7. ENGtNEERING THEORY OF FLEXURAL SHEAR STRESS
Equation (11—61):
Ci = 4at
— ±
I
C1
J= +
Determination of 1/A3
Applying (11—112), we find
dS dS'\ 1.276
I-
1 1 —
2
- B
I) - 3at
Note that 3at is the total web area.
We consider next the analysis of a two-cell section and include open segments
for generality. There is one redundant shear flow for each cell. We select a
convenient point in each cell and take the shear how at the point as the redun-
dant for the cell. This is illustrated in Fig. 11—19: qj represents the shear flow
redundant for cell j and the + S sense coincides with the X2-X3 sense to be
consistent with the pure-torsion analysis. The + S sense for the open segments
is inward from the free edge. For convenience, we drop the CL (centerline)
subscript on S and A.
+5, q
x3
x2
The total shear flow is the sum of q0, the open cross-section distribution
(q1 = q2 = 0), and
q q0 + (11—113)
The shear flows q2, for pure torsion are related by (we multiply (11—71)
by MT/J and note (11—62))
+ a12q2,1 = 2A1
(11--1l6)
MT
a12q1,1 + a22q2,1 2A2
Thus, the complete shear stress analysis involves solving aq = b for three differ-
ent right-hand sides. The equations developed above can he readily generalized.
Example 11—7
We determine the flexural shear stress distribution corresponding to F3 for the section
shown in Fig. E11—7A. We locate and P2 at the midpoints to take advantage of
symmetry.
Cross-Sectional Properties
A1 = 202
A2 a2
=
(a3t\ [ a21
+ 2[(3at)_4_j
7
'2
Ga 4a a
= — a22 = 012 =
See Prob. 1!-- 14 for the more general expression, which allows for a variable shear modulus.
_______a _______
Fig. Eli—lA
x2
I +S,q
2a a
Distribution of
This system (Fig. E1l—7B) is statically equivalent to a moment
2a2(2q1 +
Distribution of q0 Due to F3
We apply
—--i02
'2
to the various segments starting at points P1. P2. The resulting distribution is shown in
Fig. Eli —7C.
Deter,niiuztion of q1. q2
=
C dS 2F3
q0—=+
t
.322
Fig. El 1 —7B
q2
4
2q1a q2a
q1a
q1
I P3
14 a
(2 32\
e = + a= 1.61a
REFERENCES
1. WANG, C. T.: Applied Elasticity, McGraw-Hill, New York. 1953.
2, TIMOSHENKO, S. J., and J. N. Oooo!ETt: Theory of Elasticity, 3d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1970.
PROBLEMS 323
PROBLEMS
il—i. The pure-torsion formulation presented in Sec. 11—2 considers the
cross section to rotate about the centroid, i.e., it takes
U2 = W1X3 wj =
= +(01x2 a1 =
Suppose we consider the cross-section to rotate about an arbitrary point
The general form of (a) is
a2 = —wj(x3 — wj = k1x1 + c1
U3 = +w1(x2 — a1 = k147
(a) Starting with Equation (h), derive the expressions for a13 and the
governing equations for
(b) What form do the equations take if we write
= + C2 +
Do the torsional shearing stress distribution and torsional constant J
depend on the center of twist?
11—2. Show that .1 can be expressed as
= + 2) — 3)2]dA
)2 3)2]dA
= I,, — +
Hint:
dA = 0
Compare this result with the solution for a circular cross section and comment
on the relative efficiency of circular vs. noncircular cross section for torsion.
11—3. Derive the governing differential equation and boundary condition
for for the case where the material is orthotropic and the material symmetry
axes coincide with the X1, X2, X3 directions.
324 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
= k1 + (a)
where is the perpendicular distance from the center of twist to the tangent.
One selects a positive sense for S. The sign of p is positive when a rotation
about the center of twist results in translation in the +.S direction. We express
as
1 lM1
(b)
Determine the variation of along the centerline for the two thin-walled open
sections shown.
Prob. 11—4
x3
tf
Center
/
of twist
—
Center of twist
4
b/2 b/2
(a) (bi
= x =
for the closed cross section sketched.
11—6. Refer to Prob. 11—4. To apply Equation (c) to the centerline of a
closed cell, we note that (see (11—50))
— J Jq C
(a)
a15 = = k—— = —
PROBLEMS 325
Prob. 11—5
= + £3
x2
Then,
Ct
+-C
Integrating (b) leads to the distribution of Apply (h) to the section shown.
Take = 0 at point P. Discuss the case where a = b.
Prob. 11-6
T p
.
mA
on S
326 TORS!ON-FLEXURE OF PRISMA1]C MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Prob. 11—7
0 —
t
+S1
+S2
I
H
Prob. 11—8
t t t
t
I I
-
:f
T t—.
0 0 0
Si
t t t
a a— a
Prob.11—9
I
t
I
Utilizing the following integration formula,
11 —13. Determine the flexural shear flow distributions due to F2, F3 and
locate the shear center for the five thin-walled sections shown.
Prob. 11—13
I-
R
T
d/2
+
I
x3
(b)
(a)
2/ 2/ 2/
I
I H-a
+ -j
(c) (dl
I
:L
1 = Ca
(el
328 TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 11
Prob. 11—14
Arbitrary
closed
curve
-44 44—
M'11 wi LsM1 w1 + dx1
(a)
(b)
2G(2E)
x3
GtE) G(E)
X21 2G(2E)
F
a-
Ic)
PROBLEMS 329
for a statically permissible force system. Now, we select a force system acting
on the end faces which is statically equivalent to only a torsional moment M1.
If we consider the cross section to be rigid, the right-hand side of (a) reduces
to AM1o,1 1 dx1,and we can write
Next, we select an arbitrary closed curve, S (part b of figure), and consider the
region defined by S and the differential thickness dn. We specialize the virtual-
stress system such that AG = 0 outside this domain and only is finite
inside the domain. Finally, using (11 -51), we can write
dn(&riz)
=
and Equation (b) reduces to
k1
if
The derivations presented in the text arc based on a constant shear modulus
G throughout the section, so we replace (d) with
Gk1 =
G*k1 =
—
= — (12—3)
The warping function will depend on x1 if forces are applied to the cylindrical
surface or the ends are restrained with respect to warping. A term due to
variable warping must be added to the linear expansion for This leads
to an additional term in the expression for the flexural shear flow. Since (12—1)
t A linear variation of normal stress is exact for a homogeneous beam. Composite beams (e.g.. a
sandwich beam) are treated by assuming a linear variation in extensional strain and obtaining
the distributions of from the stress-strain relation. See Probs. 1—14 and 12—1.
330
SEC. 12—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 331
satisfiesthe definition equations for F1, M2, M3 identically, the normal stress
correction is self-equilibrating; i.e., it is statically equivalent to zero. Also, the
shear flow correction is statically equivalent to only a torsional moment since
(12—3) satisfies the definition equations for F2, F3 identically.
In the engineering theory of members, we neglect the effect of variable warping
on the normal and shearing stress; i.e., we use the stress distribution predicted
by the St. Venant theory, which is based on cons tant warping and no warping
restraint at the ends. In what follows, we develop the governing equations for
the engineering theory and illustrate the two general solution procedures. This
formulation is restricted to the linear geometric case. In the next chapter, we
present a more refined theory which accounts for warping restraint, and in-
vestigate the error involved in the engineering theory.
+
4L dx1
+ =o
dx1
dM÷ — — -
+ m+ x F+) = 0
dx1
332 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP. 12
Stretching
dF1
+ b1 = 0
dx1
dF2
+ b2 0
dx3
(12—4)
+ m3 + F2 = 0
dx1
--s- + b3 = 0
dx1
dM2
+ ni2 — F3 = 0
dx1
Twist
dM1
—— + m1 = 0
ax
This uncoupling is characteristic only of prismatic members the equilibrium
equations for an arbitrary curved member are generally coupled, as we shall
show in Chapter 15.
The fiexure equilibrium equations can be reduced by solving for the shear
force in terms of the bending moment, and then substituting in the remaining
equations. We list the results below for future reference.
dM2
+ in2
dx1
d2M2 din2
+ -— + b3 = 0
dx12 dx1
SEC. 12—3. FORCE-DISPLACEMENT RELATIONS 333
Note that the shearing force is known once the bending moment variation is
determined.
The statically equivalent external force and moment components acting on
the end cross sections are called end forces. We generally use a bar superscript
to indicate an end action in this text. Also, we use A, B to denote the negative
and positive end points (see Fig. 12—2) and take the positive sense of an end
x2
MA2
x3
—L
force to coincide with the corrcsponding coordinate axis. The end forces are
related to the stress resultants and couples by
=
(J 1 2 3) (12—6)
FAJ =
MAJ =
A minus sign is required at A, since it is a negative face.
parameters the equivalent rigid body translations and rotations of the cross
section at the centroid. We define i? and as
= = equivalent rigid body translation vector at the centroid
(12—7)
= equivalent rigid body rotation vector
By equivalent displacements, we mean
(force intensity) (displacement) dA = fl +M (.12—8)
dx1 I
dx1
dudXl
dx1 2
2
+ x = O
dx1
Specializing the principle of virtual forces for the one-dimensional elastic
case, we can write
dV* dx1 = AP1
+ A]\+ + dx1
=
Using the second equation in (a), (c) takes the form
+ x +
dV* = +
\CFJ
3
= +
1
(123 23
We see that—
1. e1 is the average extensional strain.
2. e2, e3 are average transverse shear deformations.
3. k1 is a twist deformation.
4. k2, k3 are average bending deformation measures (relative rotations of
the cross section about X2, X3).
Once the form of V" is specified, we can evaluate the partial derivatives. In
what follows, we suppose that the material is linearly elastic. We allow for the
possibility of an initial extensional strain, but no initial shear strain. The
general expression for is
+ + +
=
where denotes the initial extensional strain. Now, for unrestrained
torsion-Ilexure is given by (11—98). Since we are using the engineering theory
336 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP. 12
= Fie? + + + LF2
2AE 2GA2 2GA3 (12—12)
+ + + + +
where
MT M1 + F2x3 —
e?
= $5 x2e1 cIA
F2 M2
+ U21 (03 k2 =k2 (12—13)
F3
X2 = U3 1 + (02 k3 = k3 + = (03,
To interpret the coupling between the shear and twist deformations, we note
(see Fig. 12—4) that
U2 X3W1
U3
defines the centroidal displacements due to a rigid body rotation about the
shear center. Comparing (a) with (12—13), we see that the cross section twists
about the shear center, not the centroid. This result is a consequence of neglect-
ing the in-plane deformation terms in i.e., of using (12—12).
Instead of working with centroidal quantities (M1, u2, u3), we could have
started with M1. and the translations of the shear center. This presupposes
that the cross section rotates about the shear center. We replace u2, u3 (see
Fig. 12—4) by
U2 + (01X3
(12—14)
U3 = t01X2
SEC. 12—3. FORCE-DtSPLACEMENT 337
where um, U53 denote the translations of the shear center. The terms involving
F2, F3, Al1 in (12—9) transform to
1+ 1 — w3) + 1 + w2) (a)
Then, taking as an independent force parameter, we obtain
= a)1,1
F2
US2, 1 (12— 15)
F3
053 1 + (02
Since the section twists about the shear center, it is more convenient to work
with and the translations of the shear center. Once 052, 053, and w1 are
x2
known, we can determine 02, 03 from (12—14). We list the uncoupled sets of
force-displacement relations below for future reference.
Stretching
F1
e? + 01:1
+ =
El3
338 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
F3
U53 +
k2 + = I
MT
= Wi,1
where represents the actual strain matrix, and denotes a system of statically
permissible stresses due to the external force system, AP1. We express the
integral as
.
if
A j=1
and determine using as defined by the engineering theory. For example,
taking
AF1 AM2 AM3
+ —— —
A 12 13
leads to
e1 = dA
if
k2
if
k3 x2c1 dA
if
Once the extensional strain distribution is known, we can evaluate (b).
Using (12—18), the one-dimensional principle of virtual forces takes the form
+ AM1)]dxj = AP1 (12—19)
F1 or u1 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
u2 or F2 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
M3 or 0)3 prescribed at .x1 = 0, L
u3 or F3 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
0)3 or M2 prescribed at x1 = 0, L
340 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
MT. 1 + 01T 0
MT
=
or a1 prescribed at x1 = 0, L (12—25)
m5. = m1 + b2x'3 — b3g2
U2 X3W1
U3 =
Example 12—1
We consider the case where b2 = coast (Fig. This loading will produce flexure
in the X1-X2 plane and also twist about the shear center if the shear center does not lie on
the X2 axis. We solve the two uncoupled problems, superimpose the results, and then
apply the boundary conditions.
Flexure in X1 -A'2 Plane
We start with the force-equilibrium equations,
F21
M3,1 = —F2
M3
£03, 3
F2
Uz, i —. +
GA2
4 4 \
\2E13/ GA 12Ff)
The general flexual solution (for b2 = const) is given by (e), (f), and (I).
Fig. E12—1
x2
b3 13
Shear center
Centroid
H L
=
MT
(01,1
=
and integrating, we obtain
MT = MAT — b2y3x1
= +
The additional centroidal displacements due to twist are
U2 = X3W1
U3 =
342 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
Cantilever Case
We suppose that the left end is fixed, and the right end is free. The boundary conditions
are
UA2 = =0
FBZ = M53 = MBT
Specializing the general solution for these boundary conditions requires
= b2L
An 11. i2
A3 2
MAT = b2;L
and the final expressions reduce to
F2 = b2(L — x1)
M3 = — Lx1 +
= — x1)
U2 = + b2Lx1 +
- + ()
U3 =
b2 4L 4
a)1
13 613d2
A2 5 A 10
=
By definition, d/L is small with respect to unity for a member element and, therefore, it is
SEC. 12—5. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION 343
reasonable to neglect transverse shear deformation with respect to bending deformation
for the isotropic case.t Formally, one sets 1/A2 = 0.
Fixed-End Case
We consider next the case where both ends are fixed. The boundary conditions are
MAT = b2T3L
IL2 Lx1
M3 = b2
+
MT = b2T3 —
b2 (u)
u2 = + — x1
2)
+ — 2L4 + xi)
U3 = —X20)1
b2IL2 L
(03 Xj + xi)
= El
b2y3
= xi)
Example 12—2
We consider a member (Fig. E12—2) restrained at the left end, and subjected only to
forces applied at the right end. We allow for the possibility of support movement at A.
The expressions for the translations and rotations at B in tcrms of the end actions at B
and support movement at A are called member force-displacement relations. We can
obtain these relations for a prismatic member by direct integration of the force-displacement
t For shear deformation to be significant with respect to bending deformation, G/E must be of
the same order as l/A,L2 where A, is the shear area. This is not possible for the isotropic case.
However, it may be satisfied for a sandwich beam having a soft core. See Prob. 12—1.
344 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
relations. In the next section, we illustrate an alternative approach, which utilizes the
principle of virtual forces4'
Fig. E12—2
x2
M1, WB 1
FA3
UB 3
MA3/
x3
/ 3
C03,j = + (L — xi)F5]
U3,1 = + +
—
= El2
_
U3 j = — 0)2 + M5.,-
—
Col,i =
UB1 UAI +
L_
(.053 03.43 +
L_M83 + L2
UA2 + LWA3 +
L2
+
LX3_
Mjjr +
/L +
L3\..
L2_
(052 + M82 —
MET = + X31B2
L
US'
L L3
+
U82
L L3
GJ
L
(082
(053
L2 L -
The coefficient matrix is called the member "flexibility" matrix and is generally denoted
by fB.
We obtain expressions for the end forces in terms of the end displacements by inverting
f. The final relations are listed below for future reference:
346 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
AE
(um — UA1)
=
FB2 — + WA3) (coB! WA!)
— —
+ — UA3) + + COA2)
+ (4 + a2) + (2 — a2)
j_ WA2
M83 — (053 UA2) + — (1)4j)
-1 (4 + + (2 a3)_L_coA3
where
12E12 12E13
a2 a3
=
=
1+03
We introduce the assumption of negligible transverse shear deformation by setting
03 = a3 = 0
The end forces at A and B are related by
(j= 1,2,3)
MA! = —!V151
MA2 + LF53
MA3 —M53 — LF52
Example 12—3
We consider next the case where the applied loads depend on the displacements. To
simplify the discussion, we suppose the shear center is on the X2 axis and the member is
loaded only in the plane. The member will experience only flexure in the X1-X2
plane under these conditions.
The governing equations are given by (12—23):
(03
F,1
(03,1 p2,11 +
Then,
M3 E13(u3 + b2 —
and
F2 = —m3 — El2 (02 + b2, —
Finally, we substitute forM3 in (e) and obtain a fourth-order differential equation involving
02 and the load terms:
d4u2
+
d2 ( b2
—
'\
+
I (din3
— h2)
\ = 0
The problem reduces to solving (i) and satisfying the boundary conditions:
F2 or 02 prescribed
or (03 prescribed)
Neglecting transverse shear deformation simplifies the equations somewhat. The re-
sulting equations are (we set 1/GA2 = 0)
(03 j
= E13(u2, 11 —
F3 = —in3 — E13(u2 —
As an illustration, consider the case of linear restraint against translation of the centroid,
e.g., a beam on a linearly elastic foundation. The distributed loading consists of two
terms, one due to the applied external loading and the other due to the restraint force.
We write
= q — ku3
where q denotes the external distributed load and k is the stiffness factor for the restraint.
We suppose rn3 = = 0, k is constant, and transverse shear deformation is negligible.
Specializing (k) for this case, we have
(03 = U2
M3 = E13u2,
F2 = —E13u2
d4u2 k q
+
=
F3 or u2 prescribed 1
0L
M3 or (03 prescrihedJ
The general solution of (n) is
+ sin A.x1 + C2 cos Ax1) + sin Ax1 + C4 cos Ax1)
/ k
The constants (C1, C3) are determined from the boundary conditions at x1 = 0 and
(C3, C4) from the conditions at x1 = L. Note that C3 and C4 must be of order since
u2isfiniteatx1 = L.
Application .1
The boundary conditions at x1 = 0 (Fig. E12—3A) are
u2 = 0
M3 = E13u2,11 = 0
Fig. E12—3A
q = const
//////////// ///////////////////////////////////////// X1
x2
Application 2
The boundary conditions at x1 = 0 (Fig. E12—3B) are
U2,1 = 0
F2 = —E13u2,111 = —P12
and the solution is
PA
U2 = Ax1 + sin Ax1)
= sin Ax = —
(12—26)
=
e cos Ax = —
Their values over the range from Ax = 0 to Ax = 5 are presented in Table 12—1.
Fig. E12—3B
x1
////////////////////j///
x2
Table 12—i
Numerical Values of the Functions
,tX iJi1 AX
dQ = + [(e? + Fj,Q
$
(F2\ +
i'F3\ +
M1.
(12—30)
M3\
+ + + + -JM3,Q 11dx1
El21 J..J3/ J
where
if dA
=7±JJx2s?dA
Finally, we can express (12—29) for the elastic case in terms of V*:
L k
dQ — (12—31)
JxLt'AQ ORQ
This form follows from (12—20) and applies for an arbitrary elastic material.
Example 12—4
We consider the channel member shown in Fig. E12--4A. We suppose that the material
is linearly elastic and that there is no support movement. We will determine the vertical
Fig. E12—4A
x2
I)
Centroid
Q
Shear
center
352 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
Fig. E12—4B
. •1
I I Fe
F2,
System
We take dQ positive when downward, i.e., in the — X, direction. To be consistent,
we must apply a unit downward force at Q. The required internal forces follow from
Fig. E12—4C:
F2,0 = —1
Mr,0 C
2 M3,Q =
/L
— x1)
\ (b)
(p. =o
0
(j= 1,2,3)
Fig. E12—4C
S
I
/
Shear center axis
F2,Q
SEC. 12—6. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 353
hzitial Deformations
The initial extensional strain due to the temperature increase is
= a = + a2x1x, + a3x1x3) (d)
e? = .1 d,4
JJ
= ±. dA = aa3x1 (e)
Jf
dA = —aa2x,
=
Deter,ninatio,, of (IQ
Substituting for the forces and initial deformations in (12—30), we obtain
('Lii I P Pc2 r P IL
dQJ 1 \)
(f)
L c2L 5 1)) cxa,L2
=
Example 12—5
When the material is nonlinear, we must use (12—29) rather than (12—30). To illus-
trate the nonlinear case, we determine the vertical displacement due to P at the right end
Fig. E12—5
x2
xi
P
"I
Centroid (and
shear center)
of the member shown in Fig. E12—5. We suppose that transverse shear deformation is
negligible, and take the relation between k3 and M3 as
k3 = a1M3 + (a)
354 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
Noting that only F2, and M3,0 are finite, and letting e2 = 0, the general expression for
reduces to
L
d0 k3M30dx1
Now,
M3 = —P(L — x1)
M3,Q = —(L — x1)
Then,
k3 = —Pa1(L — x1) — P3a3(L — x1)3
dQ = Pa1 + P3a3
= +
= + R1, kZk
[(eq + + + +
J
(12—34)
+ + + + dx1
The final step involves substituting for M1 using (12—32). We write the
resulting equations as
where
rr1 +
1
+
1
= fjk
=J
+ + dx1
[(eq + F1.o)F
=>
— j + +
+ + + + +
where i, j are arbitrary points, and corresponds to i.e., i has the same
direction and sense. Equation (12—37) is called Maxwell's law of reciprocal
deflections, and follows directly from (12—30). The term Ak is the actual dis-
placement of the point of application of Zk. minus the displacement of the
primary structure in the direction of Zk due to support movement, initial strain,
and the prescribed external forces. If we take Zk as an internal force quantity
(stress resultant or stress couple), Ak represents a relative displacement (trans-
lation or rotation) of adjacent cross sections.
One can interpret (12—36) as a superposition of the displacements due
to the various effects. They are generally called superposition equations in
elementary texts.t If the material is physically nonlinear, (12—36) are not
applicable, and one must start with (12—33). The approach is basically the
same as for the linear case. However, the final equations will be nonlinear.
The following examples illustrate some of the details involved in applying the
force method to statically indeterminate prismatic members.
