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UNDERSTANDING THE ECLIPSE

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 UNDERSTANDING THE ECLIPSE

Introduction

Eclipses are defined by early Greeks as shadow effects. (Tarbuck and Lutgcns, 1976). Astronomers
consider eclipses as an outcome of the natural interaction of the major components of the "earth
system" viz the sun, the earth and the moon. Some traditional adherents to the unknown consider
eclipses as visitations from gods in reaction to human inconsistent behaviors. Consequent upon these
definitions, eclipse events have led to mixed effects of fears, suspicion, superstition, inquiries, surprises,
enjoyment, economic benefits and losses and in extreme cases they constitute health hazards to
humans.

Thus we pose these questions for explanations;

1. Are eclipses natural situations or threats from gods?

2. How do eclipses come about?
3. What lessons do we learn from eclipses with respect to their realities or otherwise, advantages
and problems?
4. How do we react to eclipse events?

The objectives of this paper are:

 To explain the concept and phenomena of eclipses by identifying their causes, features,
expectations and fears.
 To explain how eclipse situations influence human behaviors, health conditions,
environmental/meteorological conditions.
 To attempt chronological explanations and projections of eclipses over some years.
 A successful explanation in these directions will not only dismiss the fears, suspicions
and superstitions about eclipses but also increase our knowledge of eclipses, interests in
space explorations and encourage safe relations with the phenomena.

Methodology

To achieve the above objectives, this paper will:

 Review the relevant characteristics of the sun, the earth and the moon as they relate to eclipse
situations.
 Examine the interactions of the sun, the earth and the moon that leads to eclipses.
 Discuss the types of eclipses, their frequencies and projections to some years ahead.
 Explain how eclipses are observed, eye safety in eclipse observation and the local weather
conditions that affect effective eclipse observation.
 It also explains the factors that influence eclipse observation.
 Identify the importance of eclipse to man and make a conclusion.

The Solar System: The solar system consists of the sun and nine planets suspended by solar gravity
in space at varying distances from the sun. These planets revolve round the stationary sun along
their respective elliptical orbits. The planets also have their respective satellites such as the
moons, asteroids, comets, and meteoroids also revolving around their respective plants or their
mother bodies (Table 1).
Table 1: The Features of the Planets in the Solar System

Planet Distance from Period of Period of Velocity of Diameter No of

Sun in millions Rotation revolution revolution inKm known
per second Satellites
Mercury 58Km 59d 88d 47.9Km
.4868 0
I 108Km 243d 225d 35.0Km 12112 0
Venus
Earth 150Km 23h 56mAds 365.25d 29.8Km 12742 1
, 228Km 24h 47m 23 s 687d 24.1Km 6,800 2
Mars
!
Jupiter 778Km 9h 50m 12yr 13.1Km 143.000 13
I
I Saturn l,427Km 10h 25m 29.5yr 9.6Km 121000 10
Uranus 2869Km 10h 45m 84yr 6.8Km 47,000 5
Neptune 4498Km Approx. 16h 165yr 5AKm 45000 2

Pluto 5900Km 6A d 248yr 4.7Km <6000 0

NB: d = days, li = hours, m = minutes, s = seconds, Km = kilometers, yr = years

Rotation = Movement of the planet round itself on its own axis.

Revolution = Movement of the planet round the sun along its own orbit.

Satellite = Here refers to the moon attached to the planets.

Source: Tarbuck and Lutgens, 1976 Pp. 408-409.

The earth is the third of the planets in location and distance from the sun, period of rotation and
revolution. It is yet the only planet that can support life. It has only one moon to it as a natural satellite.
The eclipses which are yet obvious to man are in connection with the interaction of what can be
regarded in this work as the “earth system” as different from the solar system. This system consists only
of the sun, the earth and the moon. The last is the only satellite attached to the earth along with its
millions of stars and several comets.

The Sun and the “Earth System”

The Sun is an energy emitting body responsible for the entire direct energy sources of the earth
system for the growth of plants and for human survival. The sun has four main layers or
components - the solar interior, the photosphere (the visible surface), the chromosphere and
the corona. As a gaseous body,
these components do not have defined boundaries. The solar surface in addition to its hot and
bright features contains some dark lines in the absorption spectrum similar to some spectrum
of 92 known elements on earth. Sixty of these are easily observed in the sun. The
chromosphere component is a thin layer of hot bright surface with several colours which result
to the colours of the chemical elements. It is dangerous to look at directly. This component is
visible when a total eclipse produces a dark and contrasting center. The photosphere gives
light and energy to the earth. On its surface, it is 6000 c. It appears as a bright disk of the sun
considered as the sun's surface. It is believed to receive its energy from the solar interior and to
transfer same to the outer layers - chromosphere and the corona. The chromosphere is
observed during a total eclipse with a special instrument to block off the light from the
photosphere so that it then looks like a thin red rim around the sun. The corona can only be
seen when the brilliant photosphere is covered. Its light extends one million kilometers only
from the sun with brightness about half of the full moon. Hence its brightness is not obvious
except when other layers are filtered out or obscured as during the solar eclipse. However, the
corona has a more intense heat than the photosphere - 1,000,0000c, - but less visible ordinarily
as its illumination effect is only 13mlllton kilometers deep while the brightness from the
photosphere travels 150,000,000.km to the earth's surface.
The sun is 1.35m kilometers in diameter - about 400 times more than the moon's diameter - and
hundred times the earth's diameter. It is stationary.