Example 12—6
This loading (Fig. E12—6A) will produce flexure in the plane and twist about
the shear center; i.e., only F2, M3 and are finite. The member is indeterminate to the
first degree. We will take the reaction at B as the force redundant.
Fig. E12—6A
x2
x2
X3
Shear
center
Primary Structure
One can select the positive sense of the reactions arbitrarily. (See Fig. El 2—6B.) We
work with the twisting moment with respect to the shear center. The reactions are related
to the internal forces by
= Z1
R2 —
R3 =
R4 = +[MT]x,=o
E12—68
x2 x2
R3,d3
R2, d2
ZI = 0
Fig. E12—6C
q
—__
lB
Mr,o
F2,0 Shear center axis
-.——p-*' b
I qe
Bt e
F2,1
Shear center axis
358 ENGINEERING THEORY OF PRISMATIC MEMBERS CHAP. 12
F2,1=+1
MT,j = —e R2,1 = —1
M3,1=+(L—x1)
F1, = F3, 1 = M2, 1 = 0 R4•1 = —e
Equation for Z1
We suppose that the member is linearly elastic. Specializing (12—36) for this problem,
f 11Z1 = A1
and then substituting for the forces and evaluating the resulting integrals, we obtain
L Le2 L3
fit
(e)
(L — x1)dx1
—
z1 =
8
Final Forces
The total forces are obtained by superimposing the forces due to the prescribed external
system and the redundants:
F2=F20+Z1F2,1 = —q(L—x1)+Z1
MT qe(L — x1) — eZ1
M3 = — (L —
(g)
= qL — Z1
L2
R3 = LZ1
= e(qL — Z1)
SEC. 12—6. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 359
Example 12—7
This loading (Fig. E12—7A) will produce only flexure in the X1-X2 plane. We suppose
the material is physically nonlinear and take the expression for k3 as
k3 = + a1M3 + (a)
Fig. E12—7A
V.
f
///
/
F
Primary Structure
= Z1 R7 = R3 = (b)
Fig. E12—78
x1
R2, d2
z1 =0
R1,2j
R1,3=+1 R21=—1
R3,1 = —L
Compatibility Equation
Since the material is nonlinear, we must use (12—33). Neglecting the transverse shear
deformation term (e2), the compatibility condition reduces to
dx1 =
J
We substitute for k3 using (a):
— JL
(ajM3 + dx1 =
J
Now,
1W'3 = M3, + Z1M3,
= — x1)2 + Z1(L — xt)
Introducing (g) in (f), we obtain the following cubic equation for Z1:
(asLs) + +
z? +
=
— — — x1)dx1
+ +
For the physically linear case,
030
and (h) reduces to
— fLko(L
= + — — — xi)dxi]
Example 12—8
The member shown (Fig. E12—8A) is fixed at both ends. We consider the case where the
material is linearly elastic, and there are no support movements or initial strains. We take
the end actions at B referred to the shear Center as the force redundants.
=
Z2=
Z3 = MTB
The forces acting on the primary structure are shown in Fig. E12—8B.
Fig. E12—8A
tP
x2
Shear
• a b
Fig. E12—8B
z3
x3
Fig. E12—8C
M30
Shear center axis
MTO ( P
A
Px3
F2,0
_________________
Z = +1
Fig. E12—8D
Al31
'( ti
F2,1 Shear center axis
L—x1
'-I
Z2 = +1
Fig. E12—8E
M3,2
M72
(
z3 = +1
Fig. E12—8F
Al33
(I ////
I. —x1 Shear center axis
Goinpatibility Equations
The compatibility equations for this problem have the form
JkJZJ = (k = 1,2,3)
+ +
fkj =
i:
= f + +
Substituting for the various forces and evaluating the resulting integrals lead to the fol-
lowing equations:
L I) \ +l—1Z2
/l——+-—-—1Z1 7 V
=
[a I (a3 a2b
\GA2 3E13) [GA2 El3 \ 3 2
(L2\ Z1 /L\ Z2 = Pa2
(g)
+
'\GJJ GJ
Finally, solving (g), we obtain
6E13
=
2b1 PICA
—P 1±
L2GAZ
Z3 Z3__Pox3
Application
Suppose the member is subjected to the distributed loading shown in Fig. E12—8G.
We can determine the force redundants by substituting for P, a, and b in (h),
P = q dx1
a=
b=L — x1
where
12E13
C= 1 +
L2GA2
z2 =
12
Fig. E12—80
x2
q(xj)
H L
H
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHaNKO, S. J. : Advanced Strength of Materials, Van Nostrand, New York, 1941.
2. HETENY!, M.: Beams on Elastic Foundation, University of Michigan Press, Ann Arbor,
1946.
3. Noiuus, C. H., and J. B. Elementary Structural Analysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1960.
4. ASPLUND, S. 0.: Structural Mechanics: Classical and Matrix Methods, Prentice-Hall,
1966.
5. DEN HARTOG, J. P.: Advanced Strength of Materials, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
6. ODEN, J. T.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
7. Geac, J. M. and WEAVER, W.: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, 1965.
8. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1966.
PROBLEMS
12-1. The accompanying sketch shows a sandwich beam consisting of a
core and symmetrical face plates. The distribution of normal stress over the
depth is determined by assuming a linear variation for the extensional strain:
PROBLEMS 365
= —x2k3
M3 + Ef13,f)k3
To simplify the notation, we drop the subscript and write (b) as
iVI
Prob. 12—1
x2
012 A*
f
M3
I
The shearing stress distribution is determined by applying the engineering
theory developed in Sec. 11—7. Integrating the axial force-equilibrium equation
over the area A* and assuming is constant over the width, we obtain
1
(17*) dA
= J) 2
Refer to Example 12—1. Specialize Equation (q) for this section and
discuss when transverse shear deformation has to be considered.
12—2. Using the displacement method, determine the complete solution
for the problem presented in the accompanying sketch. Comment on the
influence of transverse shear deformation.
Prob. 12—2
q = const
F b
x1
12—3. For the problem sketched, determine the complete solution by the
displacement method.
12—4. Determine the solution for the cases sketched. Express the solution
in terms of the functions defined by (12—26).
PROBLEMS 367
Prob. 12—3
x2
q const
Shear
HeH
Prob. 12—4
(0)
/////////////////////////////7///////////////////
Ib)
Jr
(c)
3 3
2 (k/4E1)'14
A reasonable upper limit on c is
c<
Prob. 12—5
1 . (
J J J J
> ...—
r r r r
+ C
+
(a)
IIIC+C
L,E,11
a/2
/7/7 /7/7 7
(b)
Consider the beam of part b, supported by cross members which are fixed
at their ends. Following the approach outlined above, determine the distribu-
tion of force applied to the cross members due to the concentrated load, P.
PROBLEMS 369
— +
We let
&112
and (a) takes the form
d4 ,12
4 u—q—
dx dx 2
Note that is dimensionless and A has units of 1/length. The homogeneous
solution is
u cos bx + C2 sin bx) + cos bx + C4 sin bx)
where
a= 2(1 +
—
b = 2(1
/////////)///////////// ////////////)//////// X
L
370 ENGINEERING THEORY OF MEMBERS CHAP, 12
12—7. Refer to the sketch for Prob. 12—3. Determine the reaction R and
centroidal displacements at x1 L/2 due to a concentrated force Pi2 applied
to the web at x1 L/2. Employ the force method.
12—8. Refer to Example 12—7. Assuming Equation (h) is solved for Z1,
discuss how you would determine the translation u2 at x1 = L/2.
12—9. Consider the four-span beam shown. Assume linearly elastic be-
havior, the shear center coincides with the centroid, and planar loading.
(a) Compare the following choices for the force redundants with respect
to computational effort:
1. reactions at the interior supports
2. bending moments at the interior supports
(b) Discuss how you would employ Maxwell's law of reciprocal detlections
to generate influence lines for the redundants due to a concentrated
force moving from left to right.
Prob. 12—9
12—10. Consider a linearly elastic member fixed at both ends and subjected
to a temperature increase
The St. Venant flexural shear flow distribution is obtained by applying the
engineering theory developed in Sec. 11—7. This distribution is statically equiva-
lent to F2, F3 acting at the shear center. It follows that the additional shear
stresses, and due to warping restraint must be statically equivalent
to only a torsional moment:
Sfri2 dA 0
(13—2)
dA = 0
To account for warping restraint, one must modify the torsion relations. We
will still assume the cross section is rigid with respect to in-plane deformation.
371
372 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
the St. Venant theory developed in Chapter 11), one sets f = co1, i = const
(i.e.,
and = For unrestrained variable torsion (i.e., the engineering theory
developed in Chapter 12), one sets f = 0. Since there are seven displacement
parameters, application of the principle of virtual displacements will result in
seven equilibrium equations.
x3
Shear center
— —:: — —e U52
I
x2
Centroid
t This derivation is restricted to linear geometry. The nonlinear strain expansions are detived
in Sec. 13—9.
374 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
To reduce the right-hand side of (a), we refer the transverse loading to the
shear center, The additional load terms are
m4, = 4picb dS = distributed bimornent
(136)
= $5pjcb dA = external bimoment at an end section (x1 = 0, L)
Then
SJJbT Au d(vol.) + SSPT Au d(surface area)
= Au1 + b2 1xu32 + b3 Au,3 ± mr + rn2 Aw2
+ m3 Aw3 + m# Af]dx1 + JF1 Au1 + F2 Au,2
+ F3Au,3 + MTLXWI + M2Aw2 + M3 Aw3 +
The definitions of mj, mj', F,,, are the same as for the engineering
theory.
Finally, we equate (b), (c) and require the relation to be satisfied for arbitrary
variations of the displacement parameters. This step involves first integrating
(b) by parts to eliminate the derivatives and then equating the coefficients of
the displacement parameters. The resulting equilibrium equations and bound-
ary conditions are as follows:
Equilibrium Equations
F1 + b1 0
F2, + b2 0
F3, 1 + b3 = 0
MTI+m-I-=O
M2, 1 — F3 + rn2 = 0
M3,1 + F2 + m3 = 0
M4, — MR + 0
u1 = u1 or F1 = —F1
Us2 or F2 =
US3 or F3 —F3
w1=w1 or Mr=—MT
or M2 =
w3=co3 or
f=J or
Boundary conditions at x1 = L
These are the same as for x1 = 0 with the minus sign replaced with a plus sign.
For example:
f=J or
SEC. 13—3. DISPLACEMENT MODEL 375
We recognize the first six equations as the governing equations for the
engineering theory. The additional equation,
O<xj<L
f=f or
is due to warping restraint. Also, we see that one specifies either f or the
bimoment at the ends of the member. The condition f = 7' applies when the
end cross section is restrained with respect to warping. If the end cross section
is free to warp, the boundary condition is = ± M4, (+ for x1 = L).
To interpret the equation relating MR and the bimoment, we consider the
definition for MR,
MR = +
Integrating (e) by parts leads to
= SS4(ail,2 + a13, 3)dA
Utilizing the axial stress equilibrium equation,
a12, 2 + c713, 3 + a11, 1 0
we can write
MR = + JJç'au,j dA
We see that (h) corresponds to the axial equilibrium equations weighted with
respect to
$$(a12,2 + a13,3 + + 4(PI — — x,,3a13)çdS = 0
(i)
i + — MR = 0
t M5 = = 0 for St. Venant (pure) torsion. We neglect and for unrestrained variab'e
torsion.
376 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Assuming (13—9) is satisfied, and noting that X2, X3 are principal centroidal
axes, the expressions for F1, M2, M3, and the reduce to:
EAu1,1
M2 E12w2,1
13—10
M3 E13a,3 1
j
where
cIA
We have included the subscript r on E to keep track of the normal stress due
to warping restraint. Inverting (13—10) and then substituting in the expression
for lead to
F1 M2 M3
'Yii + — + (13—Il)
13
F2 1 — (03 + i) + fS2
F3 = A(u33, i + + fS3
1 (13—12)
11c01,1
— + —
= + + +
where
Si =
polar moment of inertia = 12 + 13
— x3q5,2)dA
= + +
t F1 = M2 = = 0 for c11 due to warping restraint.
SEC. 13—3. DISPLACEMENT MODEL 377
a12
—
+G 1 + f 3
—
The essential step is the selection of which, to this point,must satisfy only
the ortliogonality conditions (13—9). To gain some insight as to a suitable form
for let us reexamine the St. Venant theory of unrestrained torsion. We
suppose the section twists about an arbitrary point instead .of about
the centroid as in Sec. 11—2. The displacement expansions are
u2 = —w1(x3 — U3 coj(x2
=
where i= M1/GJ = const. Operating on (a) leads to
=0
7 3 +
The equation and boundary condition for follow from the axial equilibrium
equation and boundary condition,
mA
— — on S
We can express as
= C — + x'2x3 +
where C is also an arbitrary constant. The boundary condition and expressions
for tile stresses become
a12 = — x3)
M1 -
cr13 3 + x2)
Since depends only on the cross section, it follows that the stress distribution
378 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
and torsional constant are independent of the center of twist. Also, one can
showt that
SJcbt,2dA = = 0
3 — 2)dA $S[(4)t. 2) + 3)2]dA
C=
= dA
Now, one can shows that the equations for are identical to the equations
for the coordinates of the shear center when the cross section is considered to
be rigid with respect to in-plane deformation. That is, the warping function
for unrestrained torsion about the shear center is orthogonal with respect to
1, x2, x3.
Summarizing, we have shown that
Properties
S2 = =
14, 14,
'13—15
2) + 3)2]dA
Shear Stresses
F2
a12 = + G(—x3co1,1 +
(13—16)
= + G(x2w1,1 + f4)t,
Force-Displacement Relations
MT = G11w1, i — + —
MR = w1, — + .T2F3
F3
j + W2 + x2(f Wi,
f — to1, = (x3F2 —
—,
x21'3)
(13—18)
MT = GJW1,1
and
F2(1 F3( x2x3
\J1
(13—19)
F2( F3!'!
us3,1 = to2 +
G\ + -- +
14,
The shearing stress distributions due to F2, F3 do not satisfy the stress boundary
condition
+ 0 on S
However, one can show that they satisfy
+ =0
for arbitrary F2, F3. Equations (13—19) are similar in form to the results
obtained in Chapter 12, which were based on shear stress expansions satisfying
(a) identically on the boundary.
Finally, we point out that torsion and flexure are uncoupled only when
warping restraint is neglected (F. = 0). Equations (13—17) show that restrained
torsion results in translation of the shear center. We will return to this point in
the next section.
x3
T2b
/ A
Sect. A-A
respectto both rotation and warping while the right end (x1 = L) is free to
warp. The boundary conditions are
x1=O
x1=L M1=M (a)
(h)
G111,
and then substituting in (g) lead to
(i)
—
where 2 is defined as
G [i,, 13 - 21
Note that has units of(1/length)2. The solution of(i) and (h) which satisfies
the boundary conditions (e) is (we drop the subscript on x for convenience)
=
I,fr+ '1
The rate of decay of the exponential terms depends on For )L > 2.5,
we can take tanh )L 1, and the solution reduces to
We see that is a measure of the length, Lh, of the interval in which warping
restraint is significant. We refer to Lb as the characteristic length or boundary
layer. By definition,
0 (13—24)
In what follows, we shall take
(13—25)
The results obtained show that is the key parameter. Now, depends on
the ratio G/ET and on terms derived from the assumed warping function. If
382 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
J — (13—26)
— J
At this point, we restrict the discussion to a rectangular section (see Fig. 13—2)
and 4) = We evaluate the various integrals defined by (13—15) and write
the results as
J=
= K1a3b (13—27)
=
where the K's are dimensionless functions of b/a. With these definitions, the
expression for takes the form
/G'\112 1
2= ---
—
K2-
K
-
The coefficients are tabulated in Table 13—1. We see that is essentially
constant. Assuming E 2.6G and K1 3.2, we find 2/b and Lb 2b.
The influence of warping restraint is confined to a region of the order of the
depth. Although this result was derived for a rectangular cross section, we will
show later that it is typical of solid and also thin-walled closed cross sections.
Table 13—1
b
/<4
We consider next the problem of locating the center of twist. We utilize the
solution corresponding to 4) and large
-
(13—29)
M1 ,,
—e
x )
We see that the center of twist approaches the shear center as x increases. The
maximum difference occurs at x = 0 and the minimum at x = L.
1
= =—
1—
2L!1
For unrestrained warping, E, = 0, = oc, and g = 1.
By combining (a) and (b), we obtain a variational principle which leads to both
sets of equations. The stationary requirement,
— liT11 — V*)d(vol.) — d(surface area)] = 0 (13—33)
See Ref. 11 and Prob. 10—28. Reissner's principle applies for arbitrary geometry and elastic
material. This discussion is restricted to linear geometry. The nonlinear case is treated in Sec. 13—9.
384 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRTSMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
The first step was carried out in Sec. 13—2 and the expanded form of 5$ dA
is given by (b) of Sec. 13—2. Letting represent the complementary energy
per unit length along X1, and using (13—4), the stationary requirement on the
stresses (Equation 13—34) expands to
+ 1 — W3) + öF3(u,3, i + co2) + i
13—35)
+ + + + — =o
In order to proceed further, we must express in terms of the force parameters
(F1, F2, ..., MR). Equating the coefficients of each force variation to zero
results in the force-displacement relations.
Instead of applying (13—34), one can also obtain (13—35) by applying the
principle of virtual forces to a differential element. We followed this approach
in Chapter 12 and, since it is of interest, we outline the additional steps required
for restrained torsion. One starts with (see Fig. 13—3)
5V* dx1 = op + [$$uT ISp (a)
The boundary forces are the stress components acting on the end faces. Taking
u according to (13—3) and considering only MR. we have
$5
oiiTudA = ±SJISrsTudA
= ±(ISMTWI + ISM4f)
where the plus sign applies for a positive face. The virtual-force system must
be statically permissible, i.e., it must satisfy the one-dimensional equilibrium
equations. This requires
const
=
Then,
= dxi{f,i + w1,1
(d)
= dx1{f 0M4 + .[ISMR + 1 ISMT}
SEC. 13—5. MIXED FORMULATION 385
—aM,5 6Mg, +
WI o,1+w11dx1
f f + f,1 dxj
= dA + + (13-36)
if if
It remains to introduce expansions for the stress components in terms of the
force parameters such that the definition equations for the force parameters
are identically satisfied.
Considering first the normal stress, we can
F1 M2 M3
(a)
—, 1 I
t The approach based on the principle of virtual forces is not applicable for the geometrically
nonlinear case.
See 1). Problem treats the case of a nonhomogeneous material.
§ F1 = = M3 = 0 for due to warping restraint.
386 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
W3, I
L.13
f, —
These expansions coincide with the corresponding relations obtained with the
displacement model (see (13—10)).
The shearing stress distribution must satisfy thc definition equations for
F2, F3, MT and MR identically. We can obtain suitable expansions by adding
a term due to warping restraint to the results for unrestrained torsion and
fiexure. We write
('If = + + (13—37)
r MR
y
('12.2 + ('13.3 = (mA)
4 —-
+ 0 (on 5)
SEC. 13—5. MIXED FORMULAflON 387
= d
= 0 at a free edge
We take and to be constant over the thickness t and work with the shear
flow qr Equation (d) becomes
= 1çô1
(13—43)
qV
= 0 at a free edge
The orthogonality conditions on and boundary condition on ensure that
= (IS — 0
(13—44)
= 0
V*,hear + + + + +
JJ (134)
(a)
LI
2GJ
11* —
V uf
The coupling term, 1/A23, vanishes when the section has an axis of symmetry.
Also = 0 is a consequence of our assuming the cross section is rigid with
respect to in-plane deformation.
We evaluate using (13—39) ((13—43) for the thin-walled case), and write
the results as
= + (13—46)
if
where Cr is a dimensionless factor which depends on q5.
The coupling between unrestrained and restrained torsion is expressed as
= + (13-47)
if
It is obvious that = 0 for a thin-walled open section since is an odd
function of n whereas a' is constant over the, thickness. We will show later
that it is possible to make vanish for a closed section by specializing the
homogeneous solution of (13—43). Therefore, in what follows, we will take
Cur 0
Finally, we write the coupling bctwcen flex ural and restrained torsion as
= +
(13—48)
1
= + X2rF3Mg)
Us3,1 + 0)2 +
= GA23 A3 J
(13—49)
Wi.j
=
C, 1
I+I = MR + (x3,F2 + x2,F3)
The corresponding relations for the displacement model are given by (13—12).
Up to this point, we have required to satisfy the orthogonality relations
and also determined a' such that there is no energy coupling between au and
(C,1, = 0). If, in addition, we take
5) — If" — X3X2
— —
-t-- X2X3 -r
ISC
—
SEC. 13—6. RESTRAINED TORSION—MIXED FORMULATION 389
Cçt, = +1
(13—50
MrT=+MR
Note that is the warping function for unrestrained torsion about the shear
center. We discuss the determination of 4> in Secs. 13—7 and 13—8.
One neglects shear deformations due to flexure by setting
(13-51)
This assumption leads to the center of twist coinciding with the shear center and
1 = (13—53)
In what follows, we outline the solution procedure for restrained torsion and
list results for various loadings. We then discuss the application to open and
closed cross section.
Equilibrium Equations
MT. 1 + 112T = 0
MT— AK
—
Force-Displacement Relations (4>
E,.l4,j 1
= GJw1,1
GJ
+f)
f See Prob. 13—3. We include the minus sign so that C1 will be positive.
390 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Boundary Conditions
MT or
prescribed at each end
or
u52, 1 =
=
We start by integrating (a):
MT C1 — dx1 = C1 + (13—54)
Substituting (c) in (b) and (13—54) leads to the governing equations for w1 and f:
(1 + Cr)O)i,t +
GJ(w1,1 + f) = 0
After some manipulation, (f) becomes
Eric,, C1x1 I C
f —
=
(C1 +
cc =
1 + Cr
(1355)
22 C
ErI#
Equation (g) corresponds to (h), (i) of Sec. 13—4.
The general solution for f and has the following form:
f C3 cosh 2x + C4 sinh 2x — +
Wi = + C2 + (13—56)
Example 13—1
Cantilever—Concentrated Moment
Fig. E13—1
X1
x=O cv1=f=O
x=L
f. = 0
Starting with (13—54), we set = 0 and C1 = M. The remaining constants are deter-
mined from
w1—f——0 atx=0
atx=L
and the final solution ist
M[ coshA(L—x)
GJ cosh AL
r —c 1 (13—57)
M sinh ).(L — x)
LA cosh ,,L.
[
cosh
M —
t The corresponding solution based on the displacement model is given by (13—22), (13—26).
The expressions for! differ by a minus sign. This is due to our choice of We took
in the displacement model and = in the mixed model.
_______
Note that C, 1 when the complementary energy term due to the restrained torsion
shear stress (o') is neglected.
The translations of the shear center are obtained by integrating
u,2,, = =
I M (13-58)
M1dx=x—co1
u=j
Let denote the coordinates and translations of the center of twist. By definition,
= u,2 — —x3) = 0
=u,3 + —X2)=0
Substituting for and w1, we obtain t
X2 — — — gx3,
g —1 + (13—59)
c
x — ——f—-— [sinh ).L — sinh — x1]
A. cosh ,.L
(13—60)
1
1
+
Note that Xi,. = 0 if X,, (j k) is an axis of symmetry for the cross section. Also, x2. =
x3,.= 0 if we neglect shear deformation due to the restrained shear stress and, in this
case, the center of twist coincides with the shear center throughout the length.
Example 13—2
We consider next the case where warping is restrained at both ends; the left end (x = 0)
is fixed and the right end rotates a specified amount w under the action of a torsional
moment. The boundary conditions are
x=0 co1=f=0
x=L ce1=w [=0
f See (13—31), (13—32) for the displacement model solution.
There is no twist or translation at x = 0. We determine g(O) by applying L'I-IOspital's rule
to (13—59).
SEC. 13—6. RESTRAINED TORSION—MIXED FORMULATION 393
To simplify the analysis, we suppose there is no distributed load. Starting with the
general solution,
MT = C1
f = C3 cosh Ax + C4 sinh —
C3=— 11—c
GJ
= cosh AL s = sinh AL
= 4
= —
We write the relation between the end rotation, (0, and the end moment M, as
M
L,5
=
where L,ff denotes the effective length:
=L
r 2C (c— 1'\1
(13-62)
= L(1 — cC3)
The following table shows the variation of with AL. For AL > 4, C2 2/AL. Note
that = 1 if transverse shear deformation due to restrained torsion is neglected.
AL C3
0.5 0.98
1 .924
2 .76
3 .60
4 .48
394 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Example 13—3
MT = C1 — ?flX
C3 C4. C1 flIX
f= —coshAx + +
—
C1 m /x2 c (a)
x + C2 + (C3 sirth Ax + C4 cosh Ax)
= — —
We consider the boundary conditions to be identical at both ends and measure x from the
midpoint (Fig. E13—3). Symmetry requires
MT=O}
atx=O (b)
[= sinh Ax + x (13-63)
= C2 — + — cosh xx
We treat first the case where the end section is fixed with respect to both rotation and
warping. Requiring (13—63) to satisfy
f= =0 at x = L/2 (a)
results in
I= {x — sinh Ax}
AL . AL
c= s=
The solution represents an upper bound. A lower bound is obtained by allowing the
section to wrap, i.e., by taking
SEC. 13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 395
Fig. E13—3
—x1
f= {x — sinh
xc
mL2 (1 [ C,
— j+ — c)
= —mx
( C (13—65)
—x+fsinhAx
=
IC, I —
cosh Ax
AL
c= cosh
By definition, Ic1 = We work with q" rather than to facilitate treatment of closed
and mixed sections where one generates q" in terms of
396 RESTRAfNED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
—
for an open section. Then, taking = and integrating leads to
pscclS (13—67)
sP
Note that one can select the sense of S arbitrarily. Also, varies linearly with
S when the segment is straight. The constant is evaluated by enforcing the
orthogonality condition —* F1 = 0),
dS =0
If the section has an axis of symmetry, = 0, if we take P on the symmetry
axis. The remaining orthogonality conditions (a'j1 ?v.t2 = M3 0),
$4x2tdS = 0
x3
Shear center
IPsc
x2
When the section has branches, we apply (13—67) to each branch. One has
only to require continuity of 4) at the junction point. As an illustration, consider
the section shown in Fig. 13—5. The distribution of 4) for the three branches is
given by
A— B 4) 4)p+$gpscdS
B—C
B—D b4)B+JopscdS
We are taking the origin at B for branches B — C and B — D.
tSeeProb. 13—1.
SEC. 13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS 397
x3
S.q
S,q
Once and are known, we can evaluate 1w,, and with (13—10), (13—46):
= JJqYdA = 542tdS
Cr = +
if
In order to evaluate XZr, X3r, we need the fiexural shear stress distributions.
We let q(J) be the distribution due to and write
qU) (13—71)
j=2 '(=3
j=3 k= 2
398 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
I q q X3r + X21.
j —
Example 13—4
Symmetrical I Section
The I section shown (Fig. El 3—4A) has two axes of symmetry; it follows that the shear
center coincides with the centroid and the warping function is odd with respect to K2, X3.
Fig. E13—4A
x3
1,
Applying (13—67), we obtain
q5=O forweb
q5 = S for flange
The shear flow vanishes at S = ± b/2. Applying (13—69) and starting from pt. A, we find
(25)2]
=
= S-b/2
The distributions of and q' are shown in Fig. E13—4B, where the arrows indicate the
sense of q' for + Ms-.
Fig. E13—48
b2ht
Plot Plot of qr
= b/h
ht3
3 = +
= th5
(t)2
=
8(1 +
=
The dimensionless parameters occurring in the solution of the differential equations
for the mixed formulations are and AL (see (13—55)). Using (c) and assuming a value
of 1/3 for Poisson's ratio, we write
[3(1 +
=
AL =
400 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PR!SMATtC MEMBER CHAP. 13
2.4 3
0.75 2.66 4.22
0.50 3.2 6.93
Since (t/h)2 << 1 and 0(1), we see that 1. The warping parameter, ),L, depends
on t//i as well as L/h. This is the essential difference between open and closed cross sections.
For the solid section, we found that AL = 0(L/h) and, since L/h is generally large in com-
parison to unity, the influence of restrained warping is Iocalized.f The value of AL for an
open section is O(L//,) 00/1,) and the effect of warping restraint is no longer confined to a
region on the order of the depth at the end but extends further into the interior.
We consider next the determination of the stresses due to restrained warping. The
general expressions are
M4,
r q
dTts
= 7
Using the distribution for çb and qr shown above, the maximum values of normal and shear
stress are
6
=
To gain some insight as to the relative magnitude of the various strcsses, we consider
a member fully restrained at one end and subjected to a torsional moment M at the other
end. This problem is solved in Example 13—1. The maximum values of the moments are
tanh
AL atx = 0
= C5M J
We substitute for the moments in (f), (g) and write the results in terms the maximum
Lh 4
0
L ;.L
SEC. 13—7. APPLICATION TO THIN-WALLED OPEN CROSS SECTIONS
(f))
Mt
b
1?
1 2 1.5
0.75 2.11 1.67
0.50 2.31 2
= 0(d)
The additional shearing stress (at) is small in comparison to the unrestrained valu
Therefore, it is reasonable to neglect the terms in the complementary energy density due
to ic., to take C, 0 and = 1 for an open section. We will show in the next section
that this assumption is not valid for a closed section.
Example 13—5
Channel Section
We consider next the channel section shown in Fig. El3—SA. Since X2 is an axis of
symmetry, = x3, = 0. The expressions for the location of the centroid, shear center,
Fig. E13—5A
S
Shear
center
x2
H°
402 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
and 12 are
= b
I+
e=b =be
I+
th3
b
h
b
?
h
1.00 0.429
0.75 0.409
0.50 0.375
Segment 1—2
6
Psc =
hh(
= - -S
Segment 2—3
bh( 2S\
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—5B. Since? < 1/2, the maximum value of q5 occurs
at point I (and 4).
We generate next the distribution of starting at point 1 (since q = 0 at that point)
and using (b):
Segment 1—2
S
bin 152
Segment 2—3
/ '\
+ +
s2
=
Fig. E13—5B
—(1— e)
—e
Distribution of
Fig. E13—SC
D2®
D1
)+Mi
I
D2
D2 0
0
Distribution of qr/1242t
The expressions lbr J, and AL are written in the same form as for the previous
example:
(1 ±
I= =
-
I —h5
+
c
(t'\2 ± + + + (t\2
= f=
Cs =
AL = (t) =
404 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
The following table shows the variation and with b/h for G/E. = 3/8. i.e., Poisson's
ratio equal to 1/3. Note that the comments made for the wide-flange section also apply
to the channel section.
b
c =—
h
1 2.33 2.55
0.75 2.65 3.39
0.50 3.4 5.24
In order to evaluate X2r, we need the flexural shear stress distribution due to F3. Applying
(11—106) leads to
Segment 1—2
4(3)
Segment 2—3
4(3) = — — S)
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—SD; the arrows indicate the sense of q for a +F3.
Fig. E13—5D
I t÷F3
—1
Distribution of lb/it
/2
SEC. 13—8. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 405
(t\2
=
=
(1 + + +
1 0.926
0.5 1.03
In Example 13—1, we determined expressions for the coordinates of the center of twist
in terms of .'c,, and It is of interest to evaluate these expressions for this cross section.
The coordinates at x 0(sec (13—59), (13—60)) are
= 0
= X2
——i-
—1 +
we obtain
X2 = —
1 0.476 0.836
0.5 0.625 0.485
where A is the area enclosed by the centerline curve. The shearing stress varies
linearly over the thickness,
C'\
= + +
—) =
but the open-section term has a zero resultant.
x3
q
x2
—
Substituting for qU in (13—66), taking 4 and integrating from point
P lead to
CS
= + dS — C (13—73)
We determine by enforcing
= 0
q=—-7--q
14
+ Q4
#x24.t =
We merely have to identify this term as the moment of the flexural shear stress about the shear
center. See Prob. 11-12.
SEC. 13—8. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 407
= (13—74)
Noting that is constant for a single cell, and using (e), we obtain
f dS
= (13—75)
——
The flexural shear flow distributions for F2, F3 are generated with (11—110).
We merely point out here that there is no energy coupling between qU and
quqf 0 (f)
One can interpret (13—74) and (f) as requiring qr to lead to no twist deforma-
tion, i.e., w1 0. We have expressed the fiexural shear flows as (see (13—71)):
ft — (J) — FJ_0) = 2 k
qjij=q j=3 k=2
Finally, the definition equations for the cross-sectional properties have the
same form as for the open-section:
Eq. 13—70 Cr
Eq. 13—72
X2 is an axis of symmetry. Then, is an odd function of x3. If we
take the origin for S (point p) on the X2 axis, = 0. Also, is an even func-
tion of x3 and = 0. In what follows, we illustrate the application of the
procedure to a rectangular cross section.
Example 13—6
ci + b
fa — b\
The distribution is plotted in Fig. E13—6B. Note that = 0 when a = b, i.e., a square
section of constant thickness does not warp.
408 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Fig. E13-.6A
T - x2
Centroid
2a—
Fig. E13—6B
(a—b
+ b
Distribution of
dS
a—b
-
.11
SEC. 13—8. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 409
2a(S 1(S\2\ j/ 2a
2 \a+b
and is plotted in Fig. E13—6C. Note that corresponds to q' acting in the clockwise
(— S) direction for + Ms-. Also, D is negative for b > a.
Fig. E13—6C
x3
T
2a
b
q'/D
qr(+ D- 2
and express the various coefficients in terms of a, t, and The resulting relations are
5(1
9(1
I (G'\ / \) 1/2 L L
=
x2, = x3,. 0
The variation of C,, and with b/a is shown in the table below;
= --
b
C,
.'
L;f for
G 3
a \ E 8
cc 0 0.98
2 10.43 0.0877 1.27
3 4.41 0.185 1.39
We found
(g)
=0
T)
for an open section. Our results for the single cell indicate that
IL
=0
C,>> 1
C, 1
for a closed section. We obtained a similar result for using the displacement-model
formulation for a solid section. Since is due to the restrained shearing stress (q'), we
see that shear deformation due to q' cannot be neglected for a closed cross section.
We discuss next the determination of the normal and shearing stresses due to warping.
The general expressions are
°isq q'
t tie
SEC. 13—8. THIN-WALLED CLOSED CROSS SECTIONS 411
The maximum normal stress occurs at point 2 while the maximum shear stress can occur
at either points I or 3.
We consider the same problem as was treated in Example 13—4, i.e., a member fully
restrained at one end and subjected to a torsional moment M at the other end. We ex-
press the stresses in terms of ag,, the maximum shear stress for unrestrained torsion,
M( C
+
= J
which reduces to
MC M
= 7 =
since we are considering the section to be thin-walled. The maximum stresses are
2 = i tanh 2.L
0$ ,nax,I =
[3C,1112
— S.C
The variation of and 2 with height/width is shown below. We are taking Poisson's
ratio equal to 1/3.
1 0 0 0
2 1.04 —0.35 +0.44
3 —1.51 —0.46 +0.65
For large tanh I and we see that both the normal and shear stress are of the
order of the unrestrained-torsion stress. In the open section case, we found the restrained-
torsion shear stress to be of the order of (thickness/depth) times the unrestrained shear
stress.
We let
(U
— WIT
—
412 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
"2
+
q,S
q1 ,S1
The constants C1, C2 are determined by requiring each cell to have the same
twist deformation, w1, Enforcing (11—67),t
= =
4' =
(13—76)
a
= Psc —
7
We start at point P1 in cell 1 and integrate around the centerline, enforcing
continuity of 4, at the junction points b, c, and d. For example, at b, we require
where Zj0 is the open section distribution and is due to The dis-
tribution, has the same form as We just have to replace C with
C'S. We generate by integrating (i) around the centerline, and enforcing
equilibrium at the junction points. For example, at point b (see Fig. 13—7),
= +
Note that = 0 at points P1, P2. e andf
The redundant shear flows are evaluated by requiring no energy coupling
between qU and qr which is equivalent to requiring qr to lead to no twist de-
formation, j. Noting (c), we can write
= 0 j = 1,2 (13—79)
Once 4) and zir are known, the cross-sectional properties (1 , Ci., X2r, xar)
can be evaluated. Also we can readily generalize the above approach for an
n-cell section.
+ F3[u53 S + — t+
+ M2{w2, 1 — co1, 1(u52 i + x3w1,
+ M3[w3, i — w1, i — T2w1. 1)]
+ M0f1 + MRf
1
+ i+ MQW1W1, 1}dxj
f See Eqs. 13—33 and corresponding footnote. We are working with Kirchhoff Stress and
Lagrangian strain here.
See Sec. 10—3. Eq. 10—28. Tile displacement expansions assume small-finite rotation, i.e.,
sin w and cos w 1. To be consistent, we must use (10—28).
SEC. 13—9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS 415
+
MT +
Il _.-
where 4,, f, q, h2 and h3 are functions of x2, x3. Introducing (a) in the definition
equations for and MQ leads to
$3 = +
if
/34,
4,
416 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
andt
MQ — + + +
$J(x2h2k +xlh3k)dA (k = 2, 3)
(13—85)
=
= +
Certain coefficients vanish if the cross section has an axis of symmetry4 One
can readily verify that
fi1F1
(13—86)
MQ 0
when the section is doubly symmetric. For generality, we will retain all the
terms here.
The complementary energy density function has the same form as for the
linear case:
— 1 1
= —----' + + —-—— + ——'
2Ek.,A '2 13)
+ + ((Mw +
+ +
+ + X2rF3)
— + F3 + w1F2 — wi,1M3} + b3 = 0
(1 + + (1 + 1
1 +
1 — 1 + 2J32w1,
+ + + = 0
M2, 1 — F3+ m2 = 0
M3,1 + F2 + m3 = 0
— +
t See Prob. 13—il.
See Prob. 13—12.
SEC. 13—9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS 417
where
Relations
= 1+ 1+ 1 + Wj, i — x2uS3, + i)
1FF2 X3r 1 —
+ + = — w3 + wi[u53, 1 — Wj, 1/33]
1FF2 F3 1
MrTJ =
+ + (02 + 1+
= +
G
(13—88)
M
= (02,1 + (0l,j(—US2,j + /32(01,1)
= + + /33(01,1)
= 1. + j
f prescribed or = ±
These equations simplify considerably when the cross section is symmetric
and transverse shear deformation is neglected.1' We discuss the general solution
of (13—88) in Chapter 18. The following example treats one of the
cases, a member subjected to an axial force and torsional moment.
Example 13—7
We consider a prismatic member (see Fig. E13—7A) having a doubly symmetric cross
section, fully restrained at one end and loaded by an axial force P and torsional moment
M. We are interested here in evaluating the influence of axial force on the torsional
behavior. The linear solution (with no axial force) was derived in Example 13—i.
Fig. E13—7A
x2
P M
L
F
Force-Displacement Relations
= GJw11
= ErI,ji
F1 = i +
Boundary conditions
.xi=O
xj = L F1 P = 0 M1 + J3tF1w1,1 = Al
Integrating the last two equations in (a) and noting the boundary conditions, lead to
F1 = const =P
M1 + /31F1w1, = corlst =M
The first equilibrium equation takes the form
2
1,11
SEC. 13—9. GOVERNING EQUATIONS 419
where
P11
7;:ij GJA
2GJ i±P
I+ + F)
This expression reduces to Equation (g) of Sec. 13—6 when P = 0. Once f is known,
we can determine the rotation by integrating (d), which expands to
+ F
+
M— f
when we substitute for M1 using (b).
The general solution is,
M
f= C1 cosli ,ux + C2 smh
[GJ (i +
+
= C3 + Mx {i + — {C1 sinh px + C2 cosh
(We drop the subscript on x1 for convenience.) Finally, specializing (g) for these particular
boundary conditions result in
11
(;J
In order for to be less than the yield stress, (J/11) must be small with respect to unity.
As an illustration, consider the section shown in Fig. E13—7B. The various coefficients
(see Example 13—4) are
J= +
420 RESTRAINED TORSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
Fig. E13—78
x3
X2
and
r,, (t'\2(
G
REFERENCES
1. VON T., and N. B. CHRISTENSEN: "Methods of Analysis of Torsion with
Variable Twist," J. Aero. Sci., pp. 110—124, April 1944.
2. TIMOSHENKO, S. J:: "Theory of Bending, Torsion and Buckling of Thin-Walled
Members of Open Cross Section," J. Franklin Inst., pp.559—609, 1945.
3. VON KARMAN, T.. and W. C. CHIEN: "Torsion with Variable Twist," J. Aero. Sci.,
Vol. 13, No. 10, pp. 503—510, October 1946.
4. BENSCOTER, S. U.: "Secondary Stresses in Thin-Walled Beams with Closed Cross
Sections," NACA—TN 2529, Washington, D. C., 1951.
5. BENSCOTER, S. U.: "A Theory of Torsion Bending for Multiceil Beams," J. Appi.
Mech., Vol 21, No. 1, 1954.
6. VLASOV, V. Z.: Thin Walled Elastic Brains, israel Program for Scientific Translations,
Office of Technical Services, IJ.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington. D.C. 1961.
7. HEILIG, R.: "Der Schuberverformungseinfiuss auf die Wölbkrafttorsion Von Stilben
mit offenern Profil," Der Stahlbau, April 1961.
8. HEILIG, R,: "l3eitrag zur Theorie der Kastentrhger beliehiger
Der Stahlbau, December 1961.
9. J. T.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures, McGraw-Hill. New York, 1967.
10. KOLLORUNNER, C. F., and K. BASLER: Torsion in Structures, Springer-Verlag. Berlin,
1969.
Ii. K.: Variational Methods in and Plasticity, Pergarnon Press.
1968.
12, MAISEL, B. I.: "Review of Literature Related to the Analysis and Design of Thin-
Walled Beams," Technical Report 440, Cement and Concrete Association, London,
July 1970.
PROBLEMS 421
PROBLEMS
13—1. The shear stress distribution due to is given by (see (11—95))
F2 F2
= 13
2 (733
13
' 3
(onS)
This result applies when the cross section is assumed to be rigid with respect
to in-plane deformation. The coordinate of the shear center is defined by
= X3
if 3
X3
where is the St. Venant torsional warping function. Hint: See Prob. 11—11
and Equation (11—97).
13—2. Verify (13—40) and (13—44).
13—3. This problem reviews the subject of the chapter in two aspects.
(a) No coupling between the unrestrained and restrained torsional dis-
tribution requires
+ 0
The unrestrained torsional shear stress distribution for twist about
the shear center (see Sec. 13—3, Equation (b)) is given by
,f U
IVIT —
O'12 — X3 + X3]
=
—
= + x2 — x2]
(b) When the cross section is thin-walled, (a) and (b) take the form
•fquqr_ = o
'12 =
PROBLEMS 423
Prob. 13—9
Ii
F— 0.75k
(b)
I I
I See part c.
(d)
/z 2k + 'i—H
(c)
Prob. 13-10
t
0 0
t ç1s2
I I
a
H
424 RESTRAINED TOIRSION-FLEXURE OF PRISMATIC MEMBER CHAP. 13
13—12. Specialize Equations (13—84) and (13—85) for the case where the
cross section is symmetrical with respect to the X2 axis. Utilize
x3)H0(x2, x3)dA = 0
where He is an even function and H,, an odd function of x3. Evaluate the co-
efficients for the channel section of Example 13—5. Finally, specialize the
equations for a doubly symmetric section.
13—13. Specialize (13—88) for a doubly symmetrical cross Section. Then
specialize further for negligible transverse shear deformation due to flexure and
warping. The symmetry reductions are
X2 = =0 X2r X3r = 0
i/A23=O
= !72 'li 0
13—14. Consider the two following problems involving doubly symmetric
cross section.
(a) Establish "linearized" incremental equations by operating on (13—88)
and retaining only linear terms in the displacement increments.
Specialize for a doubly symmetric cross section (see Prob. 13—12).