The Earth
The Earth in relation to the sun is 150,000,000 kilometers away. As a result of the elliptical shape of its
orbit round the sun, this distance is not constant at all places and angles. There is a range of 34000
kilometers. It has a diameter of 12,742km at the equator. The earth revolves round the sun on an
elliptical orbit once in 3651/4 days. It rotates on its axis once in 23hrs 56mins.4 seconds - giving rise to
periods of sunlight (day) and darkness (night). As the earth rotates on its axis, it is inclined at an angle of
231/20 from the vertical and 661/2° from the horizontal. This makes it possible for sun-light to incident at
90° on different latitudes between 231/20 North and 231/20 South of the central parallel - the equator. This
inclination and the elliptical orbit helps to explain why eclipses do not occur at a place at constant
intervals. The rotation also flattens the earth at the poles, thus reducing the polar diameter by 40km less
than the equatorial diameter. It also increases the curvature of the earth surface from 40° North and
South to the poles. The curvature of the earth's surface influences the latitudinal distance of the eclipse
and the total area covered.

The Moon .

The Moon is the only natural satellite of the earth. Its diameter is 3476Km. Its distance from the earth is
384,000Km with a range of 48,000Km sequel to its elliptical orbit round the earth. An elliptical shape is
like an egg whose center of gravity does not agree with the geometrical centre. The narrower end
extends farther away from the centre than the broader end. The thin end is
thus farther away from the earth than the broad end. The moon is a solid, cold, black and dense body. It
has no light of its own but reflects the solar light to the earth at certain angular relationships. The moon
makes a complete rotation round itself in 27'/3 days (sidereal month) and starts off another round on
the 291/2 day (synodic month). The rotation of the moon on its own axis is rather slow. This yields two
weeks of darkness when the reflection of the solar light is thrown away from the earth and two weeks of
light.
This is the time lunar reflection is on the earth. This means that as the moon rotates, the reflection on
the earth appears gradually. The moon also makes a complete revolution round the earth in 291/2 days.
The rotation of the moon on its axis results to the phases of the moon. These phases are constant
because of the nearness of the moon to the earth's surface and the equal duration of the lunar rotation
and lunar revolution. The phases are the New; New Crescent, First quarter, Waxing Gibbous, Full,
Waning Gibbous, Last quarter, Old crescent, and New again. The revolution of the moon on its orbit
makes the lunar orbit inclined on the earth's orbit at an angle of 50. This also contributes to the phases
of the moon and explains partially why eclipses are not constant in place and time.

The Earth Systems Interaction and Eclipse

The orbit of the earth round the sun is definitely longer than the orbit of the moon round the earth.
Hence the moon completes 12.4 rounds of the earth as the earth only completes one round of the sun.
This means that the moon passes between the Sun and the Earth - at least 12.4 times during the time
the earth completes one revolution. In the same way, the earth appears between the moon and the sun
equally 12.4 times as it orbits the sun in one year. These situations however take place at different
locations latitudinally and longitudinally and in different directions. In spite of the inclination of the
moon's orbit on the earth's orbit, and following the principles of the least common multiple though
modified by the inclination of the lunar orbit on the earth s orbit, there is always a time when the sun,
the moon and the earth are in a straight line perfectly or nearly so. Under this situation, the shadow of
the earth completely or partially covers the moon or the shadow of the moon is thrown on a specific
portion of the earth.

As the earth and the moon are solid bodies, they have shadows which are always thrown on the
opposite side of the sun.

The shadow has two components viz:

I. The umbra is the solid dark shadow of the earth or moon on the moon or earth respectively.
II. The penumbra is the zone of partial darkness on both sides of the umbra.

Within the umbra, the earth or the moon is completely obscured. In the penumbra, the earth or the
moon is partially obscured. The obscure situation is known as eclipse - the covering of a body by the
shadow of another body. This term eclipse is peculiar with two of the three bodies of the earth-system: -
The Earth and the Moon. The Sun is never obscured.

When the moon is between the earth and the sun, the shadow of the moon is thrown on the earth and
a part of the earth receiving this shadow cannot see the light from the sun i.e. it is eclipsed/obscured
from the sun. This is solar eclipse. In other words the moon covers the affected part of the earth from
the sun. When the earth is between the Moon and the Sun, the Moon cannot reflect directly onto the
earth. Hence the earth will not be able to see moon light. This is lunar eclipse. These are the eclipse
situations that give rise to different but often contradicting interpretations - natural phenomenon,
natural earth systems interactions, scientific reasoning, mysteries and myths, all at a time based on
individual dispositions and perceptions. Fig. 1.
FIG. 1: Positions of the Sun, Moon and Earth during an Eclipse

Eclipses occur several times in a year at a maximum of seven and a minimum of two. However, eclipses
do not repeat themselves in one place successively owing to the inclinations of the earth's and the lunar
orbits, and the varying speed of their revolutions. When eclipses occur only twice in the year, it is likely
to be all solar eclipses. When they are more than twice, they consist of both solar and lunar eclipses.
Although the frequencies and alterations of lunar and solar eclipses are not easily predictable, yet when
in one year a solar eclipse is followed by a lunar eclipse, the likelihood of more than two is there or
when in the year, a lunar eclipse is seen first, there ought to be more than two eclipses also.

Solar Eclipse
An eclipse of the sun (Solar Eclipse) occurs when the moon is between the sun and the earth and the
shadow of the moon is thrown on the earth (fig. 2). Under normal conditions, solar eclipse should occur
during every new moon because that is when the moon is not seen as it covers the sun. Later in the new
moon phase, some portion of the moon is reflected on the earth as a crescent. Incidentally, every new
moon does not mean solar eclipse because of the inclination of the moon's orbit on the earth's orbit.
Hence the moon's shadow misses the earth.
 FIG. 2: The Solar Eclipse

-----------------Lunar orbit

There are four types of solar eclipse:

1. Total Solar Eclipse: This happens when the umbra of the moon's shadow is thrown on a part of
the earth. The umbral shadow stretches over some 1O,OOOkm long but only some 185km±
wide. This means that only a very narrow portion of the earth (1.850mkm2) approximately
experiences total solar eclipse at a time. The passage of an eclipse is in the direction opposite
the direction of earth's revolution. The longitudinal alignment of the eclipse is not parallel with
the longitude or the parallels but in keeping with the inclination of the moons orbit on the
earth's orbit, the phase of the moon and the magnitude of the curvature of the earth's affected
area and the deflecting effect of the earth's rotation. Since the sequence of eclipses is random,
the geometrical shape and expanse of the covered area is similarly random. Owing to the
geodetic nature of the earth's surface, the length and width .of eclipse affected areas (track) are
more in the low latitudes than in the higher latitudes where
the curvature is more.

The total phase of a solar eclipse is very brief in view of the dot size of the umbra compared to the
size of the entire earth or the affected surface region. The track of the moon's shadow across the earth
is called the path of totality.

In total solar eclipse, the moon is placed in the middle of the sun producing a dark spot. Around the dark
spot, the corona becomes prominent and damaging to the eyes. In total eclipse, it is complete darkness
at the umbra. The total phase of a solar eclipse is very short lived. This agrees with the speed of rotation
of the earth and the combined effect of the speed of revolution. It lasts all together for less than 5mins
at a place. For instance, the total eclipse of December 4, 2002 which was seen in South Africa,
Antarctica, Indonesia and Australia lasted for only 2mins 4seconds at a place. That of 2003 in Australia,
New Zealand, Antarctica and South of South America lasted for I minute 57seconds. In January 2001, it
took only 4minutes 57seconds.

2. Partial Solar Eclipse: This occurs on the penumbral region of the earth where part of the
sun is seen from the earth. The degree of partiality depends on the distance of the
observer from the edge of the umbra. Those who are closer to the path of totality will
have near total darkness while those at the outer extremes of the penumbra will
experience what approaches the clearness of the dawn or the twilight and the Sun's
shape is like a new Moon. In partial eclipse, the damaging effect of the sun to the eye is
 more serious because of the powerful rays from the photosphere strongly contrasting
with the dark region.
3. Annular Solar Eclipse: A third type of solar eclipse is the annular eclipse which covers only the
periphery of the umbra where only the negative path of the lunar shadow is received because
the moon’s umbral shadow cannot reach the earth. Here, in place of a corona, the moon is seen
being surrounded by a bright sunshine.
4. Hybrid Solar Eclipse: A hybrid eclipse combines the annular and total at different sections of the
umbra path. (Fig. 3).

Sun Moon

Total Eclipse

Fig.3: Geometry of Solar Eclipses

Solar Eclipse Frequencies

Investigations of the solar system, and projections from the solar systems interaction, took note of past,
present and future solar eclipses from BC 2000 to AD 4000. The number and type are
summarized in table 2 as the observable/possible eclipses in the six millennia.