(b) Consider the case where the cross section is doubly symmetric and the
initial state is pure compression (F1 —P). Determine the critical
load with respect to torsional buckling for the following boundary
conditions:
1. co1 = f 0 at x = 0, L (restrained warping)
2. == =0 at x 0, L (unrestrained warping)
x2
Yl
n
r2 tl
S
A B
n
i2
x1
ii
425
426 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
By definition, t
dx1 dx2
= = + (14-1)
dt1 1
(14-3)
where
1 dt1 — d2x1 dx2 d2x2 dx1
d. - 2 2 1/2
dS + + (p)] dv = dy (14—6)
t We summarize here for convenience the essential geometric relations for a plane curve which
are developed in Chapter 4.
SEC. 14—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 427
increasing y. Using (14—6), the expressions for and 1/R in terms of y are
- I 7dx1 dx2
t1 = — ( 1j +—
dy
-
t2 = — (
if dx2..
——-—-- +
dx1
dy dy (14_
1
—-
if._ (It1
R
= -( t2 dy
—
—
1
( d2x1 dx2
+
d2x2 dx1
k\ dv2 dy dy2 dy
A planar member subjected to in-plane forces plane for our notation)
will experience oniy in-plane deformation. In what follows, we develop the
governing equations for planar deformation of an arbitrary planar member.
This formulation is restricted to the linear geometric case. The two basic
solution procedures, namely, the displacement and force methods, are described
and applied to a circular member.
We also present a simplified formulation (Marguerre's equations) which is
valid for a shallow member. Finally, we include a discussion of numerical
integration techniques, since one must resort to numerical integration when
the cross section is not constant.
dA
012
Centroidal axis
Fig. 14—2. Force and moment components acting on a positive cross section.
428 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
components are with respect to the local frame (Y1, Y2, Y3) rather than the
basic frame (X1, X2, X3). The cross-sectional properties are defined by
A = if dy2 dy2 = if dii (14—8)
13 = JJ(y2)2 dii '2 = .iJ(Y3)2
Since Y2, Y3 pass through the centroid and are principal directions, it follows
that
dA = flY3 dA = SSY2Y3 dii = 0 (14—9)
in this case, we work with reduced expressions for F÷ and M÷ (see Fig. 14—3)
and drop the subscript on M3:
= + F212'
(14-11)
M+ = M3t3 = Mt3
Note that 13 is constant for a planar member.
x2
= t1 x t2
x1
+ = o
— dS
(14—12)
dM÷ ,_. — -
+ in + r1 x F+ = 0
SEC. 14—3. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL FORCES 429
We expand b and in terms of the unit vectors for the local frame:
b= + b212
(14—13)
= mt3
Introducing the component expansions in (14—12), and using the differentiation
formulas for the unit vectors (14—3), lead to the following scalar differential
equilibrium equations:
dF1 F2
— + b1 = 0
(14-14)
dM
+ +m 0
dS
r(S)
The positive sense of the end forces is shown in Fig. 14—5. We work with
components referred to the local frame at each end. The end forces are related
to the stress resultants and stress couples by
=
= Mj52 (14-15)
=
MA= —MISA j=1,2
prismatic case described in Sec. 12—3, except that now we work with displace-
ment components referred to the local frame at each point. We define ü and as
= = rigid-body translation vector at the
centroid. (14—16)
= = equivalent rigid-body rotation vector
For planar deformation, only u1, u2 and 0J3 are finite, and the terms involving
u3, co1, and w2 can be deleted:
u1t1 + U2T2
(14—17)
— C03t3 Wt3
The positive sense of the displacement components is shown in Fig. 14—6.
F41
x2
x1
We define as the complementary energy per unit arc length. For planar
deformation, = (F1, F2, M). One determines by taking expansions
for the stresses in terms of F1, F2, M, substituting in the complementary energy
density, and integrating with respect to the cross-sectional coordinates Y2, y3.
We will discuss the determination of later.
Specializing the three-dimensional principle of virtual forces for the one-
dimensional elastic case, and writing
= AF1 + AF2 + AM
cF1 0F2 cM
(14—18)
= e1 AF1 + e2 AF2 + k AM
lead to the one-dimensional form
Ss(ei AF1 + e2 AF2 + k AM)dS AP1 (14—19)
We apply (14—19) to the differential element shown in Fig. 14—7. The virtual
force system must satisfy the force-equilibrium equations (14—17),
AF÷ = 0
dS
(a)
Evaluating AP1,
= +AM÷ +
(b)
= {AF1 + AF2 + — + dS
—
432 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
and then substituting in (14-49) results in the following relations between the
force and displacement parameters:
du1 U2
cj
du2 u1
(14-20)
eV* dw
k
dS
We interpret e1 as an average extension, e, as an average transverse shear
deformation, and k as a bending deformation. Actually, k is the relative rotation
of adjacent cross sections. In what follows, we discuss the determination of
Consider the differential volume element shown in Fig. 14—8. The vector
defining the arc QQ1 is
ar2
dy =
di2 dt-\
QQ1 = + + dv
Noting that
—
dy
(112
—7k-ti
= o
dv
for a planar member, (a) can be written as
dS2 = = —
= —
(14—2 1)
.-
if
In general, V* = V" (ô11, We select suitable expansions for the
stress components in terms of F1, F2, M, expand V*, and integrate over the
cross section. The only restriction on the stress expansions is that they satisfy
the definition equations for the stress resultants and couples identically:
dA = $5c12 dA F2 SSa13 dA = 0
JJy3aii dA = 0 —ify2ci1 dA = M
J$(y2a13 — y3a12)dA = 0
SEC. 14—3. PRINCIPLE OF VURTUAL FORCES 433
where I 13. A logical choice for (when the cross section is thin-walled)
is the distribution predicted by the engineering theory of flexural shear stress
distribution described in Sec. 11—7:
where t denotes the local thickness, and q is the flexural shear flow due to F2.
Both expansions satisfy (a).
x2
r +1)212 +Y33 r2
r1ty +dy)
Y2
it
Fig. 14—8. Differential volume element.
11*..... 0 2
a12 2
—
where c? is the initial extensional strain. Substituting (a) in (14—21) and taking
the stresses according to (14—22), (14—23) results in the following expression
f This applies for a homogeneous beam. Composite beams are more conveniently treated with
the approach described in the next section.
434 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
for V*:
= e?Fi + k°M + + + + (14-24)
2GA2*
where
= (i dA
if -
55
I —
\\
—
R}
If the section is symmetrical with respect to the 1'3 axis, 1* 1 and = A2.
The deformation-force relations correspoiiding to this choice for are
F1 M dr,1 u2
—ei
F2 du2 U1
e, + -w (14-25)
= =
F1 M dw
Note that the axial force and moment are coupled, due to the curvature.
Inverting (14—25) leads to expressions for the forces in terms of the deformations:
LA
F1 = — e1)
— R(l
k )
EI*
M— Ô)(el — + / k°
— R(1 (14-26)
F2
We observe that
I
—
where p is the radius of gyration and d is the depth of the cross section, For
example,
1 d2
AR2 = i2R2
for a rectangular cross section. Then, is of the order of (d/R2) and can be
neglected when (dIR)2 1.
A curved member is said to be thin when O(d/R) 1 and thick when O(d/R)2
1. We set ö = 0 for a thick member. The thinness assumption is introduced
SEC. 14—4. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 435
by neglecting y2/R with respect to unity in the expression for the differential
arc length, i.e., by taking
dS
14 27
-
Assuming a curved member to be thin is equivalent to using the expression
for V* developed for a prismatic member. The approximate form of (14—25)
for a thin member is
F1 dii1 Li2
(14—28)
i—k°
To complete the treatment of the linear elastic case, we list the expanded
forms of the principle of virtual forces for thick and thin members. Note that
these expressions are based on a linear variation in normal stress over the cross
section.
Thick Member
Cit0 +
F1 M'\ AF1 +
F2
/XF2
+
(14—29)
+ (ko + + AM} dS —
Thin
+
J +
/ M'\ 1 (14—30)
+ (\kO + h-i) dS = d1 AP1
stresses in
terms of the displacement parameters using the stress-strain relations,
and then substitute the stress expansions in the definition equations for F1, F2,
and M. The effect of transverse shear deformation is usually neglected in this
approach. To determine the strain distribution, we must first analyze the
deformation at a point. This step is described in detail below.
Figure 14—9 shows the initial position of two orthogonal line elements, QQ1
and QQ2, at a point (y, Y2' y3). The vectors defining these elements are
QQ1
a2 = I a
—
We use a prime superscript to denote qua Iltities associated with the deformed
position of the member, which is shown in Fig. 14—10; for example:
?'= = position vector to point P(y) in the deformed position (point P').
tangent vector to the deformed centroidal axis.
= position vector to Q(y, Y2, y3) in the deformed position (point Q').
x2
Q2
Q1
Pj(y +dy)
P(y)
axis
x1
—
P'P'1 = =
/ + =
dy (14—32)
0)) C))J
or2 / — c,u2
dy2
&Y2 \.
'—12
3—
(1-3)
Sin Y12
Now, we restrict this discussion to small strain, Substituting for the deformed
vectors and neglecting strains with respect to unity, (14—33) expands to
Istj, au2
+ —.
c'y 2(a2)" ô,V
1 ('U2
2
"
Y12 tj
-'
t2 -±
a2 cc2
The nonlinear terms arc associated with the rotation of the tangent vector.
Neglecting these terms corresponds to neglecting the difference between the
deformed and undeformed geometry, i.e.. to assuming linear geometry.
The next step involves introducing an expansion for in terms of y2. We
express ü2 as a linear function of
ü wv211 (14—35)
where co = w(y) and
U U1t1 + U2t2 = 1kv) (14—36)
is the displacement vector for a point on the centroidal axis. Equation (14—35)
implies that a normal cross section remains a plane after deformation. One can
interpret co as the rotation of the cross section in the direction from toward
t2. This notation is illustrated in Fig. 14—1 1.
In what follows, we consider only linear geometry. Substituting for ü2, taking
y = S, and evaluating the derivatives lead to the following strain expansions:
438 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
— y2k) = du, u2
= I61IY20
= 1 —
e2 = + 0) (14—37)
doi
The vanishing of c2 is due to our choice for ü2. One could include an addi-
tional linear term, This would give = $ and, additional terms in the
x2
Q2
x1
u2t2
(u1 —Wy2)tl
Centroidal axis
UI tl
expressions for and Y12• Note that the assumption that a normal cross
section remains plane does not lead to a linear variation in extensional strain
over the depth when the member is curved.
We introduce the assumption of negligible transverse deformation by setting
e2 = 0. The resulting expressions for (0 and k in terms of u1 and u2 are
e2 = 0
du2 u1
+
dS R (14—38)
dIui
— dS — dS2
d
F2 = Ge2 if (14-40)
= —Fe1 + Ekjj +
The various integrals can be expressed in terms of only one integral by using
the identity
1 y2/R
1-F
1 — y2/R — 1
f The relation for is exact only when = (733 11 We generally neglect for a
member.
440 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
dA
= L (14—41)
JJ 1 - y2/R
For completeness, we list the inverted form of (14—40),
M
= + +
F2
F1 lvi
k = k° + +
where
= +
= A(1
4—42
e? = (i c/A
if —
k° =
if -
dA
The expressions for e1 are identical with the result (see (14—25)) obtained with
the variational approach. However, the result for k differs in the coefficient
for M. This difference (1' or F') is due to the nonlinear expansion used for
Example 14—1
We determine I' for the rectangular cross section shown in Fig. F.14—1.
I' = 11 =h
1 y2/R J—a;2 1 — y2/R
=—R2bd+R3bln
d d3 I 3(d\2 3(d\4
In = + ii + + +
and
2
3 d 3 d
I' = +
{ + + ..
Fig. E14—1
I H
Y3
The relations listed above involve exactintegrals. Now, when the member
is thick, we neglect (y2/R)2 with respect to unity. This assumption is introduced
by taking
1 —y2/R
= 1 + + + ... +
Co
Y2
—.--..e2
dA
- yJR JJ +
=i{i
442 PLANAR DEFORMATiON OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
1—y2/R
— y2k — (14—44)
at2
We take (14—45) as the form of the principle of virtual displacements for planar
deformation.
The strains corresponding to a linear expansion for displacements and linear
geometry are defined by (14—37), which are listed below for convenience:
ci —
Y12 e2
— y2/R
du1 U2
du2 u1
= + — U)
do
k
dS
Substituting for e1, Y12 and using the definition equations for F1, F2, and M,
SEC. 14—4. PRINCIPLE OF VIRTUAL DISPLACEMENTS 443
we obtain
Js[Fi + F2 + M ök]dS = Ad1 (14—46)
This result depends only on the strain expansions, i.e., (c). One can apply it
for the geometrically nonlinear case, provided that (cS) are taken as defining
the strain distribution over the cross section.
We use the principle of virtual displacements to establish consistent force-
equilibrium equations. One starts with one-dimensional deformation-displace-
ment relations, substitutes in (14—46), and integrates the left-hand side by parts.
Equating coefficients of the displacement parameters leads to a set of force
equilibrium equations and boundary conditions that are consistent with the geo-
metrical assumptions introduced in establishing the deformation-displacement
relations. The following example illustrates this application.
Example 14—2
The assumption of negligible transverse shear deformation is introduced by setting e2
equal to zero. This leads to an expression for the rotation. w, in terms of the translation
components,
(In2
= +
d (du2 u1
1< =
= +
Substituting for Aw and the strain variations,
d
= Au1
—i- Au2
d 1
Aui AU2
—
d2 I d
(5k = Au2 +
and integrating by parts, the left- and right-hand sides of (b) expand to
[F1 + M (5k]dS
j 54
=
/ F1 dM
+M
d
+ Au1 — Au2 An2
Rj dS uS
/ M\ dM
+M—
d
— F1 + Au1 — —-- Au2
I
\ Rj J
dS dS
I r dF1 1 dM1
+ Au2
[ F1
dS
1Aui
+j [— —
[— +
444 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
and
MA)
+ (p41 + A + (r42 014) AUA2 + M4 A
The consistent equilibrium equations and boundary conditions for negligible transverse
shear deformation follow by equating corresponding coefficients of the displacement
variations in (e) and (f):
S4<S<S3
dF1 1dM 01
+ + + b1 + 0
F1 d2M drn
+- — + — =0
s—sn
u1 prescribed or F1 —
u2 prescribed or p42 — m
do2
prescribed or M= —MA
S=
UI prescribed or F1 = F21
U2 prescribed or = —F32 — in
du2
prescribed or M
One can obtain (g) by solving the last equation in (14—14) for F2 and substituting in the
first two equations.
Suppose we neglect u1/R in the expression for w:
do2
CD
d2u2
k
t See Ref. 5.
SEC. 14—5. CARTESIAN FORMULATION 445
The other equilibrium equation and the boundary conditions are not changed. Using
(h) instead of (a) eliminates the shear term, F2/R, in the tangential force-equilibrium
equation.
dx1
r 7df\21112 1
[ ylx1jj. cos0
= i[ I
f'df'\
+ I—)
1
j
- I [ / df \ - - (14—47)
t2 + '2
= t1 X t2 = 13
d2f
ci:
I
In the previous formulation, we worked with displacement components and
external force components referred to the local frame. An alternate approach,
originally suggested by involves working with components re-
ferred to the basic frame rather than the local frame. The resulting expressions
differ, and it is therefore of interest to describe this approach in detail. We
start with the determination of the force-equilibrium equations.
Consider the differential clement shown in Fig. 14—13. The vector, equilibrium
equations are
dF+ - -
- ax1
(14—48)
+ x + = 0
dx1 dx1
x2
Y2
YI
X2
dx1
x1
'I
dx1 2
p-
N2 12
F1t1
lj
where fl, h are the external applied force and moment vectors per unit projected
length, i.e., per unit x1. They are related to b and (see Fig. 14—4) by
dx1 = b dS = (cth)dx1
(1449)
hdx1 = iñdS = (cthi)dx1
Substituting for the force and moment vectors,
= F1t1 + F2t2 = N171 + N212
it—hi3
P = + (14—50)
N1 = F1 cos 0 — F2 sin 0
N2 = F1 sin 0 + F2 cos 0
the equilibrium equations expand to
dN1 d
—- = ——(F1 cosP — sin 0) =
dx1 dx1
dx1
+ J1 x =
Expanding d1
we obtain
= + + (d)
dx1 dx1 dx1;
Finally, substituting for N1, N2, in terms of F1, F2 and equating coefficients of
the force increments result in
oV do1 do2
cos2 0-— + sinOcosO—-
. dx1
a v* do1 , do2
e2 = —sin 0 COS U +cosO——w
dx1
(14—53)
--
dw
k= = ——— cos 0
dx1
The member is said to be shallow when 02 << 1. One introduces this assump-
tion by setting
4f
cos U 1 Sm 0 tan 0 = (14—54)
1)2
2
V1
N2 F2 +
dM
F2 —— — in
dx1 (14—55)
dv' df dv2
e, = + ——
d.x, dx, dx,
dv2
e2 = = —- — co
0F2 dx,
dw
k
OM dx,
One step remains, namely, to establish the boundary conditions. The general
conditions are
v1 or N,
v2 or N2 prescribed at each end (14—56)
M or w
We obtain the appropriate boundary conditions for the various cases considered
above by substituting for N,, N2 and ox For example, the boundary conditions
for the Marguerre formulation are
w or M
curved (except when it is circular) or the cross section varies. In what follows,
we illustrate the application of the displacement method to a circular member
having a constant cross section, starting with—
1. the exact equations (based on stress expansions) for a thick member
2. Marguerre's equations for a thin member
The results obtained for this simple geometry provide us with some insight as to
the relative importance of transverse shear deformation and stretching deforma-
tion versus bending deformation.
When the centroidal axis is a circular segment, R = const, and the equations
simplify somewhat. It is convenient to take the polar angle 8 as the independent
variable in this case. We list the governing equations below for convenience
and summarize the notation in Fig. 14—15:
dF1 dM / m
1dM
F1 M 1 f'du1
= ej + + = —
RF1 = —M (b1 + +
— R2
j
where C1 is an integration constant. Substituting for F1 in the second equation
results in a second-order differential equation for M:
+ M C1 + R2[b2 — +
where denotes the particular solution due to the external distributed loading
and C2, C3 are constants. Once M is known, we find F1 using (a) and F2 from
the moment equilibrium equation. The resulting expressions are
dS RdO
F
F1
du1
— u2 Re? + + RF1)
du2 RF2
+ u1 + Rco
= Rk° + [M + (RF1)]
and
d2u2
+ = 1/1
+ Re? — + RF1)
=
+ a1R2 (14—63)
± R2k° — Re?
I
a1 = —
This leads to three additional integration constants. The six constants are
determined by enforcing the three boundary conditions at each end. Various
loading conditions are treated in the following examples.
Example 14—3
Consider a member (Fig. El4—3) fixed at the negative end (A) and subjected only
to at the right end (B). The boundary conditions for this case are
F1=Fa1; F2=M=O atO=011
u1 =u2=w=O atO=O
Specializing the force solution for no external distributed loading and enforcing the
boundary conditions at B, we obtain
F1 = F81 cos(08 — 0)
F2 = FRI Sifl(08 8)
M RF51(l — cos(08 — 0))
To simplify the analysis, we suppose there is no initial deformation. Using (b). takes
the form —
F81 R'
'I' [a1 — 02 COS(08 0)1
where
EI* (d\'
=
Note that is associated with transverse shear deformation. Substituting for tJ' in (14—63)
and integrating, we obtain
= sin 0 — C5 cos 0 + C6
+ {o + [o — 0) + sin(66 — 0)]}
C6
U) = + {O + sm(OB — O)}
Finally, the constants are found by enforcing the displacement boundary conditions
at 0 = 0:
F R3
C4 =
(05
C5 = — sin
C6 =
To determine the relative importance of stretching and shear deformation versus bending
deformation, we evaluate the displacements at 0 and write the resulting expressions
Fig. E14—3
FBI
WE = — sin + b1 Oe)
— COS 0B 4Sin —
sin
(I)
— Slfl 63
— —4 03 + 2 sin 03 — 4 sin 03 COS 013
b2
63 + sin 03 Co
4(03 — sin_03 cos 03)
b
T
4sin2 63 I + COS 63
b— -
—
The coefficients (b1,..., b4) are of order unity or less when is not small with respect
to unity, i.e., when the segment is not shallow. Also, öe and ó, are of order (d/R)2. It follows
that the displacements due to stretching and shear deformation are of order (dIR)2 times
the displacement due to bending deformation for a nonshallow member.
To investigate the shallow case, we replace the trigometric terms in (i) by their Taylor
series expansions,
sin 0 =
/ —
02
+ —
02
cos 6 = I — + —
sin0cos6 0(1 — +
—
P8152 1
1 1*
U3j
El" (d'12
=
SEC. 14—6. DISPLACEMENT METHOD OF SOLUTION 455
For example,
1 (d\2
AS2
EI* E (d\2 (d'\2
= 0,26
= lOG
for a rectangular section and v = 0.3. Since (cl/S)2 << I for a member, we can neglect the
transverse shcar terms in UBL, UB2 and the stretching term in co8. However, we must retain
the stretching term in u51 since it is of the same order as the bending term. The appropriate
expression for is
PatS3
In sum, we have shown that the percentage of error due to neglecting stretching and
transverse shear deformation is of the order of (d/R)2 for a nonshallow circular member.
If the member is shallow < I 5°), we catnwt neglect stretching deformation. Actually,
the stretching term dominates when the member is quite shallow. The error due to ne-
glecting transverse shear deformation for the shallow case is still only of the order of
(d/R)2.
Example 14—4
The internal force distributions due to acting on the cantilever member shown
in Fig. E14—4 are given by
F1 sin(011 — 0)
F2 = F52 cos(05 0)
M R sin(02 0)
We suppose the member is not shallow and neglect stretching and shear deformation.
The force-displacement relations reduce to (we set A = = in (14—59))
du1
— = Re?
dO
du2
+ u1 = Rw
dw RM
= Rk° +
dO EJ*
du1
= u2 + Re?