Table 2: Summary of Solar Eclipses from BC 2000 Projected to AD 4000

TYPE NO %
All Solar 14263 100
Partial 5029 35.3
Annular 4699 32.9
Total 3797 26.6
Hybrid 738 5.2

In the same way Solar Eclipses from 2001 projected to 2008 are also identified and recorded in table 3.
Table 3: Solar Eclipses from 2001 projected to 2008

Date Type Magnitude Duration Region Affected

21101/01 Total 1.050 04m 57s S. America and Africa
14112/0 I Annular 0.968 03m 53s West and Central America and NW S. America
10/06/02 Annular 0.996 OOm 23s E. Asia, Australia, West N. America
04/12/02 Total 1.024 02m 04s Europe, Asia, NW N. America
31/05/03 Annular 0.938 03m 37s Australia, New Zealand, Antarctica, S.South America
23/11/03 Total 1.038 01m 57s Antarctica and S.Africa
19/04/04 Partial 0.736 - NE Asia, Hawaii, Alaska
14/10104 Partial 0.927 - New Zealand, N & S. America
I 08/04/05 Hybrid 01.007 OOm 42s Europe, Africa, W. Asia
I 03/10/05 Annular 0.958 04m 32s S. America, W. Africa, Antarctica
29/03/06 Total 1.52 04m 07s A. America, W. Africa, Europe & W. Asia
, 22/09106 Annular 0.935 07m 09s S. America, Antarctica
- -
19/03/07 Partial 0.874 Asia and Alaska
11/09/07 Partial 0.749 - South America, Antarctica
Annular 0.965 02m 12s Antarctica, E. Australia, New Zealand
I 7112/08
() 1/08/08 Total 1.039 02m 27s N E N. America, Europe, Asia
'1.R 7. M = minutes, S = seconds, N = North, S = South, E = East, W = West

Eclipse magnitude is the fraction of the sun's diameter covered by the moon at peak of eclipse. >1 =
total eclipse. 3. Duration is the time during which eclipse is effective in any particular place i.e. from
the entry of the moon to the departure across the sun. 4. Region is the places where eclipse is visible.

NASA has identified also that in America, the last total solar eclipse visible from the United States was on
26th February 1979, from Hawaii and Mexico 1117/91 and that the next two total solar eclipses visible
from the United States will occur on 211812017 and 8/412024.

In Nigeria, the last total eclipse visible in Central Eastern Nigeria was on 20/5/47 and in Maiduguri -
Nigeria - in 2001. It is not obvious when the next total eclipse will be visible in Nigeria after the 29th of
March 2006. Our inquiries into space, and the use of the internet to discover existing knowledge are yet
limited.

The March 29, 2006 Total Solar Eclipse

On March 29, 2006, the moon was in a straight line between the sun and parts of Brazil, Ghana, Togo,
Benin Republic, Nigeria, Chad, Libya, Egypt, Turkey, Black Sea, Georgia, Russia and
Kazakhstan, to the Northern tip of Mongolia. The eclipse situation was from Eastern Brazil at about
7.38hours and into West Africa across the Atlantic at 9.14hrs. The eclipse left Africa into Eurasia at
1O.04hrs where it again lasted for another Ihr 9minutes from the Mediterranean Sea to the Northern
Mongolian boundary with Russia at 11.50hrs. In all, the eclipse took 4hrs 12mins to travel diagonally
approximately a distance of 16700Km covering between 380W and 1000E and across 580 of Latitude
(from 80S to 500N). (Fig. 4.)
 THE WORLD

FIG. 4: Total Solar Eclipse Track across the globe on 29/3/06

The approximate are covered by the total solar eclipse is 3.1 million square kilometers representing
0.61% of the earth’s crust surface area of 510m.Km2. Because of the curved nature of the earth's
surface, the eclipse situation never occurs round the earth at the same time. Owing to the high speed of
earth's rotation, the duration of the eclipse at a particular point is at most 5minutes from the entry of
the moon to its departure from the path of totality. In Turkey where the eclipse is most prominent, it
lasted for 3m 43seconds at Konya and 3 minutes 31 seconds at Ordu.

The 'path of totality (within the umbra) is approximately 185km wide. On each side of the umbra, the
penumbra is approximately 270km broad. This means that along a straight-line distance of 270km from
the edge of the umbra, partial eclipse occurs. The degree of partiality is directly related to the distance
from the edge of the umbra.

In Nigeria, the eclipse lasted from 9.17hrs GMT in the South West to 9.38hrs GMT in Katsina at the
Nigeria - Niger boundary. This represents approximately 863Km and an area of 159,692Km2
amounting to 17.3% of Nigeria's land area and 5.15% of all area affected by the eclipse. During these 21
minutes, different people experienced the total solar eclipse at different times and magnitude.