I (du2
We determine u2, then u1, and finally oi. Note that (c) corresponds to (14—62), (14—63)
and (14—64) with A = A2 = cc. The final expressions (for no initial deformation or support
456 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
movement) are
=
02 {(O COS(OB — 0) — sin 0 cos
F52R
0) = { COS(OB — 0) — cos
Example 14—5
We analyze the shallow parabolic member shown in Fig. E14—5 using Marguerre's
equations. We consider the member to be thin and neglect transverse shear deformation.
Taking f = and = rn = 0, the governing equations (see (14—55) and (14—57))
reduce to
dx1
d2M
al'1 — P2 = 0
dx1
dM
F2
F1 dv1
= e? + = -— + ax1
AL dx1 dx1
dv2
Cl)
dx1
M d2v2
k= k + =
N2 = — + ax1F1 = 0 at x1 = I.
dx1
M =0
Integrating (a) and using the boundary conditions at x1 = L, we obtain
M= — xi)2 — — x?)
Fig. E14—4
l.A const
Fig. E14—5
Al
—,.- F1
a=
L2
(h/L)2<(1
j
t
P2 = COflSt
B
NB!
458 PLANAR DEFORMATfON OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
Ely2 = — + — —
= - - + + ÷ -
We express the last term in (g) as
NB1X1 1
+
AE 6 ) 1) [VT)
Now,
a 2h,/L2
Then
a2L4(A'\ — 2(h'\2
6
and we see that this term dominatcs when h is larger with respect to the cross-sectional
depth.
represents a support
where the virtual-force system is statically permissible,
movement, and AR1 is the corresponding reaction increment. The relations
between the deformation measures (e1, e2, k) and the internal forces (F1, F2, M)
depend on the material properties and on whether one employs stress or dis-
placement expansions. This discussion is limited to a linearly elastic material
but one should note that (14--65) is valid for arbitrary material. For con-
venience, we list the force-deformation relations below. The notation for
internal force quantities is shown in Fig. 14—3.
k= F1 M
+ + -=
AER. El
SEC. 14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 459
k°, A2, and] are defined by(14—24) for the stress-expansion approach
and (14—42) for the displacement-expansion approach.
(14-67)
Example 14—6
We consider the thin linearly elastic circular segment shown in Fig. E14—6A. We
suppose the member is not shallow and neglect stretching and franslerse shear deformation.
The reactions are the end forces at A for this example, and (14—69) expands to
Fig. E14—6A
U2L
Expressions Displacements at B
To determine u81, we take = AF51. The internal virtual-force system corresponds
to F81 = ±1. It is convenient to work with = 0 as tlie independent variable
rather than 0.
The force-influence coefficients (F10, F2,Q, M.Q) follow directly from Fig. E14—6B:
F10 = = COSq
F20 = (b)
= R(1 cos
Substituting (b) in (a) results in the following general expression for um
Once the loading is specified, we can evaluate the integral. Terms involving the support
displacements define the rigid body displacement at B.
Taking = SF82, leads to expression for u82 and We list them below
for future reference:
"
u82 = R (d)
j
Jo (. Elj
Fig. E14—6B
ill
Ffi2 ,t482
— eQS
RI
Fig. El 4—SC
A.
_______________
= +
=
The expressions for the displacements at B due to an external loading are obtained by
specializing (c) and (d) for no initial deformation or support movement and noting that
M=O
M= RPc1[1 — iic)] + sin(1i — ilc) + ivIc
Pc1R3( . . .
Sifl 0c — sin + Sill 1k + 1k + Sill 0c cos
=
PC2R( Or . I
+ — cos + sin — sin sin
MCR2
+ (Oc + Sin Sin
PciR3I 1 1
= OR + cos — Oc sin — sm Oc sin
PC2R3 /1 1
+ —--h-— cos 1k — sin 9c cos
. R2Pc2
Sin Oc) + cos Oc) +
=
— 2 sin R2[l — cos OR — sin OR] F81
+ 4sin 08 cos 08] OR]
Using the equilibrium equations, we express the internal forces and reactions in
SEC. 14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 463
F2 = F2,0 +
(14—70)
M = M0 +
k= 1
R1 = R10 + R1.kZk
k1
Substituting the virtual force system corresponding to (which is statically
permissible and in (14—65) and letting j range from 1 to r
lead to the compatibility equations relating the actual deformations:
+ + kM,1)dS = 0
(a)
1= l,...,r
When the material is linearly elastic, the compatibility equations take the
form
(j = ...,r) (14—71)
k1
where
=fkj = f + + Fl.kM,f)
+ +
= —
+ +
+ + Fl,OM.J) + ±
Example 14—7
Consider the symmetrical closed ring shown in Fig. E14—7. From symmetry,
at6r=0 (a)
F2 = 0 j
464 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
We take the moment at 0 = 0 as the force redundant. To simplify the algebra, we suppose
the member is thin and neglect stretching and shear deformation. The compatibility equa-
tions reduces to
f11Z1 =
fii =
&=
Note that is the relative rotation due to a unit value of Z1 and is the relative
rotation (X) due to the applied load. Equation (h) states that the net relative rotation
must vanish.
E14—7
fm/F
M F1
1'
Now,
M = R(t — cos 0)
(1 — cos 8)dO
1 dS — —J /PR\
JM21 cIS
PR1 2\
= TI\1 ——)
SEC. 14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 465
Because of symmetry, we need to integrate over only a quarter of the ring. Finally, the
total moment is
F1
F2 =
When the equation defining the centroidal axis is expressed in the form
x2 = f(x1), it is more convenient to work with force and displacement
tities referred to the basic frame rather than to the local frame, i.e., to use the
cartesian formulation developed in Sec. (14—5). The cartesian notation is sum-
marized in Fig. 14—16.
xl
N2,
F2
——--'-
i2
it
The geometrical quantities and relations between the internal force com-
ponents are
tan 6 =
dx1
dS =
cos 6
(14—72)
F1 = N1cos 6 + N2 sin U
F2 = —N1 sin (9 + N2 cos 0
PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
We first find N1, N2 and then determine F1, F2. To obtain the equations for
the Cartesian case, we just have to replace dS by dx1/cos U in the general ex-
pressions ((14—69) and (14—71)). In what follows, we suppose the member is
thin and linearly elastic.
When the member is not shallow, we can neglect the stretching and transverse
shear deformation terms. The equations for this case reduce to:
Displacement at Point Q
dQ + (ke + (14-73)
= L
C'oinpatibility Equations
\dx1
= j (14—74)
= — 5[e?Fi,i + (ko +
sm 0 tan 0 =
cls dx1 (14—76)
F1 N1 +f'N2
F2 —f'N1 + N2
We cannot neglect the stretching deformation term in this case. However, it is
reasonable to take F1 N1. We also introduced this assumption in the devel-
opment of Marguerre's equations. The equations for the shallow case with
negligible transverse shear deformation and F1 N1 have the forms listed
below:
Displacement at Point Q
Compatibility Equation
>j1k4 =
= + + (k0 +
— f
Example 14—8
Consider the two-hinged arch shown in Fig. E14—8A. We work with reaction com-
ponents referred to the basic frame and take the horizontal reaction at B as the force
redundant.
Primary
We must carry out two force analyses on the primary structure (Fig. E14—SB), one for
the external forces (condition Z1 = 0) and the other for Z1 1. The results are displayed
in Figs. E14—8C and D, respectively.
Fig. E14—8B
V2
= Z1
zI
R242
468 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
Fig. E14—8C
N2
KM
0
Fig. E14—8D
H
(+)
'VI,'
ii
(+)
N2,,
M,1
Compatibility Equation
We suppose the member is not shallow. The compatibility equations for Z1 follow
from (14—74):
I dx t
J11—I El cosO
= + f'N2,1) + +
Jo L (ko
SEC. 14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 469
Using the results listed above, the various terms in (a) expand to
— h
f = .ft0E1 L cost?
= ± +
+ f'N2 + k° dx1
s:
JL[(
JLIJLI(h)(h) + + k0(f_
+ LIcosO
!L
L
(+P(xi - a))dxi
Once the integrals are evaluated, we can determine Z1 from
(c)
Finally, the total forces are obtained by superposition of the two loadings:
Fig.
F—
XQ 1/L
(i_IL)
FQ=+l
470 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
+ —
Example 14—9
The symmetrical nonshallow two-hinged parabolic arch shown in Fig. E14—9A is sub-
jected to a uniform load per unit horizontal length, that is, per unit x1. The equation for
the centroidal axis is
4h(
where h is the elevation at mid-span = L/2). We take the horizontal reaction at the
right end as the force redundant and consider only bending deformation. Figures E14—9B
and C carry through an analysis parallel to that of the preceding example,
Jo EJcosO pL2
ElcosO
Note that this result is valid for an arbitrary variation of El. Finally, the total forces are
N1 — N10 + Z1N1 =
N2 = N20 + Z1N21 =
—
M=M,0+Z1M,1 =0
Since M = 0, the deformed shape of the arch coincides with the initial shape when axial
deformation is neglected. It follows that (c) also apply for the fixed nonshollolv case.
When the arch is shallow, the effect of axial deformation cannot be neglected. The
expression for Z1 follows from (14—78):
— +
SEC. 14—7. FORCE METHOD OF SOLUTION 471
Fig. E14—9A
p = Coflst
B
xi
Pnmary structure
R2,d2
Fig. E14—9B
N2
xI
— 8h 1L1 — 8h I +
+
jL1
-
The parameter ö is a measure of the influence of axial deformation. As an illustration, we
consider A and I to be constant and evaluate ö for this geometry. The result is
I 15(p'\2
— 8 Ah2 — 8
A'2 Fig.
One should note that (e) applies only for the shallow case, in, for (f')2 K< 1. Now,
4/1 / 2x1
For the assumption of shallowness to be valid, 16(h/L)2 must he small with respect to
unity. The total forces for the shallow case are
pL2 1
N1 = =
\= PL(
M=
p1?
f( ô
—
SEC. 14—8. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION PROCEDURES 473
It is of interest to determine the rotation at B. The "Q" loading consists of a unit moment
applied at B to the primary structure (see Fig. E14—9D). Applying (14—77) (note that
Fig. E14—9D
PQ +l
Since 0, the results for the fixed end shallow case will differ slightly from (h).
One of the steps in the force method involves evaluating certain integrals
which depend on the member geometry and the cross-sectional properties.
Closed-form solutions can be obtained for only simple geometries, and one
usually must resort to a numerical integration procedure. In what follows, we
describe two proceduresi which can be conveniently automated and illustrate
their application in deflection computations.
We consider the problem of evaluating
J (14—79)
h= — XA
(14—80)
coordinates of the equally spaced points on the x axis, and f0, the
corresponding values of the function. This notation is shown in Figure 14—17.
12 1;,
a 11 B
XO X1 X2 X,,
= dx = +
f(x)dx + L) (14—82)
J = +
which is called the trapezoidal rule.
A more accurate formula is obtained by approximating the curve connecting
three consecutive points with a second-degree polynomial, as shown in Fig.
14—19. This leads to
h
AJk,k+2 fdx + 4fk+1 + (14—83)
= J
Jk÷2= Jk +
To apply (14—83), we must take an even number of segments, that is, n must
be an even integer. If the values of J at odd points are also desired, they can
SEC. 14—8. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION PROCEDURES 475
be determined using
h
in = + + 4(11 + .13 + +
(14—85)
+ 2(f2 +f4 +
Equation (14—85) is called Simpson's rule.
N
fk—1 fk fk+1
h S
x
Xk_1 Xk
fk fk+1 fk÷2
S S
Xk Xkf.1
Example 14—10
Consider the problem of determining the vertical displacement at Q for the straight
member of Fig. E14—lO. We suppose shear deformation is negligible. The deflection due
Fig. E14—10
XQ
PQ +1
XQ(1t)
dQ MQ dx
J
where M is the actual moment and M0 is due to the "Q" loading. Substituting for M,
expands to
(a)
=
/ 1L M CXQ M '\
+
M M
— J J —
SEC. 14—8. NUMERICAL INTEGRATION PROCEDURES 477
To evaluate (b), we divide the total length into ii equal segments of length h, number
the points from 0 to n, and let
M
I —dx
J0 El
Cx M
I x—dx
Jo El
With this notation, (b) takes the form
= Xk — + "k Xkjk
If, in determining we also evaluate the integrals the interior points, then we can
readily determine the displacement distribution using cd).
Example 14—11
Consider the simply supported nonshallow arch shown. We suppose there is some
distribution of It'! and we want to determine the vertical deflection at Q. Considering
Fig. E14—11
ill
El
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHENKO, S. 1.: Advanced Strength of Materials, Van Nostrand, New York, 1941.
2. Boan, S. F., and J. J. GENNARO: Advanced Structural Analysis, Van Nostrand,
New York, 1959.
3. REISSNER, E.: "Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells," J. Lag.
Mech. Div., A.S.C.E, Vol. 88, No. EM 1, February 1962.
4. MARTIN, H. C.: introduction to Matrix lvi etliods of Structural Analysis, McGraw—Hill,
New York, 1966.
5. MUSRTARI, K, M., and K. Z. (IALIMOV: "Nonlinear Theory of Thin Elastic Shells,"
Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem, 1962
6. MARGUERRE, K.: "Zur Theoric der gekriimmten Platte grosser Formanderung,"
Proc. 5th mt. Congress App!. Mccli. pp. 93—101. 1938.
7. Onai'i, J. 1.: Mechanics of Elastic Structures. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1967.
8. HILDEBRAND, F. J.: introduction to Numerical Analysis, McGraw-Hill, New York,
1956.
PROBLEMS
14—1. Specialize (14—7) for the case where Yi = x1. Let x2 = f(x1) and
let 9 be the angle from X1 to Y1 as shown below. Evaluate the various terms
for a parabola
f= +
Finally, specialize the relations for a shallow curve, i.e., where
Prob.14—1
32
14—2. Evaluate 1* and (see Equation 14-24) for the section defined by
the sketch.
14—3. Verify (14—34).
14—4. Verify (14—41) and (14—42).
14—5. Discuss the difference between the deformation-force relations based
on stress and displacement expansions (Equations (14—25) and (14—42)).
Illustrate for the rectangular section treated in Example 14—i. Which set of
relations would you employ?
PROBLEMS 479
Prob. 14—2
2t
I d
T
b=O.75d
I
14—6. Evaluate I' and 1" for the symmetrical section shown.
Prob. 14—6
h=O.75d
t=d120
Prob. 14—i
I II
I
14—8. Starting with (14—34) and (14—35), derive a set of nonlinear strain
displacement relations for a thin member. Assume small finite rotation, and
480 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
Y12
Determine the corresponding force-equilibrium equations with the principle of
virtual displacements.
14—9. Refer to Fig. 14—10 and Equation (14—31). If we neglect transverse
shear deformation, is orthogonal to t'1 and we can write
(1 + =
—
ldF'
tj = fl1t1 + fl2t2
-
= —/32t1 + f31t2
dt'1 1 + e1 .-, di'2 I + e1
= R'
= + = (1 +
- y,k}
Also determine e1 and R' for small strain. Express ü in terms of th
initial tangent vectors,
ü= U1t1 + U2t2
and take y S (i.e., 1).
(b) Derive the force-equilibrium equations, starting with the vector equa-
tions (see (14—12) and Fig. 14—4),
+ = 0
dS
dM÷ —
+m + x F÷ = 0
PROBLEMS 481
Prob. 14—10
h2 = const
(a) Determine the complete solution for the circular member shown.
Utilize symmetry at point A = co = F2 = 0) and work with (14—58),
(14—59). Discuss the effect of neglecting extensional and shear de-
formation, i.e., setting (1/A) (1/42) = 0.
(b) Repeat (a), using Mushtari's equations for a thin member with no
transverse shear deformation, which are developed in Example 14—2.
Show that Mushtari's approximation (u1 << du2/dO) is valid when the
segment is shallow.
14—11. The sketch presents the information relevant to the problem:
Prob. 14—11
P2 = cOnSt
L L 'j L2
x2
482 PLANAR DEFORMATION OF A PLANAR MEMBER CHAP. 14
Prob. 14—13
Prob. 14—14
(a) Determine the fixed end forces and radial displacement at point B
with the force method. Consider only bending deformation and utilize
symmetry at B.
(b) Generalize for an arbitrarily located radial force.
PROBLEMS 483
Prob. 14—15
P
Prob. 14—16
x2
14—17. Consider the arbitrary two-hinged arch shown. Discuss how you
Prob. 14—17
would generate the influence line for the horizontal reaction. Utilize the results
contained in Examples 14—10 and 14—11.
15
Engineering Theory of
an Arbitrary Member
15—i. INTRODUCTION; GEOMETRICAL RELATIONS
In the first part of this chapter, we establish the governing equations for a
member whose centroidal axis is an arbitrary space curve. The formulation is
restricted to linear geometry and negligible warping and is referred to as the
theory. Examples illustrating the application of the displacement
and force methods are presented. Next, we outline a restrained warping for-
mulation and apply it to a planar circular member. Lastly, we cast the force
method for the engineering theory in matrix form and develop the member
force-displacement relations which are required for the analysis of a system
of member elements.
The geometrical relations for a member are derived in Chapter 4. For
convenience, we summarize the differentiation formulas here. Figure 15—1
shows the natural and local frames. They are related by
—
0 t (15-1)
0
1t3
Fig. 15-i. Natural and local reference frames for a member element.
13R -
= (t — y2a12 — y3a23t2 + y2a23t3
3K
— = t2
—
(15—3)
3K
3y3
and the local vectors at Q are orthogonal when a23 0, which requires
a23 =0
(15—6)
d/
It is reasonable to neglect y/R terms with respect to unity when the member
is thin, i.e., when the cross-sectional dimensions are small in comparison to
ay2
where L is the total arc length and is the total increment in The non-
orthogonality due to can be neglected when the member is only slightly
twisted, i.e., when
<< 1 (15—8)
Example 15—i
The curvature and torsion for a circular helix are derived in Example 4—5:
1
R, R (H'\2
1
where R is the radius of the base circle and H is the rise in one full revolution. The helix
is thin when b/R c< 1, where b is a typical cross-sectional dimension.
Example 15—2
By definition, a member is planar if r = 0 and the normal direction (Il) is an axis of
symmetry for the cross section. We take the centroidal axis to be in the X1-X2 plane
and define the sense oft2 according tot2 x 13 = Theangle is constant and equal to
either 0° (12 or 180° (12 = —ii). Only a12 is finite for a planar member:
a13=a23=0
Example 15—3
Consider the case where the centroidal axis is straight and varies linearly with S.
The member is said to he naturally twisted. Only 023 is finite for this case:
= a13 = 0
(Ic!)
T= const IC
dS
_. — -
+ rn + t1 x F÷ = 0
(15—10)
=
m't
SEC. 15—2. FORCE-EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 489
bc/S
+ dS2
+ c/S 2
inc/S
+ c/S 2
dM
+F0J
— a12F2 —a33F3 + b1 = 0
dF3
+ a13F1 + a23F2 + b3 = 0
dM1
a12M2 — a13M3 + m1 = 0
+ a12M1 — a23M3 + m2 — F3 0
When the member is planar, a13 = a23 = 0 and the equations uncouple
naturally into two systems, one associated with in-plane loading (b1, b2, rn3,
490 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
F1,F2, M3) and the other with out-of-plane loading (b3, in1, m2, F3, M1, M2).
The in-plane equations coincide with (14—14) when we set a12 = 1/R and the
out-of-plane equations take the form
dF3
dM1 1.
+ in1 = 0 (15—12)
dM2 1
+ + m2 — F3 = 0
dS
It
(0
The virtual system satisfies the equilibrium equations (15—5) identically and
therefore is statically permissible. Evaluating APi,
du
10
e — an +
(15—16)
dO)
k
=
aY* du1
e1 = = — —
du2
C2 = + a12u1 — —
Cj2
a v* du3
e3 = = + + 023u2 +
(113
aV* dw1
k1 — 0120)2 — (1130)3
= =
DV" dw2
k2 + 0120)1 — 023C03
= =
(* d0)3
k3 = = + + 0230)2
= + + + +
(15-17)
+ + + +
where
MT = M1 + — = torsional moment with respect to
F3y2
the shear center
Y2, coordinates of the shear center with respect to
the centroid
= dA
if
= dA
—j-'- if
Note that (lST-i7) is based on a linear expansion for the normal stress,
F1 M-, M3
=7+ 13
and using the shear stress distribution predicted by the engineering theory,
= +
where is the unrestrained torsional distribution due to MT and is the
flexural distribution due to F2, In addition to these approximations, we
are also neglecting the effect of curvature, i.e., we are considering the member
to be thin. The approximate force -displacement relations for a linearly elastic
thin curve member are
F1 du1
+ = — —
F2 du2
+ = + a12u1 — C21U3 — -
=
F3 MT du3
e3 = + a13u1 + a21tc2 + (03
15 18
MT dü1
k1 = = a12co2 — a13w3
M2 dw2
—a23co3
M3 dw3
k3 = + + a13co1 + 1223(02
UI3 U,)
SEC. 15—4. CIRCULAR PLANAR MEMBER 493
When the member is planar, the shear center is on the Y2 axist and there is
no coupling between in-plane (u1, U2, and out-of-plane (u3, (02) dis-
placements. That is, an out-of-plane loading will produce only out-of-plane
displacements. The approximate force-displacement relations for out-of-plane
deformation for a thin planar member are
F3 MT — du3
e3 = = +
MT dw1 I
(15-19)
M2 1
k2 = k2 +
where = M1 — y2F3. Note that flexure and twist are coupled, due to the
curvature, even when the shear center coincides with the centroid.
+ Rh3 0
— M2 + R,n1 =0
dM2
+Rrn2—RF3=O
M2 l/dw2
k2 = k2o + = +
t The shear center axis lies in the plane containing the centroidal axis, which, by definition, is
a plane of symmetry for the cross Section.
494 ENGiNEERING THEORY OF AN ARBiTRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Boundary Conditions
F3 or u3
M1 or prescribed at each end (pts. A, B)
M2 or
(d)
dM1
= + Rin1 (e)
We solve (d) for M1 and determine M2 from (e). The resulting expressions are
M1 = C2cosO + C3 sinG +
M2 = —C2sinO + C3cosO + + Rm1
where M1 ,,
is the particular solution of (d).