About eight states were affected by the total solar eclipse. The states are Ogun, Oyo, Kwara, Niger,
Zamfara, Katsina, Kebbi and Kaduna. Other states were peripherally affected by partial solar eclipse.
Some eastern states were very minimally affected. Specifically, the centre of the path of totality is
defined by a line running through Igana, Shaki, New Busa, Kontagora, Gusau, Katsina then into Niger
Republic. (Fig. 5)
Fig.5: Eclipse Track in Nigeria, 29/3/06

On the eastern side of the path of totality, partial eclipse reached as far east as a line defined by Benin
City, Auchi and across the Niger through Dekina, Keffi, Jos, Azare onto Adebour in Niger.

Along this line, the moon on the sun was a faint crescent while solar brightness outside the crescent was
severe and highly injurious to the eyes. The day was just as bright as an early morning in
November/December period when the rising sun is just illuminating from beyond the horizon but
gloomy with apparent rain cloud. The passage of the moon across the edge of the sun was swift.

On the western edge of the total solar eclipse region, the whole of Nigeria i.e. the entire remaining parts
of Sokoto and Kebbi States were in the penumbra or partial eclipse region.

However, the departure and approach effect on the eclipse magnitude made the duration elastic. This
was similar to a sun-set sun-rise situation.

The features of a Total Solar Eclipse are normally just like the characteristics of a dark night when there
is the new moon i.e. the moon is unable to shine over you. Animals behaved true to nature by trying to
return to their usual nocturnal niche. Nocturnal animals like bats came out. Humans, having been
alerted remained calm knowing that the situation would quickly come to pass without any adverse
effect.

Stars appear in the clouds as the solar illumination which mutes their bright penetration is obscured.
There is likely some level of anxiety among scientists and other earth scholars in their bid to
understand more what was learnt earlier and then add new knowledge by way of discoveries.

Lunar Eclipse

Lunar eclipse or eclipse of the moon occurs only at full moon when the earth is in a straight line
between the sun and the moon and the shadow of the earth is thrown on the moon. The earth's
shadow is of two shades. The full dark shadow of the earth called the umbra and the extended darkness
where only part of the moon is faintly blocked and the part seen appears as a crescent/new
moon. (Fig. 6).

Fig 6: The Geometry of Lunar Eclipse

As the moon is much smaller than the earth, and much nearer the earth than the sun, the moon does
not cover the entire breath of the umbra. Consequently, the duration of the total lunar eclipse is long
enough for observation than that of the total solar eclipse.

Astronomers recognize three forms of lunar eclipse with specific features:

(a) Penumbra Lunar Eclipse: This is when the moon passes across the earth's penumbral region in a
subtle manner.

(b) The Partial Lunar Eclipse: Occurs where a portion of the moon passes through the umbral
shadow and is readily and easily seen.
(c)
(c) Total Lunar Eclipse: Occurs when the entire moon is within the umbra. It shows some
vibrant range of colours that are available in the moon. The earth blocks solar light from
reaching the moon as it passes across. Total lunar eclipse does not occur every month
because the 50 inclination of the moon's orbit on the earth's orbit often throws the shadow of
the earth outside the moon. However, the filtering and the refracting effect of the earth's
 atmosphere faintly illuminates the moon so that it is not completely dark except when dust
haze or volcanic ash is too dense to allow the penetration of refracted light. All total eclipses
start with a penumbral as the earth enters the straight line, then a total, followed by another
penumbral as the earth leaves the straight line from the other side.

Lunar Eclipse Frequencies

In the 5000 years from 2000BC projected to 3000AD, there are a total of 7718 lunar eclipses on the
average of 1.42 eclipses per annum. However, lunar eclipse occurrences vary between 0 and three
yearly excluding the penumbrals. Partial eclipses are more numerous at the rate of 7:6 than total
eclipses.

Table 4 below lists all the lunar eclipses in 10 years from 2000 projected to 2010.

Date Eclipse Type Umbral Total Geographic Region of Eclipse

Magnitude Duration Visibility
2000 Jan 21 Total 1.330 78m Pacific, America, Europe, Africa
2000 Jul 16 Total 1.773 108m Asia, Pacific, W .America
2001 Jan 09 Total l.195 01h02m E America, Europe, Africa, Asia
2001 Jul 05 Partial 0.499 - E Africa, Asia, Aus., Pacific
2001 Dec 30 Penumbral -0.110 - E Asia, Aus, Pacific, America
2002 May 26 Penumbral -0.283 - E Asia, Aus, Pacific, W America
2002 Jun 24 Penumbral -0.788 - S America, Europe, Africa, c Asia,
Aus.
2002 Nov 20 Penumbral -0.222 - America, Europe, Africa, e Asia
2003 May 16 Total 1.134 00h53m c Pacific, America, Europe, Africa
2003 Nov 09 Total 1.022 00h24m America, Europe, Africa, c Asia
2004 May 04 Total l.309 01h16m S. America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Aus.
2004 Oct 28 Total l.313 01h21m America, Europe, Africa, c Asia
2005 Apr 24 Penumbral -0.139 - e Asia, Aus, Pacific, North America
2005 Oct 17 . Partial 0.068 - Asia, Aus., Pacific, North America
2006 Mar14 Penumbral -0.055 - America, Europe, Africa, Asia
2005 Sep 07 Partial 0.189 - Europe, Africa, Asia, Aus
2007 Mar 03 Total 1.238 01h14m America, Europe, Africa, Asia