P3
x2
i313
F3
B
- Rw2
=
where is a dimensionless parameter,
(15—22)
=
which is an indicator for torsional deformation. Solving the first equation for
and then determining W2 and u3 from the second and third equations lead
to
= C4cosO + C5 sin fJ + wi,,
d RM1
= —C4 sin U + C5cosU +
C6 —
+j +
dO
Example 15—4
The member shown is Sxed at A and subjected to a uniform distributed loading. Taking
Fig. E15—4
b3 = const
F3 = C1 — Rb30 (a)
496 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
= R5308
C2 = —R2h3 sin
C3 R2b3 cos
F3 = Rb30
= R2b3[q — sin ?q]
M2 .—R2h3[1 — cos
Example 15-5
The force system due to the end action, can be determined by applying the
librium conditions directly to the segment shown in Fig. E15—SA. This leads to
F3 =
= FB3R(l — cos F83R[l •— — 0)] (a)
M2 = — sin =— sin(Oa 9)
We suppose there is no initial deformation. Using (a), the equation for w3 becomes
+ w1 = (1 + — 0) (b)
(1 + [0 cos(OB 9)]
—
Using the above results and specializing (15—23) for this support condition lead to the
following expressions for the displacements:
WAI COS 0 + sin 0
I
SlflO + cosO + + cosO]
. . . 1
Sm 0 Osln(Oa — (d)
— —
133 UA3 + RthAI(l — cos £1) — Rö5A2 Sifl 0
RFB3 IF I
+ COS C1j sin P SW
1L
0 cos(05 — 0) + c, + + sln(OR —
Terms involving and define the rigid body displacements due to support
movement. Also, terms involving c1 are due to twist deformation. The rotations and
Fig. E15—5A
F3
M2
I?
sin + cos
1—c,
+ —h--— 033 -. 1] — —--—- sin 2
3 El2 Th
+ +
+
498 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
J = (for d3)
Then,
(d3\2
El2 — E [1 (di'\21
GA3R2 — G [io k,i2) J
The values of 4k and for d3/d2 = 1, 2, 3 and v = 0.3 are tabulated below:
= E12/GJ
d3/d2 4k (Ibr v 0.3)
1 1,69 1.54
2 2.75 3.8
3 3.16 7.4
Fig. E15—5B
1(3
t The torsional constant for a rectangular cross Section is developed in Sec. 11—3.
SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES 499
Since (d2/R)2 << 1, we see that it is reasonable to neglect transverse shear deformation. In
general, we cannot neglect twist deformation when the member is not shallow. For the
shallow case, we can neglect in the expressions for UB3.
Example 15—6
Consider a closed circular ring (Fig. El 5—6) subjected to a uniformly distributed twisting
moment. From symmetry, F3 0 and M1, M2 are constant. Then, using (15—16), we find
M1 = 0
1142 Rm1
U3 = (13; — 0
RM2 R2m1
WI
= =
x2 Fig. E15—6
b3 = m2 0
const
Displacement at Point Q
+ (k20 + + +
Compatibility Equations
Z1, Z2 Zr = force redundants
= F30 +
= M3,0 + kA
R1 = R1,0 + kZk
.fkJZJ (k = 1, 2 r) (15—25)
3= 1
where
+ JMT.JMT.k + + ETM31M3,kldS
= — + + +
+ + +
+
= M1 + y3F2 — v2F3
Example 15—7
Consider the nonprisinatic member shown below. The centroidal axis is straight but the
orientations of the principal inertia axes vary. We take X1 to coincide with the ceniroidal
axis and X2, X3 to coincide with the principal inertia directions at the left end (point A).
The principal inertia directions are defined by the unit vectors t2, t3.
= cos + sin çbt3
= —sin + cos
at x1=O
SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES
Now, we consider the problem of determining the translations of the centroid at B due
to the loadingshown in Fig. E15—7A. It is convenient to work with translationcomponents
(v52, v53) referred to the basic frame, i.e., the X2, X3 directions. We suppose that the shear
Fig. E15—7A
x2
x1
axts
center coincides with the centroid and shear deformation is negligible. Spe-
cializing (15—24), and noting that M1 = 0 for a transverse load applied at the centroid,
the displacement expression reduces to
dQ =
11L(i
+ (b)
Force Systems
The moment vectors acting on a positive cross section due to P2, P3 applied at B (Fig.
E15—7B) are —
P2(L —
= — P3(L — x1)12
To find M2, M3, we must the components of It,! with respect to the local frame.
These follow from Fig. E15—7C:
For P3.
M2 = P2(L —
M3 == P2(L — x1)cos q5
502 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Fig. E15—7B
L-x,
/B
1'2(L—x1)i3
'I
—P3(L
P3
Fig. E15—7C
M2r2
——P2(L—x1)z1
M3t3
For
M2 = — 1)cos 4)
(C )
M3 = +P3(L — x1)sin4)
Determination of Due to P2
The virtual-force system for corresponds to P2 = + 1. Introducing (d) in (b),
we obtain
(f)
VB3
SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES 503
Example 15—8
We rework Example 15—6 with the force method. Using symmetry, we see that
M1 = 0
=
Suppose the rotation w1 in the direction of in1 is desired. The virtual loading for this
displacement is rn1 = + 1. Starting with
Example 15—9
Consider the closed ring shown. Only M1 and M2 arc finite for this loading. Also, the
behavior is symmetrical with respect to X1 and we have to analyze only one half the ring.
Fig. E15—9
x2
42
44
We take the torsional moment at 0 = 0 as the force redundant. The moment distributions
M1
T
504 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
f11 = 2R dO
J +
and then substituting for M1, M2,
A1 cos 0
'
12 E12) sin
=
[sin2 0
= -
and it follows that Z1 = 0. We could have arrived at this result by noting that the behavior
is also symmetrical with respect to X2. This requires M2 to be an even function of 0.
The virtual-force system for WAI is T = + 1. Using (15—24) and (a) leads to
2wAi = 2RJ
r/T sin 0\sin 0 fT cos O'\ cos 01
+
RTa[l I
COAl
Example 15-10
We analyze the planar circular mcmber shown in Fig. El 5— bA. The loading is out-of-
plane, and only F3, M1, and M2 are finite. To simplify the algebra, we consider the shear
center to coincide with the centroid and neglect transverse shear deformation. It is con-
venient to take the reaction at B as the force redundant.
Fig. E15—1OA
B
SEC. 15—5. FORCE METHOD—EXAMPLES 505
Primary Structure
The primary structure is defined in Fig. El 5—lOB:
B1 = R2 —MA2 = —MAI
d1 — UA3 d2 = =
R4 = Z1 = F53 d4 =
E15—1OB
M1 ,
xl
Force Analyses
The force solutions for the loadings shown in Fig. El 5— [OC are:
For F:
F'3,0 = +P
M1, = PR[l COS(ii — llc)]
M2,0 = —PR sin(lJ — 'Ic) (b)
'Ic
ForZ1 = +1:
F3,1 = +1
= R(1 — cos ii) (c)
M21 —Rsini1
506 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Fig. E15—1OC
C
=+i
B
IL,j =
fit
!ii =
R + + M2
Substituting for the internal force and reactions, we obtain the following expressions
for and
R3 [(1 + (1 —
— Sin Sill COS
—
+ R2 sin(05 — O)dG
sin
El2
=
GJ
Note that we could have determined A1 and using the results of Example 15—5.
SEC. 15—6. RESTRAINED WARPING FORMULATION 507
S1
au -. (3U
ti + t2 (15—27)
-
tj + (3
where is the displacement vector for Q (S, Yi' Y2). We use the same displace-
ment expansion as for the prismatic case:
+ u212 + 113(3
U1 U1 + W2y3 — WIY2 ± f4i
IA2 lAsZ — — y3) (15—28)
= + co1(y2 — Y2)
Y3)
Expanding
= + + cr13y13)dy2dy3
leads to
dy2 = F1e1 + F2e2 + F3e3 + MTkI
+ M3k3 + MRf + Mj,.
e1, e2,. .
, k3 (defined by (15—16))
. (i5—29)
= SSai14) dy2 dy3
MR = JJ[ci2(4),2 + a12çb) + + a134))]dy2dy3
The equilibrium equations consist of(15—11) and the equation due to warping
restraint,
MR (15—30)
which can be interpreted as the stress equilibrium equation for the direction
weighted with respect to 4).
Now, we use the stress expansion developed for the prismatic case. The
derivation is discussed in Sec. 13—5, so we only list the essential results here.
The normal stress is expressed as
F1 M2 M3
= +
'2
Y3 —
'3
+ -r '1) (15—31)
where4) = — the St. Venant warping function referred to the shear center.
We write the transverse shear stress distribution as
+ ±
(15—32)
=
+ M32) +
= $SV* dy2 dy3 =
+
+ 2F2F3
+ + (15—33)
+ +
+ +
where the b's involve the curvature (a32, a1 3). If the cross section is symmetrical,
A23 Y3r = Y2r br = 0
SEC. 15—6. RESTRAINED WARPING FORMULATION 509
Fig. E15—11
NM
to a torsional moment at the other end. We neglect transverse shear deformation due
to restrained torsion. The governing equations for this loading (See Sec. 15—4) follow.
Equilibrium Equations
dM1
=
dM2
=
dO
R dO
M1 + M'j
t See Prob. 15—6.
ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Force-Displacement Relations
El2
M2 = E12k2 = +
El4, f
R (10
(b)
1 (dco1
f=
= GJk1
Boundary ('onditions
0—U (01C02J0
1v11 =M
M2 = 0
One can write the equilibrium solution directly from the sketch:
M1 M — 0) M2 = Al sin(05 — 0)
—
M1 = GJk1 = — 0)
1
k1 —
—
{sinh — tanh cosh + cos ü tanli
The rotation at B is
= — COS 0B) +
(RM\
l\ El2)
K= 1
+ Sin 0B
1 —
cos2 tanh 704
[ —
If we set
On On
and let (g) reduces to (13—57), the prismatic solution. The influence of warping
restraint depends on 2 and Values of K vs. 2 for = ir/4, it/2 are tabulated below:
for
= +
2 0 (open section)
(j)
2 =0 (closed section)
where t is the wall thickness and h is a depth measure. Since 2 = RA and R/li for 1
a thin curved member, the influence of warping restraint is not as significant as for the
prismatic case.
In the analysis of a member system, one needs the relations between the for
and displacements at the ends of the member. For a truss, these equations
512 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
reduce to a single relation between the bar force and the elongation. Matrix
notation is particularly convenient for this derivation so we start by expressing
the principle of virtual forces and the complementary energy density in terms
of generalized force and deformation matrices.
Referring back to Sec. 15—3, we define
a v*
(1536)
aM1
Note that we are working with M1, not MT. We use the complementary energy
function for a thin slightly twisted member with negligible warping restraint
(i.e., (15—17)). With the above notation,
Eq. (15—17) +
where
g= (15-38)
gfm
1 Y2Y3
gf +
A2G (7 GJ
I
Sym +
o ojo
J'3 1
El2
0 0 Sym
We will use these general expressions for planar and out-of-plane deformation
as well as for the arbitrary case. One has only to delete the rows and columns
SEC. 15—7. COMPLETE END RESTRMNT 513
(15—40)
El
for planar loading applied to a planar member.
Finally, we substitute fort in (15 —37) and distinguish between prescribed and
unknown displacements. The principle of virtual forces expands to
J5(t° + dS — dT dT (15—41)
13
{u}
0//Q = {u1, U2, U3 (Oj, W2, c03}Q (15—43)
+
+
Il
+ +
Next, we express as
+ (15—44)
leads to
[SB
= + . T(18 + 0)dS
(15—45)
[JB
+
The first term is due to rigid body motion of the member about A whereas
the second and third terms are due to deformation of the member. We define
as the member deformation matrix:
= — to rigid body (1546)
notion aI,out .4
By definition, is equal to the sum of the second and third terms in (15—45).
We also define
JSB
+ 0)dS = initial deformation matrix
S-4 (15—47)
fll member flexibility matrix
A1B
516 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
where is the flexibility matrix for member A1B referred to frame n. The
additional displacement at B due to movement of A1 is
—
• B,' displaccment at 4 — ' BA, 'Ai
It remains to determine
Finally, we have
+ = ffl (15—49)
=
The end forces at B are found by inverting (15—48):
= (fn)_ 1 member stiffness matrix
— 1 •,J/'fl
—
1550
= — + —
The first term is due to external load applied along the member and represents
the initial (or fixed-end) forces at B. For convenience, let
(15—51)
The second and third terms are the end forces at B due to end displacement at
B, A. Once is known, we can evaluate the interior force matrix at a point
using (15—44),
= 0
+ (a)
—— — ( )
A,0 BA B.i
where represents the initial end forces. In order to express the equations
in a more compact form, we let
in
KBB
ii
in inwn.T
—
k AB — n — jn —
L BA
BA BA BA
= g014)dS
A
Noting that
=
and letting
= (15—55)
we can write
ffl
(15—56)
+ 0)dS
=
We transform 4',g, and from the local frame to the basic frame, using (15—55)
518 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
and
=
=
0)dS (15—58)
(15—64)
0
=
(15—65)
=
(fixfj)
() ()
— g11 g12
gQ— E
g12 i g22
Note that g12 = 0 and g22 are diagonal matrices when the shear center
coincides with the centroid. If, in addition, axial and shear deformation are
neglected, g11 = 0.
We let
= = (15—67)
'1122 =
Next, we partition J consistent with'1':
j— 'I' dS —
I
— — Jp22j (15—69)
x
JP = F" is
ffl ffl
r =
(15-70)
520 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
1V01 —
r cli — C,12
n
BC
I
C.12 Ii C
rT —
lYe) L"c. 12 —- 2V'BC 22J 'C
(flxfl)
= (r)' =I (15—72)
[ku k22j I
One can easily show that (we drop the frame superscript on for convenience)
—(
k,'11 — k ii — 12 22
\1
12)
(15—73)
1n —If çT i
22k $ —
knB — —I
in I
rinIi I nvn,T
llJtB,! T
ml12
rnii I
(15—74
I
1n.!T I
I
KBA I= I
L 12
— A ] [k';1 I A
AA
—
i2 MB!, WB i
UB!
I. /
X1 is centroiclal axis.
X2, X3 are principal inertia directions.
Now,
o o 0
X5Q= 0 0 —(L—.xQ1) (a)
o (L—xQt) 0
Then, using g defined by (15—38), we obtain
L/AE 0 0
L
/1 1) L
\-2x3
+ +
Sym
I)
+ +
0 0 0
V
0
f12= GJ . -— +
2E13 (15—75)
LT2 L2
0
GJ 2E12
=
L/GJ 10 0
Sym LIEu
522 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
The submatrices of k are generated with (1 5—73), (1 5— 74) and are listed below
for reference. Transverse shear deformation is neglected by setting a2 = 03 0:
12E12 12E11
a2 = a3
=
'2 = —I'---
2
1 + a2 - 1+03
GJ 12E
b1 = + +
AE
0 0
L
k11=
L3
Sym
0 0 0
6E1
0
k12 = L2
(15—76)
0
L2 L2
k22 (4 + 0
Fl*
Sym (4 +
0 0 0
—
0
L
L3 L2
10
(change sign of(2, 3) and (3, 2) in k12)
—
b1
L2 L2
B= 1!
0
0
L2
SEC. 15—9. MEMBER MEMBER 523
—6E!!Ye2
b
V L2
FI*
=
(4 + a3)_L_
Finally, the fixed end forces due to a concentrated transverse force and a
uniform transverse loading are summarized below.
concentrated Force
12E13
a3 =
MB3 —
(15—77)
FB2 —
MBI = +
MA1 =
— F112
MA3 = —L + FB2 +
Force
12E12
a2
— GA1L2
—
÷
FB3 +
(15—78)
+ FB3)
MAI —MB1
— _PC3 — FR3
MA2 L + — MB2)
524 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Concentrated Torque
= —
(15—79
MA1 = Tc1(1 —
— h2L2 (15—80)
M83 = —MA3 =
M81 MAI = 0
= = sin cos 0
° 1
17]
= = (15—83)
SEC. 15—ID. THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER 525
=
0
jO
I
0
R sin
R sin ,fl
x;
Centroidal axis
b
B2
F;3,U;,
Mw
Fig. 15—9. Summary of notation for a planar circular member.
We consider the member to be thin and use the local flexibility matrix
defined by (15—38). Expanding (15—66), (15—68) leads to the member flexibility
matrix.
526 ENGINEERiNG THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
13 El3
ae as =
El2 El7
Ct Cs =
=
a1 = ae + a7
a2 = ae —
c1 = +
(15—84)
= —
( Y2\
—
—\2
Y2 \
Symmetrica'
- sin ± + az)i}
R3
I - cosO5 +r!j)
— sin2 05(1
+ a2)} a2)sin cos
2
0 0 + c41
R2
0 0 — sin
1,12
— T— 0 0 —cos05)
t212t) —
+
0
+ c2 sin cos f15}
Ib22
SEC. 15-10. THIN PLANAR CIRCULAR MEMBER 527
1, — b
V0 — UB —.. j T c v-I,. T Tçc. T c
c AC,11 /1.4C.i21 C
+ + (15—85)
1' r T ( Tcc \
— Ii 4C,121 C C
Planar Loading
/ 1+a1
= = M3 + cos + 'Ic —
— o4
+ + Sifl 5jfl
1:13
(15—86)
I I R ç
2 = — —s-—-- Sill 'Ic
L
1+02. . 1
2
+
+ j —
RO
00,3 WB3 — sin + (1 COS +
528 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Out-of-Plane Loading
R3 (
V0. = = COS 'ic + c4) — C2 Sifl 0c cos 0B
+ c2 sin cos
+
RI Cos 'ic — (15—87)
When the loading is symmetrical, one can utilize symmetry to determine the
fixed end forces. The most convenient choice of unknowns is the internal forces
at the midpoint, i.e., 6 = OB/2; F1 and M3 are unknown for the planar case and
only M2 is unknown for the out-of-plane case. Explicit expressions for the
fixed end forces due to various loading conditions arc listed below.
Planar Loading
Fig. 15—10 defines the notation for the planar case.
We consider two loadings: a concentrated radial force P applied at C, and
a uniform distributed radial load b2 applied per unit arc length over the entire
segment. The basic frame is chosen to utilize symmetry. We determine the
axial force and moment at C from the symmetry conditions u1 = w3 = 0.
1;.fl
B!
MA
SiflO! 1+Q2
— cos cc) + —--—— SIfl 2 CL
CL 2
(1 + a1\ sin2 cc (1 + a2\
CL I I — + sin cos
cc
=
RP ci — COS
+
( (15—88)
—-i- —
— 7771 — 77
' 131 — Al — Cl
— 1'
—
'A2
— PR I 1 — co.s (sin
= MA SIfl + 1,/I COS
= 0
—Rb2(1
sin
(1 + ai) sin2 cc (1 + a2'\
+ sin cc cos cc
2 — cc
530 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
(15—89)
Mc=R2b2aecb(_1
= — a4)
= = —Rb2 Sill C(
Out-of-Plane Loading
Figure 15—11 defines the notation for the out-of-plane case.
We consider four loadings: a concentrated force P, and a couple T—both
applied at C; a uniform distributed force h3; and a uniform distributed couple
in1. Tile bending moment at C is obtained using the symmetry condition
CD2 = 0.
F3
Mt
PR
MB1 = MA1 --i-- (1 — cos cx)
- =
- PR.
— = — ----- sin cx
FB = =
= 0
T c2sin2cx
= 2 cxc1 + c2 sin cx cos cx (15—91)
=
FB=FA=0 -
0
c1(sincx — cx)+ c2 sin cx(i — coscx)+ — cxcoscx)
— R 2 b3
+ C2 COS
(15—92)
= = R2b3(sin cx — cx cos cx)
= = — R2b3(cx sin cx — 1 + cos cx)
=FA=—PRcx
CASE 4—UNIFORM DISTRIBUTED COUPLE m1
= 0
cj(a — sin cx) + c2 sin cx(cos cx —1)
= m1R——--——-—--
cxc1 + C2 SJfl cx cos cx (15—93)
—m1R sin cx
MA2 = — rn1R(1 — cos cx)
relations:
x3 = R cos 0
x2 R sin 0
x3=C8
dS a dO
a= [R2 + C2)112 = constant
R.
—---sinO —cosO
IC
a a
Rc, = R,3 = =
C.
—sin 0
C
——-cos 0
R
a a
0 — C(OB — 0) R(sin — sin 0)
= C(OB — 0) 0 — R(cos — cos 0)
— R(sin — sin 0) R(cos 0
The steps involve only algebraic operations and integration. We first deter-
mine using (15—66), then from (15—68), and finally with (15—70). In
what follows, we assume the shear center coincides with the centroid and neglect
extensional and transverse shear deformation. With these restrictions,
= g12 = () =
GJ
g2=
El3
and the expressions for reduce to
=
'I'12 'V22
Centroidal axis
Yi
Notation—-Din,ensionless Para,neters
R2E12 C2l2
= +
R2 C2 (E12\ 13
= +
C12
ij T
RC[12 El2
a3
1+a1 1—a1
a5 = a6 =
a4+a6
a7= a8=
2 2
a6+3a4 a6—3a4
a9 a10
2 2
534 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
Elements of f71
[fit Sym 1
f22 I
f33j
= C2a( +
a
+ 2a4 sin 08 + a10 sin OB}
R2a2cz 1 (1
+ + Sin208) — 2sinO8 +
El3
f a6
02B a8 0B + a4(OB 0B — COS 05 + COS OB)}
C2x
+ — a10 sin 08 Cos — 2a4OB cos
=
R2a2cc 1 /1
+El + COS
2
R2a
f33 = {(ai + a5)05 — 2a1 sin a6 sin cos (15—94)
Elements of
[114 1161
f261
Lf34 f35 f36j
02
8 + a8 sin2
(
f16 = — — <08 sin 1 + cosoB}
El2 ( 08} El3
f24 — + a8 sin2 0B a4(1 — cos
= f
<p8(08 Sffi 0B C05
SEC. 15—12. PARTIAL END RESTRAINT 535
Ca3cJ .
f26=
— 0B cos
=
f36 =
—
Elements of
a
= sin 2 {a508 — a6 sin 08 cos OB}
aa3 . aa2
— cos08)
El2 112
B
(a
The elements of G are the end forces at B (for Z 0) due to the applied external
loads. Note that G = if Z contains only end forces at B.