2007 AU,g 28 Total l.481 01h31m e Asia, Aus., Pacific, America

2008 Feb 21 Total l.111 00h51m c Pacific, America, Europe, Africa
2008 Aug 16 Partial 0.813 - S. America, Europe, Africa, Asia, Aus.
2009 Feb 09 Penumbral -0.083 - e Europe, Asia, Aus. Pacific, W N.A
2009 Jul 07 Penumbral -0.909 Aus., Pacific, America
2009 Aug 06 Penumbral -0.661 - America, Europe, Africa, W Asia
2009 Dec 31 Partial 0.082 Europe, Africa, Asia, Aus.
2010 Jun 26 Partial 0.542 - e Asia, Aus., Pacific, W America
2010 Dec 21 Total l.262 0lh13m e Asia, Aus., Pacific, America, Europe
Source: Fred Espenak (2000) vlwI11.MrEchpse.conz
Observing the Eclipse

It is an interesting, historic and scientific learning experience to observe an eclipse as it may occur once
in a one's lifetime. Observing the lunar eclipse poses no problems. It is possible to look at the moon and
the stars with the normal eyes as the moon interacts with the sun and the earth. It is the solar eclipse
that poses the danger of radiation injuries on the eye especially on the retina. The chemical emission
from the corona and the chromosphere, are capable of damaging the eye rod by mutation. Solar partial,
and annular eclipses and the waxing and waning phases of total eclipses are dangerous. If therefore the
beauty of the eclipse is to be observed, and the science of the sun, the earth and the moon as well as
their relationships are to be furthered, these bodies must be watched during the eclipses especially the
solar eclipse. To do this, it is important to use properly filtered sun-glasses. This will enable safe and
detailed study of the eclipse to be done physically.

As before, NASA in America and other agencies on the space inquiry in Europe and China keep records
of the proceedings and often transmit the progress at the internet. Local broadcasts in affected areas
cover the interaction and keep people informed. Film makers and camera photographers take pictures
of the situations. For all these viewing tools, it is expected that their lens be equipped with filters to
avoid injuries to the eyes.

Eye Safety in Eclipse Observation

Apart from the radiation effect on the eyes, eclipse has no known adverse effects. It is advisable
therefore to use the recommended glasses to observe the eclipse.

Chou, (2005) recommended filtered glass with a thin layer of chromium alloy or aluminium deposits on
the surface to attenuate visible and near-infrared radiation of less than 5% density or 0.003% density of
visible light - about 780-1400nm or 380-780nm respectively (density 2.3) or (density 4.5) respectively
too. One of the recommended available filters is shade number 14, the welder's glass commonly
obtained from welders supply shops. In the alternative, an aluminized mylar manufactured lens
specifically for viewing solar eclipses is recommended. This alternative is inexpensive and unlike the
welder's glass, it does not easily break and can be cut to size to fit any viewing instrument including
cameras not equipped with such filter during their manufacture.

Many observers use a double layer of unused black and white film negative treated to maximum density
and exposed to light. The metallic silver in the film emulsion provides the protective film. However film
negatives with images on them are unsafe as openings exist through which radiation can penetrate to
burn the retina.

It is advised that people whose natural lens of the eye(s) have been tampered with as in the case of
cataract patients, do not observe the solar eclipse even with the appropriate equipment (Priore, 1991).

As the total solar eclipse comes possibly once in one's life time, every opportunity should be explored to
expose students properly to the experience. School masters and class teachers should provide or help
pupils provide adequate viewing equipment for observing the eclipse well ahead of time and ensure that
these are used properly during the time. Students who lost the chance of observing the eclipse as
against others who did so without injuries will feel denied and will in future receive other health
instructions from their teachers with a grain of salt (Rasecholl, 1997). To avoid this, it is advised that
students under supervision should avail themselves of dark green beer or malt bottle which should be
recovered and disposed safely immediately after the exercise. Such bottles should be repainted with
aluminum emulsion or oil paint to increase the safety chances.

The Local Weather and Eclipse Observation

This discusses how the meteorological phenomena in the eclipse area affects effective, detailed and
accurate eclipse observation. An important variable in the effective observation of eclipses is the
local weather condition at the time of umbra magnitude - the time the eclipse is at the best position for
meaningful observation. This variable can be properly illustrated with the March 29th, 2006 solar eclipse
in relation to the march of the thermal equator and the attendant meteorological conditions as they
affect the eclipse area.

Conceptually, visibility condition at the time of eclipse event determines how much of the eclipse
features can be observed. Normal visibility is a function of the atmospheric conditions - cloud cover,
haze, mist, fog and precipitation conditions that will ordinarily obscure sight and so prevent people from
seeing the eclipse at all or clearly.

The possibility of these weather conditions obtaining is again determined by the season, aspect, relief,
and relative location - in relation to water and land masses.

Using the 29th March 2006 eclipse as an illustration, a number of meteorological factors militate against
the observation of the eclipse. These factors help to create congestion of solar eclipse tourists in
selected towns as against the other towns in the hope that such towns would exhibit clearer
atmosphere than others.

It is noted that the 29 March 2006 eclipse event spans across 58 parallels from Lat. 80S to Lat. 50oN. This
covers three atmospheric pressure zones - the Equatorial Lows, the Saharan Tropical Highs and the Mid
Latitude Low Pressure region as they obtain ordinarily during the spring equinox. Following this pressure
distribution, the resultant weather characteristics along the line of the eclipse include:

a) An onshore SE Wind influenced by the warm Brazilian current, from the S. Atlantic Ocean brings
onshore some moist air onto the low pressure region of S E Brazil. As a result, cloudy conditions,
convectional precipitation and mist prevail in the area. These lead to low visibility.
b) The same situation obtains in W. Africa sequel to the onshore trade wind on to the West African
coast. The result also is cloudy weather, coastal fog and showers. The Inter Tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) centred on the Equatorial Low Pressure Belt mainly in the Southern
Landmass of West Africa encloses these two areas. Here convectional rains, subsequent cloudy
mornings and sea breeze are common and militate against proper visibility.
c) In the northern part of Nigeria, beyond the Northern limit of the ITCZ, dry NE Trade wind blows
from the Tropical High Pressure Region of the Sahara Desert. Since the wind is dry, the air is thus
dry and the atmosphere is clear but for some occasional dust haze. Long duration of sunshine is
common. In this region and in the Sahara itself such as in Libya and Chad, the sky is often clear.
The towns of Katsina (Nigeria) and Zinder (Niger) are better centres of eclipse observation than
at Keta (Ghana), Lome (Togo) Sokete (Benin) or Ogbomosho (W. Nigeria)
d) During this season, Low Pressure conditions, and converging and rising air current prevails
around the Eastern Mediterranean region giving rise to cloudy conditions from frontal winds
 arising from air drafts from the mountains and the continental interior. Hot, dry and
dusty weather prevails in areas removed from the oasis where haze is reduced.
e) Turkey, Black sea, Georgia, and Southern Russia are climatically influenced by the eastward
migrating and alternating Low pressure and High Pressure Systems. Besides, the region is rugged
leading to forced air ascent and condensation leading to cloudy or foggy conditions with
occasional thunderstorms. The low angle sun makes the cloud denser and observations more
uncertain.
f) Further north in the Russian Mountains- the Caucasus- and western Kazakhstan, the emerging
polar Highs draft cold air into this Mid-latitude low pressure region. This tends to deny the air of
moisture and deters eclipse observers from making use of the stations for viewing the eclipse.
It is expected that meteorological observations and data keeping will be intensified and made
more frequent as the eclipse day approaches. The nearest observation to the eclipse hour is
taken to be the likely weather condition for the period. This informs observers as to where the
sky will be clear for viewing the eclipse.

Table 5 shows the mean weather conditions in March 2006 at strategic eclipse observatories as a guide
to the choice of a place at the time of eclipse magnitude along the track. The critical data are length of
sunshine and cloud pattern which determine the probability of seeing the eclipse.