0
Now, the principle of virtual forces requires
+ = + TO/fl
where ffl are the initial deformation and flexibility matrices for thefull end
restraint case. Substituting for using (15—95), and requiring the resulting
expression to he satisfied for arbitrary AZ, we obtain
(ETIftE)Z + ET( + = = (15—96)
(F
(15—97)
=
([3 x 1)
trZ = — z)
n Tcjjgn ( — )
— ETJc) 'A — ' O,Z
= +G (15—105)
= + (I, —
B,i
I I n'
RB
L
BA 'A
= + +
538 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN MEMBER CHAP. 15
where
(15—107)
=
k"AA —
— ar" n — T
BA BA BA e BA
Comparing (15—107) with (15—53), the corresponding expressions for the com-
plete restraint case, we see that one has only to replace by in the partitioned
forms for and The equation for is different, however, due
to the presence of the G term.
Example 15—12
- Fl +G
—
For this case, G = 0. The reduced flexibility and stiffness matrices follow from (15—98),
(15—102),
=
REFERENCES
I. REISSNER, F.: "Variational Considerations for Elastic Beams and Shells." J. Eng.
Mech. Div. A.S.C.E., Vol. 88, No. EMI, February 1962.
2. HALL, A. S. and R. W. W000HEAD: Frame Analysis, Wiley, New York, 1967.
3. GEaR, J. M. and W. WEAVER: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1965.
4. RUEINSTRJN, M. F.: Matrix Computer Analysis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, 1966.
5. LIVESLEY, R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pcrgamon Press, London,
1964.
6. DAEROWSKJ, R.: Gekriimmte dünnwandige Trüger (Curved thin-walled beams),
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1968.
PROBLEMS 539
7. V. Z.: Thin Walled Elastic Beams, Israel Program for Scientific Transla-
tions, OfiIce of Technical Services, U.S. Dept. of Commerce, Washington, D.C., 1961.
8. BAZANT, Z. P.: "Nonuniform Torsion of Thin-walled Bars of Variable Section,"
International Association for Bridge and Structural Engineering Publications, Zurich,
Vol. 25, 1965, pp. 17—39.
PROBLEMS
15—1. Refer to Example 15—5. Determine c, for a typical wide-flange section
and a square single cell. Comment on the relative importance of torsional
deformation vs. bending deformation (i.e., terms involving in Equation (e)).
Distinguish between deep and shallow members.
15—2. Refer to Example 15—7. Consider a rectangular cross section and
I/p j3\
varying linearly with x1, as shown in the sketch. Evaluate VB2 /( and
/ \3E12J
vB3/ for a range of 4 and a/b.
3E12
Prob. 15—2
x2
'2
b
x3
13
y3
Prob. 15—3
P
/
Shear center
I— Vertical restraint at B
540 ENGINEERING THEORY OF AN ARBITRARY MEMBER CHAP. 15
DR
(1 + r,) =
D15 Df)
DS Dy2
S[fl Y12 =
E3f)
DS Dy2
X2 Prob. 15—11
15—14. Starting with (15—87), develop expressions for the initial deforma-
tions due to an aribitrary distributed loading, h3 = b3(O). Specialize for b3 =
constant and verify(15—92).
15—15. Using the geometric relations and flexibility matrix for a circular
helix (constant cross section; Y2 coincides with the normal direction) developed
in Sec. 15—11:
(a) 1)evelop a matrix equation for the displacements at B due to a loading
referred to the global frame and applied at flint: See (15—85).
(b) Evaluate for the loading and geometry shown.
Prob. 15—15
Y3, b
I
I
Y2,fl
— ir/2
——
c =R/2
G =E/2
x1
(16—1)
(jOt) (xxi)
(fbi)
545
546 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 16
matrix operations. Finally, in Chapter 18, we extend the direct stiffness method
to include geometrical nonlinearity.
to (b). This step is necessary since we are working with joint forces and displace-
ments referred to the global frame. The final expressions arc:
= + +
(16—3)
= + +
where the global member stiffness and initial force matrices are generated with
k — TI n rzou
= 16—4
Once the displacements are known, we evaluate using (16—3) and then
transform to the member frame.
Since the initial end force and stiffness matrices are generated in partitioned
form, it is natural to express (16—4) in partitioned form. Using the notation
SEC. 16—3. SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM EQUATIONS 547
plion
=
ip
= (16—5)
t.MoJ (flxl)
()O,22
(Sxo)
o — on,T n on
12 — 00. 12
on, Ti n on — o,T
k 21 = fi 21 ( )( ), 12
(16—6)
1 0 — ii on
11 "(')(),22 P
— Don,
L t 0,1
=
Note that is a natural property of the member whereas depends on
the orientation of the member frame with respect to the global frame. The
operations defined by (16--6) can be considered as the element matrix generation
phase.
The member force-displacement relations satisfy the equilibrium conditions
for the member and compatibility between the restrained end displacements
and the corresponding joint displacements. Actually, the equilibrium condi-
tions were used to determine Compatibility is satisfied by setting =
and = When there is only partial restraint at an end, there will
be displacement discontinuities. For example, if there is a rotation release at
the positive end, will not be equal to the end rotation matrix. We have
treated'r partial end restraint by defining an effective member stiffness matrix
k0. In the derivation of k0, we consider °1IA to be the displacements of the
supports (i.e., the joints) and enforce continuity of only the restrained end
displacements.
inrown...,columnn_
Since is symmetrical, only the upper or lower half has to be stored.
= + = (16—11)
+
The stiffness and initial force matrices are assembled using (16—9) and
(16—10). It remains to introduce the prescribed external forces and displace-
ment restraints. If joint q is unrestrained, is prescribed, and we just add
SEC. 16—4. INTRODUCTION OF JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 549
Finally, ifjoint q is partially restrained, some of the elements in 19q are unknown.
In this case, we replace the scalar equations for the unknown reactions by
scalar identities.
We suppose joint q is partially restrained and, for generality, consider the
translation and rotation restraint directions to he arbitrarily orientated with
respect to the basic frame. We define X'1, .. , as the orthogonal directions
.
=
(flxj)
L°"i (16—12)
Now,
P,q =
(16—13
T" — /3 q
1. EqandGq
We start with
E=I, G=O,
and set
+1
550 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOID—.-LtNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 16
2.
We start with an ith-order column matrix having zero elements and set the
element in row r equal to the prescribed displacement.
We start with an ith-order column matrix having zero elements and enter
the values of the prescribed forces and moments referred to the restraint frames.
Note that element r is zero.
Premultiplying transformed row q of 3r, t?P0 with Eq reduces the rth equation
to 0 = 0. Then, adding Gq to Eqirqq and + to — q introduces
the identity for the rth element and includes the prescribed external forces
in We also operate on the qth column of to preserve syrnnwtry and
include the terms due to prescribed displacements in The complete set of
operations for joint q are listed below:
1. €=1,2,...,q—l
T)a/e;
T)F
2. 9N, q q + +
= T)Eq + Gq (l616)
3. €=q+i,q+2,...,j
=
—
=
The operations defined by (16—16) are carried out for each joint, working
with successive joint members. We represent the modified equations as
= (16—17)
of member n is
(16—IS)
in row fl...
Finally, we transform the external joint forces from the global frame to the
local restraint frames. This step determines the reactions and also provides a
statics check on the solution.
Example 16—1
Suppose joint q is completely restrained. Then, "li and = 0.. The forms
for E, G are
EqOi Gqlj
and (16—16) reduces to
1. €=L2,...,q—l
—
—
,t,.
q
2.
3. j
Oi
Example 16—2
Suppose joint q is completely restrained against translation. Then, the translation
matrix and external moment matrix are prescribed. The appropriate matrices for
this case are
r0 01 r1
Gg =
= }
Example 16—3
We consider the case where joint q is restrained with respect to translation in one direc-
tion and there is no restraint against rotation. This corresponds to a "roller" support.
We take to coincide with the restraint direction and X'2, as mutually orthogonal
directions comprising a right-handed system. The translation, is prescribed. The
prescribed forces are P52, and
552 DIRECT STIFFNESS METHOD—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 16
[ 13
where
= r,s 1,2,3
=
=
=
We specialize the results for a planar system subjected to planar loading. In order for
only planar deformation to occur, the translation restraint direction must lie in the plane
of the system, which we take as the plane. It is convenient to select the orientation
of X'2 such that X3 coincides with X",. 'Ihe specialized forms are
=
= [S,.,] r,s = 1,2
0 1
(d)
=
Eq Gq
= ---H
0
Eq Cq
= =
qe;
=
=
Note that (e) is obtained by settinge = 1, = 2 in (a) of Example 16—2.
REFEREt'JCES
REFERENCES
1. R. K.: Matrix Methods of Structural Analysis, Pergamon Press, London,
1964.
2. MARTIN, H. C.: Introduction to Matrix Methods of StructuralAnalysis, McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1965.
3. RUBINSTEIN, M. F.: Matrix computer Analysis of Structures, Prentice-Hall, New
York, 1966.
4. Gere, I. M. and W. Weaver: Analysis of Framed Structures, Van Nostrand, New
York, 1965.
17
General Formulation
Linear System
17-1. INTRODUCTION
We consider a system comprising m linear elastic members interconnected
at j joints. We suppose there are i degrees of freedom per joint (i.e., the joint
displacement and force matrices are of order i x 1) and the geometry and joint
quantities are referred to a global frame. Also, we neglect geometry change
due to deformation. In the previous chapter, we applied the direct stillness
method, which is actually a displacement method, to this system. Now, in this
chapter, we first develop the governing matrix equations and then deduce the
equations corresponding to the force and displacement solution procedures.
We also establish variational principles for the force and displacement methods.
Finally, we discuss how one can introduce member deformation constraints in
the displacement method. Since the basic steps involved in the member system
formulation are the same as for the ideal truss formulation, we recommend that
the reader review Chapters 6 through 9 before starting this chapter.
Let r be the number of prescribed joint displacements. Then, the total number
of joint displacement unknowns, is
na = if — r (17—1)
The total number of force unknowns, flf, is equal to r (the reactions corre-
sponding to the prescribed displacements) plus qT, the total number of member
force unknowns:
nf=?+qT=r+(qj +q2+ '.. +qm) (17—2)
554
SEC. 17—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS 555
There are qT equations relating the member forces and the joint displacements.
Also, there are ij equilibrium equations relating the external joint forces and
the member forces. The formulation is consistent, i.e., the number of equations
is equal to the number of unknowns. If flf if, the system is said to be statically
determinate since the force unknowns can be determined using only the equi-
librium equations. The difference, flf — ii, is generally called the degree of
static indeterminacy, and represents the order of the final system of equations
for the force method. For the displacement method, the final system ofequations
arc of order In what follows, we first establish the member force—joint
displacement relations by generalizing the results of Sec. 15—12. Then, we
assemble the joint force-equilibrium equations. Finally, we introduce the joint
displacement restraints.
These equations include the effect of partial end restraint, internal force releases,
and reductions due to symmetry or antisymmetry. We can also use (a) for
complete end restraint by setting F = and G = 0.
Now, we introduce new notation which is more convenient. First, we note
that G contains the end forces at B due to the external member loads acting
on the primary structure defined by Z = 0. Also, — — are the
end forces at A. Then we write
=G
(17—3)
—
Then, we define
= reduced member deformation matrix (q,, x 1)
= = —
17—4
reduced initial member deformation matrix x 1)
= ETI/'O z = + f"G)
With this notation, the member equations take the form
—
B R,o
(175)
—
= + frZ
We generalize the relations for member n by setting
B—n÷ A=n_
E=E,, Z=Z. (17-6)
= "r, n = fr.
Since the joint quantities are referred to the global frame, we must transform
the end forces and displacements from the member frame (frame n) to the
global frame (frame o), using
=
,t n+
( 17—8)
—
and it
T
— TF)Z
= — .
fr, 2
1 (17-16)
558 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
ii = 1, 2, . . . , in
(mi x un)
E
E= (im x q1) ([7—18)
Em
(zinxirn)
(un x im)
= —
17 20
and it follows that
d. =
= —
The elements of are the joint forces due to external forces acting on the
members with Z 0. We express the complete set of equations as
+
, p1,1 Z1
P1 = Z2
+ (17-24)
I
Zm
in row
GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Column n
TE
— Tdyn
n_n — (17—26)
= — TE
p171sn = 0
S fl+,
s=
Comparing (17—26) with (17—17), we see that
= (17—27)
We let
——
1' 1,, 2, (17—28)
=
(17-30)
—* P = (17—31)
Pf
(r x
where U2, P1, and P1 are prescribed. We use B, A to represent the rearranged
forms d: x r)
(qr
A2]
[liii
I
B= = [An (17—32)
[ _J [ A2 j fr'qr)
SEC. 17—5. JOINT DISPLACEMENT RESTRAINTS 561
= J)1 + 4L
(1737)
+ fZ =
where the superscript J indicates that joint forces and displacements are referred
to local restraint frames. The final equations are obtained by permuting the
columns of d2 (rows of the rows of and then partitioning.
The transformation of a71 to U can be expressed as a matrix product,
U = DQ/ = (17—38)
where contains the rotation matrices for the joint restraint frames,
= ... (17—39)
and H is the row permutation matrix. One can generate H by starting with
I and permuting the rows according to the new listing of the joint displace-
ments, i.e., with the prescribed displacements last. Now, D is an orthogonal
matrix,
(17—40)
Then,
= DTU
P=
562 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
(17—45)
where
— Tc)
= +
One assembles d, 9PI, using(17—17), (17—25), which are actually the expansions
of(b). By introducing new joint variables, we can express d in terms of only one
SEC. 17—6. NETWORK FORMULATION 563
(17-48)
= — 0 — 4i) plane
I" 0
Xy2; — Xy1
0
t
planar
We could operate on (b), but it is more convenient to start with (17—11):
—
'Kr,, =
Now, by definition,
=
Substituting for using (17—47), and noting that
we obtain
'Kr,,, = (17—48)
= = (17—51)
= 0 (q,, x 1)
S
s= 1, 2 j
564 GENERAL FORMULATION—UNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
+ Y
Then,
C_)
(17—53)
=
We transform the joint forces, using (17—47), and write the resulting equations
as
= + (17-54)
= + fZ =
To relate corresponding terms in (a) and (17—54'). we generalize (17—47):
(17—55)
= (if x i/)
• jY
It follows that ,, r
—
(17—56)
g,YI =
The expression for reduces to (17--53) when (d) and (c) are introduced.
The formulation developed above can be interpreted as a network formula-
tion since the connectivity term appears seperately in the factored form of d.
A simplified version which does not allow for member force releases has been
presented by Fenves and Branin (see Ref. 1). The only operational advantage
of not working with the actual joint quantities is in the generation øf d,m÷ and
d,,,. This advantage is trivial compared to the additional operations required
to generate ., to introduce the displacement restraints, and finally, to
transform to once the solution is obtained. Another serious disadvantage
is that the equations tend to become ill-condii.ioned.
Fenves and Branin's primary objective was to show that the governing
equations for a member system can be cast in a form such that geometrical and
topological effects are separated, i.e., a network formulation. DiMaggio and
Spillars (Ref. 2) have also presented a network formulation for a rigid jointed
member system. Actually their formulation is a special case of our first formula-
tion. It is not, strictly speaking, a true network formulation since connectivity
is not completely separated from geometry (see (17—21)). The only way that one
can separate connectivity from geometry is to redefine the joint variables. Note
SEC. 17—7. DISPLACEMENT METHOD 565
that the ideal truss is an exception. Connectivity and geometry are naturally
uncoupled for this system.
Whether one interprets the governing equations for a member system from a
network viewpoint is of academic interest only. In the displacement method,
the equations reduce to the equations for the direct stiffness method. The
only possible advantage of the network interpretation is in the force method.
There one can use certain concepts of the mesh methodt to select a primary
structure, provided that there are no member force releases or partial joint
restraints. However, the selection of a primary structure for a rigid-jointed
frame having fixed supports is quite simple, and even this advantage is debatable.
that K1.1 is positive definite. Conversely, jfK1 is not positive definite, the system
is unstable. The joint displacements are determined by solving (17—59) and the
member forces are obtained by back substitution in (17—57).
Operating on the restrained equations, as we have done above, is not efficient
since the various coefficient matrices must be generated by matrix multiplica-
tion. By first manipulating the unrestrained equations and then introducing
the displacement restraints, one can avoid any matrix multiplication. This
procedure corresponds to the direct stiffness method.
Operating on (17—30), we obtain
Z = Z1 + kd°ll (17-61)
and
= + c/TZ +
(17—62)
= +
Equation (17—62) is identical to (16—8). The of reduces to
(16—9), (16—10) when we introduce the factored forms of d, Z1.
First, we review the definitions of the member stiffness matrices,
The effective member stiffness matrix (see (16—104)) has been
defined as
Now, substituting for d using (17—21), the expression for takes the form
= —
where
= (17—63)
One can easily show that (17—64) reduces to (16—10) when the properties of
C... are taken into account.
The initial end actions for member n
= + TE)( — kr, n'17ro. n)
T, TEn(_kr.
,, n)
Using the factored forms for d, and 4, the expression for takes the
form
= +
(17—65)
+ —
=
[0 IrJ L
U2
and permuting the rows and columns. This operation can be represented in
terms of the permutation matrix, 11, defined by
u=[IdllJ
= HTP
Then,
It follows that is positive definite when K11 is positive definite, i.e., when
the system is stable.
Since B1 is of rank we can solve (a) for member forces in terms of the net
prescribed joint forces (P1 — P1 i) and r member forces. The compatibility
equations for the member force redundants are obtained by eliminating U1
from (b). This is possible since (b) represents qT equations whereas U1 is only
of order x 1. In the next section, we specialize the principle of virtual forces
for a member system and utilize it to establish the compatibility equations.
We suppose the first 0d columns of B1 are linearly independent. If the system
is initially stable, the member force matrix Z can always be rearranged so that
this condition is satisfied. We partition Z after row
1z,)
Z (17—68)
1) (ZR) 1)
The elements of ZR are the force redundants for the system. We refer to the
system obtained by setting ZR = 0 as the primary system. Continuing, we
partition B1 and B2 consistent with (17—68):
(fld 0 qj-) x fld) ("s 'Jo,)
B1 =[ BIR
17 69
B2 —
(i (r 0 "d> (r °qo,)
ZPR =
but it is not necessary to determine Actually, the solution procedure
can be completely automated.( The complete solution for is
xqo,)
z (17-74)
Note that the member forces due to are self-equilibrating, i.e., they satisfy
B1Z = 0. Finally, we substitute for in the expression for P2 and write the
result as
P2 = P2,0 + P2 RZR (17—75)
where
(rXI)
= P1,2 + J37PZP,0
'17—76)
B2R + B2pZp,ft
(r X
and obtain the following two sets of equations relating to U1 and ZR:
The joint displacements can he determined from (17—77) once Zft is known.
Eliminating U1 from (d) leads to
RU2 I/R + ZP
17—78
+ + fftftZft ± + + fpftZR)
Equation (17—78) represents the compatibility equations for the force redun-
dants. Finally, we substitute for using (17—72) and write the resulting
equations as
fZRZR = A (17—79)
where
>< qg)
—f
— 'RR
7T 4• 7
1-q', R'PP'—P. ft
7T c 17T
—
A = P2, ftU2 — + o) — p +
These equations are similar in form to the corresponding equations for the
ideal truss developed in Sec. 9—2.
The flexibility matrix, fzR, can be expressed as
=
—
lil
[Zp
J
[zp,R1T f[ZP.R1
'RRJ
[ZP ft
(17—81)
j j
Now, f is positive definite for a deformable system. Then, it follows that fzR
is also positive definite. In a later article, we consider the case where certain
member deformations may be prescribed.
Once the preliminary force analyses have been carried out, the remaining
steps are straightforward. We generate A, solve for Zft. and then determine
570 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Zr,, P2 by back substitution. If the displacements are also desired, they can be
determined by solving (17—77).
The final number of equations for the force method is usually smaller than
for the displacement method VS. lid). However, the force method requires
considerably more operations to generate the equations. The force method
can be completely automated, but not as conveniently as the direct stiffness
method. Also, automating the preliminary force analyses requires solving an
additional set of nd equations. Another disadvantage of the force method is
that the compatibility equations tend to he ill-conditioned unless one is careful
in selecting force redundants.
t We work with the governing equations for the restrained system. See (17—33), (17—34), (17—35).
SEC. 17—9. VARIATIONAL PRINCIPLES 571
One can interpret V as the strain energy function for the members. For the
linear case, V ôan be expressed as
V= —
17 85
= — —
The Euler equation for (17—88) is (17—59), and the second differential has the
form
i2rr — /tITTIATI A \AIT
'4 — 1)
(17—90)
= AUrK11 AU1
Since K11 is positive definite, we can state that the displacements defining the
equilibrium position correspond to a minimum value of defined by (17—88)
or (17—87).
We consider next the force-method formulation. We let AP, AZ be a statically
permissible virtual-force system. By definition,
= ATAZ = BAZ (17-91)
Premultiplying both sides of (d) with AZT and introducing (17—91) leads to
the principle of virtual forces,
APTU = (17-92)
Note that (17—92) is valid only for a statically permissible virtual-force system,
i.e., one which satisfies (17—91).
The compatibility equations follow directly from the principle of virtual
forces by requiring the virtual-force system to be self-equilibrating. If AZ
satisfies -
AP1 = B1 AZ = 0 (17-93)
then (17--92) reduces to
= (17-94)
572 GENERAL FORMULATION—LiNEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
and
= 4ZTfZ + ZT.K0 (17—97)
= + B2Z
The constraint conditions are the joint force-equilibrium equations. Operating
on (g), and noting that P, 2 are prescribed, lead to the constraint
conditions on the force variations
B1 AZ = 0
AP2 = B2 AZ
Note that (h) require the virtual-force system to be statically permissible and
self-equilibrating.
In the previous section, we expressed Z, P2 as
Z
= +
P20 + P2RZR
This representation satisfies (g) and (h) identically for arbitrary AZR, Sub-
stituting for Z, P2 in (17-98) and expanding V* using (17-97), we obtain
= + ZR]
+ (17-99)
— ZR 2. RU2 + const
The Euler equations for (17—99) are (17—79), and the second differential has the
form
= AZR (17—100)
SEC. 17—10. MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRAINTS 573
Since is positive definite, it follows that the true forces, i.e., the forces that
satisfy compatibility as well as equilibrium, correspond to a minimum value
of
Instead of developing separate principles for the displacements and force
redundants, we could have started with a general variational principle whose
Euler equations are the complete set of governing equations. One can easily
show that the stationary requirement for
rIR = ZT(8TU1 + — — Pfu1
IT IT ( 7—10
T 1 —
= —
= — = v,, +
- (a)
One can interpret (a), (b) as either member deformation constraints or as con-
straint conditions on the joint displacements. In general, the decrease in rank
of the system flexibility matrix f is equal to the number of constraint conditions.
We consider first the force method. The governing equations are given by
fZrZR = A (qR eqs.)
where
=
"Zr L
Example 17—1
qT 4
q4 = 2
We take the forces in bars 3, 4 as the redundants:
cF1) IF3
(F2J ff4
Then,
Zr5[0ri 0
1
and
1 1 0
01
0
=
We can specify that, at most, two bars are rigid. No difficulty is encountered if only one
bar is rigid. However, we cannot specify that bars 1, 3 or 2, 4 are rigid.
Fig. E17—1
0
0
relations, i.e., (17—57) are not applicable. In what follows, we first develop the
appropriate equations by manipulating the original set of governing equations.
We then show how the equations can be deduced from the variational principle
for displacements.
The governing equations are
P1 = P1 1
+ AfZ eqs.)
+ fZ = A1U1 + A2U2 (qT eqs.)
Now, we suppose there are c deformation constraints and the elements of
are listed such that the last c elements are the prescribed deformations. We
partition '/7' and Z as follows:
1
= (cx1)
z (17—103)
=
where contains the constrained member deformations and Z. the corre-
sponding member forces. We use subscripts c, u to indicate quantities asso-
ciated with the constrained and unconstrained deformations. Continuing, we
partition
A
A1
(cx I'd)
(q-r 'ia)
—
(cxr) (17—104)
•) (qr—e)xi
f = fT
= 0
(cxc)
576 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
P1 + + AfCZC (17—105)
= + = + A2aU2 (17106)
= = A1,U1 + A2,02 (17—107)
Example 17—2
Suppose we specify that bars 1, 3 are rigid for the system considered in Example 17—I.
The constraint equations arc (we take = {e1, e1})
— = — U21
e3 = = —u11 +
and
+ AfCZC = P1 — — — (17—109)
A1,U1 = — A2,02 (17—110)
Z — (17-114)
= =
K11U1 + = — — K1202 = H1 (17—115)
= — = H2 (17—116)
and take arbitrary values for the member deformation parameters that are to be
negelected. We obtain K11 and Fl1 by first generating using the
direct stiffness method and then deleting the rows and columns corresponding
to the prescribed displacements. The constrained deformations, 1/v, can be
listed arbitrarily. It is only necessary to specify the locations of the constraint
forces (elements of in. the natural member force listing. Once the
ments and constraint forces are known, we can determine the force matrix for
member n by first evaluating (see (17—8) and (17—11))
Z =k'r, r, ro. ,,j
— (O/g° — "
fl / '. n+ n n -—
578 GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
where k.,, is the modified stiffness matrix, and then adding the constraint forces
in the appropriate locations. In what follows, we describe two procedures for
solving (17—115) and (17—116).
In the first method, we solve (17—115) for U1,
U1 = — (17—118)
Example 17—3
e2 = U, =
To simplify the example, we consider only the effect of joint forces. Using the notation
introduced above, the various matrices for this example are
U1 {u1,u2}
P1 Pz}
= e1 4= F1 k,, =
e2 4= F2 =
11,1=2 c=1
(P1 U2, are null matrices.)
Fig. E17—3
0 Bar is rigid
=
e2
1
SEC. 17—10. MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRAINTS 579
Ii
1]
0
=
L kJ LU a
k1•[I' 1
K11 = Afk'A1 —
K11U1 +
= +
= P1
[u-.] (h)
(i)
= 0 (j)
The solution follows from (17—118), (17—119). We just have to take
H1 = H2 = 0 = (k)
The inverse of K11 is
1 [1+2a —ii
(1)
+Ij
I
(1k1[-l
Then
.L[1 +11
=
and (17—119) reduces to
= ak1
ak1
F'2—p2—p1 (n)
U2 = 0
Finally, we substitute for U1, u2 in (h):
F1 =
F2 = F'2 = P2 — P1
GENERAL FORMULATION—LINEAR SYSTEM CHAP. 17
Instead of first solving (17—115) for U1 in terms of one can start with
(17—116),
= — = H2
which represents c relations between the displacements. Since A is of rank
c, we can express c displacements in terms of rid — c displacements, i.e., there
are only nd — c independent displacements.
We suppose the first c columns of are linearly independent. Since
is of rank c, we can always permute the columns such that this requirement is
satisfied. We let
— c (17—120)
Finally, we express U1 as
U1 = BU + H3 (17-123)
where
a) (cx
= (axx)
I
L f fl -J
I
(cxl)
H3 = (ax!)
(
0 j
Note that B is of rank n and
0 (17125)
The generation of B, H3 from H2 can be completely automated using the
same procedure as employed in the force method to select the primary structure.
We consider next the joint force-equilibrium equations, (17—115),
K11U1 + = H1 (fld eqs.)
Substituting for U1 leads to
(K11B)U + = -- K11H3 114
Since B is of rank n, the coefficient matrix is positive definite. One can interpret
SEC. 17—10. MEMBER DEFORMATION CONSTRAINTS 581
BTK1 1B as the reduced system stiffness matrix. We solve for U and then
evaluate U1 from (17—123). It remains to determine the restraint forces,
We consider again Eq. (a). Assuming U.1 is known, we can write
= — K11U1 = 115 (n0 eqs.) (17—127)
The matrix, 115, is the difference between the external applied force, P1, and the
joint force due to member force with the constraint forces deleted, i.e.,
(17—128)
H5
2
1
(17—129)
Example 17—4
+1 1e10 +
U12(
—1 +1 Je,0
+1 e30 + u32f
+1 ..e4,o + U41J
U31
1- I
A1, U1 FL2
Columns 2,4, 5, and either I or 3 comprise a linearly independent set. Then, we can take
either u1 or u21 as U. It is convenient to take U = u1 We permute the columns according
1
to
1 —*5
2—. 1
3-.2
x2
The constraint forces are determined from (17—127), which for this example has the form
+1
+1
I
+1 =
[ F4
H5,5
I I I
H,
We permute the rows of (g) according to (d) and consider only the first four equations.
The resulting equations correspond to (17—129).
= V + !5L1U1 —
where
V=
"K = A1U1 + A202
Then, V reduces to
V= )Tk('K —
+
We obtain the appropriate form of by substituting for V using (d) and
introducing the constraint condition, "Kr — = 0:
= V + — + — (17-430)
The elements of 4 are Lagrange multipliers. One can easily show that the
stationary requirement for (17—130) considering U1 and 4 as independent
variables leads to (17—109) and (17—110).
Since = v", we can add the term
'(1"' —
to (d). Taking
V= — — (17—131)
REFERENCES
1. FENVES, S. J., and F. H. BRANIN, JR., "Network-Topological Formulation of Struc-
tural Analysis," J. Structural Div., A.S.C.E., Vol. 89, No, ST4, August, 1963, pp.
483—514.
2. DIMAGOT0, F. L., and W. R. SPILLARS. "Network Analysis of Structures," .1. Eng.
Mech, Div., 4.S.C.E., Vol 91, No. EM3, June, 1965, pp. 169—188.
3. ARGYRIS, J. H;, "The Matrix Analysis of Structures with Cut-Outs and Modifica-
tions," Proc. Ninth International congress App!. Mech., Vol. ô, 1957, pp. 131—142.
18
Analysis of
Geometrically
Nonlinear Systems
18-1. INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, we extend the displacement formulation to include geometric
nonlinearity. The derivation is restricted to small rotation, i.e., where squares
of rotations are negligible with respect to unity. We also consider the material
to be linearly elastic and the member to be prismatic.
The first phase involves developing appropriate member force-displacement
relations by integrating the governing equations derived in Sec. 13—9. We treat
first planar deformation, since the equations for this case are easily integrated
and it reveals the essential nonlinear effects. The three-dimensional problem
is more formidable and one has to introduce numerous approximations in order
to generate an explicit solution. We will briefly sketch out the solution strategy
and then present a linearized solution applicable for doubly symmetric cross-
sections.
The direct stiffness method is employed to assemble the system equations.
This phase is essentially the same as for the linear case. However, the governing
equations are now nonlinear.
Next, we described two iterative procedures for solving a set of nonlinear
algebraic equations, successive substitution and Newton-Raphson iteration.
These methods are applied to the system equations and the appropriate re-
relations are developed. Finally, we utilize the classical stability
criterion to investigate the stability of an equilibrium position.
Figure shows the initial and deformed positions of the member. The
centroidal axis initially coincides with the X1 direction and X2 is an axis of
symmetry for the cross section. We work with displacements (u1, u2, co3),
585
586 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONUNEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
distributed external force (b2), and end forces (F1, F2. M3) referred to the
initial (X1-X2-X3) member frame. The rotation of the chord is denoted by
p3 and is related to the end displacements by
— U,42
L
The governing equations follow from (13—88). For convenience, we drop the
subscript on x1, and M3, w3, 13. Also, we consider h1 = rn3 = 0.
Deformed position
1182
b2 dxi
x1 ,
Centroidai exis
Equilibrium Equations
=0
(F1u2, + F2) + b2 0 (a)
F2 =
Force-Displacement Relatio,is
F1
= ULx +
F2
= U2. — CO (b)
2
M
= (0,
SEC. 18—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS—PLANAR DEFORMATION 587
Boundary Conditions
Forx = 0:
M = El
/ +
P\ u2 +
ri
Finally, the governing equation for u2 follows from the third equation in (e),
+ + C3)+ —
where (18—3)
2__
El
+ C2 + b2 dx + (i + x -
U2b
b(EI —
1/ (18—5)
588 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
D= 2(1 —
Note that D 4 0 as This defines the upper limit on P, i.e., the member
buckling load:
PJrnax (18_8)
The end forces can be obtained with (c—e). We omit the algebraic details
since they are obvious and list the final form below.
MA3 = + + — — uA2)]
MB3 = + + UA2)]
—
P1. ('Lj PL
2
— = (u2, dx = — erL
—j
where
D= 2(1 — cos — pL sin pL
— 1iL cos
Dç62 = — sin iL)
= + cos 1zL)
SEC. 18—2. MEMBER EQUATIONS—PLANAR DEFORMATION 589
The functions were introduced by Livesley (Ref. 7), and are plotted in Fig.
18 —2. They degenerate rapidly as —+ 27t. The initial end forces depend on
bL2 1
- (18—10)
1 — —
=
In order to evaluate the stiffness coefficients, P has to be known. If one end,
say B, is unrestrained with respect to axial displacement, there is no difficulty
since is now prescribed. The relative displacement is determined from
PL
UB1 = UA1 + — Le.
('L
= dx = er( jiL, UA2, U52, WA, w5)
—— j
(UB2 —
j
2
+ — w43) +
L
(18—11)
Dg54 = sin
(U52 —
C5 = — WAS) + — WA3
= (1 — cos jiL)
(1 — eos jiL'\
—
4 if sin jiL cos jiL
= + + -
We call Cr the relative end shortening due to rotation. However, when both
axial displacements are prescribed, we have to resort to iteration in order to
evaluate P since e, is a nonlinear function of P. The simplest iterative scheme is
p(i+ 1) = (u51 — UAI) + (18—12)
+02
pL
—2
—4
—6 Oi
—8
—10
are constant and equal to their values at the initial position, when operating
on (18—9). The resulting expressions are
dP42 + + AWA3 — —
(18—13)
P
— ——h-——- dP
—
— ,JL'i .41
41 112 112 42 1 42
dFB1 = dP dF41 = —dP
dP = — Au41) + AEder
SEC. 18—3. MEMBER EQUATIONS—ARBITRARY DEFORMATION 591
where the incremental initial end forces are due to loading, Lxb2. We can
obtain an estimate for by assuming Au2 is constant.
AuA2)
Au12.x dx (18—14)
The coefficients in (18—13) arc tangent stiffnesses. They are not exact since
we have assumed and Au2, constant. To obtain the exact coefficients,
we have to add
El3 F , — 1LA2 , 1
+
— j 4)3] dCuL)
(18-15)
d(,uL) = — dP
2b13
to dM4 and similar terms to dM5, . . , , The derivatives of the stability
functions are listed below for reference:
— 2(1iL)2 sin
D
=
(18—16)
- 41 + + - pL)
= —
M52, WB2
x2
!152
x1
//
I
//
P2
If we consider b1 = 0, the axial force F1 is constant along the member and the
nonlinear terms involve and coupling terms such as co1M2;
Neglecting these terms results in linearized equations, called the Kap pus
equations. Their form is:
Equilibrium Equations
F1 P
+ x3w1,1) + F2]+ b2 0
dx1
[P(u,3 i + F3] + b3 = 0
d
1+ 1 + rn-1- + — + 711w1 =0
dx1
1142 1
— F3 + = 0
M, + F2 + in3 = 0 (18—18)
M4,1 + = 0
— 11
+ +
=
SEC. 18—3. MEMBER EQUATIONS—ARBITRARY DEFORMATION 593
Force-Displacement Relations
= u1, i + 1
+ u53, 1 + + w1, i—
I "F2 F3 X3r
U52,1 — CO3 ..— +
GA2 A23 J
1/F2 F3 x2
U53, + Ui2 = + +
GA23 A3 J
M2 M3
(Dz,ij7-
f + C01,t + X3rF7 ± X2rF3)
P =
P(u521 + + F2 =
P(u,3 •t — i) + F3 = ±F3
+ M!1 + — + 711w1 =
M2 = ±M2 M3 = ±M3 =
To interpret the linearization, we consider (13—81). If one neglects the
nonlinear terms in the shearing strains,
Y12 u12 + 112.1 -
and assumes
+ = 0
+ = 0
+ = 0
one obtains (13—81). Equations are exact when the section is doubly sym-
metric, Assumptions (a) and (b) are reasonable if is small w.r. to u2 and 1
u3, However, they introduce considerable error when co1 is the dominant
term. This has been demonstrated by Black (Ref. 5).
When the cross section is doubly symmetric,
= = X2r = X3r = =0
A23
(18—19)
1
= r2
—
594 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
(r is the radius of gyration with respect to the centroid) and the problem
uncouples to—
1. Flexure in plane
2, Flexure in X1-X3 plane
3. Restrained torsion
We have already determined the solution for fiexure in the X1-X2 plane.
If we introduce a subscript for /L and
P P
Cu2)2 =
El2 (18—20)
= cbjCu3L)
and then replace
(02
U3 —* —U2 —4
(18—21)
F2 F3 M'2
F3 —F2 -
in (18—9), (18—13), we obtain the member relations for flexure in the X1-X3
frame. For example,
MA3 + + — U.42)]
(18—22)
E12
= + + + U43)]
and
F42 =
r2P
P=— U
GJ 1+P
GJ Erlcb 1 + + '>
- GJ
MB1 <1)A1)
MA1 —MB1
(18—24)
2
1+
sinh 1uL [iiL(1 + Cr(1 + P))
(
— +
GJ(1 + P)
1
—
[ 1—coshuL
+ —-——--—(1 —
/1(1 + Cr(1 + P))[ sinh,uL
We neglect shear deformation due to restrained torsion by setting C,. 0.
If warping restraint is neglected,
En4, 0 c%)
(18—25)
I +P
At this point, we summarize the member force-displacement relations for
a doubly symmetric cross section. For convenience, we introduce matrix
notation:
= {F1P2F3M1M2M3}8
{u1u2u3w1w2w3}B
etc. (18—26)
+ + kBJl%A +
= ÷ + —
where contains nonlinear terms due to chord rotation and end shortening
{AE(eni + er2 + e,.3); uA2); — uA3); 0; 0; contains
the initial end forces due to member loads; and
AE
L
El3 El3
El2 El2
'P33
GJ
Sym
El3
596 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
AE
L
El3
. El2 El2
k44 =
GJ
El3
dP
—
(18—27)
— UA2)(AU82 + — iiA3)(AuB3 — AuA3)
+ r2(w81 — — AWAI)}
we obtain
+ (knE + + (kBA —
(18 —28)
= + (knA — Mi11 + (kAA + kr)L\%A
SEC. 18-4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS 597
0 P3 Pz rp1 0
2 LFB1.
f.J3 + P2P3 r 2 p1p3 0 0
AE
kr + —r2p1p2 0 0
L TAT
Symmetrical (r2p1)2 0 0
0 0
0
1fF is close to the member buckling load, one mustinclude additional terms
due to the variation in the stability functions and use the exact expression for der
Kappas's equations have also been solved explicitly for a monosymmetric
section with warping and shear deformation neglected. Since the equations are
linear, one can write down the general solution for an arbitrary cross section.
It will involve twelve integration constants which are evaluated by enforcing the
displacement boundary conditions. The algebra is untractable unless one
introduces symmetry restrictions.
Then,
= —
= + Ax + + =0
where Ax is the exact correction to
Ax = —
=
(18—34)
+
The convergence measure for this method can be obtained by combining (a)
and (18—34), and has the form
— — (18—35)
'I' = = 0
(18—36)
= x2,...,
An exact solution is denoted by Also, =
In successive substitution, is rearranged to
ax = c — g (18—37)
t See Ref. 9.
SEC. 18—4. SOLUTION TECHNIQUES; STABILITY ANALYSIS 599
and retaining only the first two terms results in the convergence measure
(x — = a (18—39)
where lies between xk and For convergence, the norm of 'g. must be
less than unity.
The generalized Newton-Raphson method consists in first expanding
about
= + + = 0
where
= = [T'—j —
= (18—40)
Let us now apply these solution techniques to the structural problem. The
governing equations are the nodal equations referred to the
qlobcil system frame,
1?e — =0 (1843)
where contains the external nodal forces and — is the summation of
the member end forces incident on node i. One first has to rotate the member
end forces, (18—26), from the member frame to the global frame using
=
k° =
In our formulation, the member frame is fixed, i.e. is constant. We introduce
the displacement restraints and write the final equations as -
e m
1844
Pm P1 + + KU
600 ANALYSIS OF GEOMETRICALLY NONLINEAR SYSTEMS CHAP. 18
Note that K and depend on the axial forces while Pr depends on both the
axial force and the member rigid body chord rotation, if the axial forces are
small in comparison to the member buckling loads, we can replace K with
K1, the linear stiffness matrix.
Applying successive substitution, we write
KU = —
= P1 — (18—45)
This scheme is particularly efficient when the member axial forces are small
with respect to the Euler loads since, in this case, we can take K = K1 during
the entire solution phase.
In the Newton-Raphson procedure, we operate on Vi according to (18—41):
=— 4,(fl)
are constant in forming due to AU, the tangent stiffness matrix reduces to
dI( 0 dP, 0
(18—49)
K + Kr
where K. is generated with (18—28). We include the incremental member loads
in at the start of the iteration cycle. Rather than update at each cycle,
one can hold fixed for a limited number of cycles. This is called mod (fled
Newton-Raphson. The convergence rate is lower than for regular Newton-
Raphson but higher than successive substitution.
We consider next the question of stability. According to the classical stability
criterion,t an equilibrium position is classified as:
stable — >0
neutral d2W,,, — d2We 0 (18—50)
unstable d2 W,, d2 <0
where d2 is the second-order work done by the external forces during a
displacement increment AU, and is the second-order work done by the
member end forces acting on the members. With our notation,
d2w, Pe)TAU
= (d AU
(18—51)
= AUTK, AU
and the criteria transform to
/ \T < 0 stable
/
(AU)TK, AU Pe) AU = 0 neutral (18—52)
—
>0 unstable
The most frequent case is Pe prescribed, and for a constant loading, the tangent
stiffness matrix must be posil.ive definite,
To detect instability, we keep track of the sign of the determinant of the
tangent stiffness matrix during the iteration. The sign is obtained at no cost
(i.e., no additional computation) if Gauss elimination or the factor method
are used to solve the correction equation, (18—48). When the determinant
changes sign, we have passed through a stability transition. Another indication
of the existence of a bifurcation point (K1 singular) is the degeneration of the
convergence rate for Newton-Raphson. The correction tends to diverge and
oscillate in sign and one has to employ a higher iterative scheme.
Finally, we consider the special case where the loading does not produce
significant chord rotation. A typical example is shown in Fig. 18—4. Both the
frame and loading are symmetrical and the displacement is due only to short-
ening of the columns. To investigate the stability of this structure, we deletet
the rotation terms in K, and write
K
K is due to a unit value of the load parameter The member axial
forces are determined from a linear analysis. Then, the bifurcation problem
reduces to determining the value of 2 for which a nontrivial solution of
(K + 2K;)AU 0 (18—54)
12X
I I
Fig. 18—4. Example of structure and loading for which linearized stability analysis
is applicable.
REFERENCES
1. TIMOSHENKO, S. P., and J. M. GERE: Theory of Elastic Stability, 2d ed., McGraw-Hill,
New York, 1961.
2. KOLLBRUNNSR, C. F., and M. MEIsTER: Knicken, Biegedriilknicken, Kippen. 2d ed.,
Springer-Verlag, Berlin, 1961.
3. BLEICH, F.: Buckling Strength of Metal Structures, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
t Set Pi P2 = = 0 in (18—28).
See Refs. 11 and 12 of Chapter 2.
REFERENCES 603