Table 5: Weather Determinants of Clear Eclipse Observation in Africa on 29/3/06

Cloud: percent lrcqucncv of. .. Probabi Percent of Percent of
Percent
Sunshin Percent of litvof Obs with Ohals with
Latitude Long e (hours possible seeing Rain at TRWaat obs
of with
Location obstructi
sunshine A B C eclipse eclipse eclipse time
D time ns
o to
Ivory Coast XXX xxxxxx XXXXX visibility
XXXXX
xxx xxxxx
XXXX XXXXX
-3.-13 7 ..• 61 1.1 28.9 61.6 8.-1 36 ...2 2.3
Abidjan 5.25 -5.00 6.5 5 .• 1 .•. 3 2 .•. 7 52.3 8.6 1.1
3.0
Bouakc 7.70 .... 1.1 3,5
Ghana -1,67 6.9 57 3.-l 2,0 3 .• 0.8
Accra 5.60 063 5.4
15.4 79.2 2.7 37 2.7
1.6 1 .•. 3
Ada 5.78 0.47 9,9
20.3 71.6 2.5 .• 6 0
2.7
0
4, I
110 6.60 -1.60 56 .•. 2
32.1 55.6 0 3 .• 0 0
9,9
Kumasi 6.72 -1.77 60 2.6
12.6 83.2 1.7 39 2.6
7,3
Takoradi 488 -0.85 67 260
29.6 66.1
.• 6.8 2.6 55 1.2
2.6 1.8
Tamale 9.50 2 .•.
Togo
1.2 56.3
Togo
7
1.12 6.9 57 5.4 10.5 786 56 '1
Atakpame 7.58 0,7 0.2 85
-,-
0.9 128 82,6
Lome 6.17 1.25 7.-1 61 51.8
3.6 30 2.5 2.1 3.1
Manzo
Nairruouzou
10.37
9.77
0.-12 8.2 68 30.1 15.5 60,6
2.7 5 .• 0,3 0.9 16.-1
1.10 14.6 23.2 68.2
1.5 .• 6 1.5 1.0 8,5
Sokode 8.98 1.15 7.6 63 15.3 13.3 78.9
3.1 .• I 0.7 0.5 13.9
Tablicbo
Benin
6.58 1.50 1.6 1 .•. 5.3 31 1.2 2.5 0,9
Bohicon 7,17 2,07 6,6 55 0 2
2.3 92.6
5.1 25 0.6 1.0 1.2
Cotonou 9-1.4
6,35 2,38 7,2 60 0 08 83.6
48
1.1
2
31
.• 2.9 2,7 2,5
Kandi
Parakou
11.13 2,93 84 70 0 15.2 8-1.7 3.9 30
0.7 0,2 36.4
Save
9.35 2.62 3.1 8,4 88.0 8.1 25
1.0 0,2
0.-1
13.0
'\igeria
8.03 2.-17 7.1 59 0 3,9 0.6 4.-1
( IUStiU 10.8 9.5 78.-1 I. .• 37 0 0
lhadan
12.17
7 ..• 5
6.70 6,3 53 1.3 1.3 9 .•. 8 2,6 26
569
.•. 90
Kaduna
Kano
10.48 7.42 8.6 72 1.0 0
Lazos
12.05 8.53 8.6 72 1.0
Sakata
6.45 3.40 6.4 53 1.2 20.0 71.8 7.1 33 5.7 2.3 2.3
13.02 5.25 9.1 76 9.9 33.3 54.3 2.5 46 0 0 59.3
Zaria
Nizer
ILl3 7.68 5.6 15.7 76.4 7.2 35 i.: 0 47.8
Asadez
16.97 7.98 9.5 79 L7 34.7 62.4 1.2 41 0.2 0 44.3
Bilrna 18.55 13.35 9.7 77 5.4 33.9 59.9 0.8 44 0.5 0 41.7
Birni-N'konni
Maradi
13.80 5.25 8.9 74 0.0 13.6 83.7 2.7 30 0.4 0 6Ll
13.47 7.83 8.7 72 0.2 15.2 79.7 4.9 31 0.4 0 57.2
Niamey 13.50 2.12 8.5 70 0.0 40.4 57.1 2.5 42 0.6 0.2 53.8
Zinder 13.80 8.98 8.8 73 2.1 14.8 79.6 3.5 32 0.4 0 49.4
Chad
Abeche 13.85 20.85 9.5 79 <1
Faya-Largeau 18.00 19.17 9.9 82 <1
Libya
AI Kufrah
Benzhazi
25.48 23.33 9.5 79
32.10 20.07 7.9 66 14.5 25.4 5Ll 9.1 45 6.8 0.4 2.1
Darnah 32.82 22.63 6.6 55 5.0 -
Surt (Sirte) 31.20 16.55 7.6 64 25.2 26.4 37.9 10.4 53 35 0.3 33.8
Tobruk 32.10 23.92 17.1 40.4 29.5 13.0 52 3.1 0 9.3

Egypt
Alexandria 3L20 29.85 8.7 73 15.6 18.4 60.0 6.0 43 3.5 0 5.3
As Sallum 31.88 25.18 9.0 75 385 17.7 36.9 66 60 1.9 0 0
Cairo 30.13 3157 8.9 74 31.0 3Ll 33.5 45 61 2.5 0 16.7
Dakhla 25.48 29.00 59.2 35.2 5.6 0.0 85 0 0 11.3
(Oasis)
Marsa
Matruh
3L30 27.2 8.2 69
N.B. A = Clear B = Scattered C = broken D = Overcast and Obscured

Table 5: Weather Determinants of Clear Eclipse Observation in Africa on 29/3/06

Source: http://home.cc.umanitoba.cal~iander/tot2006/wx2006africa. htm

From the table, it is noted that:

 In Ivory Coast, clear observation is at Bouake further north (Lat 7.7oN) rather than at Abidjan
along the coast (5.250N).
 In Ghana, the uprising cold water from the Accra coastal deep, keeps the area constantly under
cloud cover. This makes the towns have uniform probabilities of observing the eclipse. Tamale,
a northern town in the Ghana savannah region has the highest probability of 55% being located
at 9050’ n and in the interior.
 In Togo, Mango at 1O.370N has the highest probability of 54% closely followed by Naimtougou
9.77 N with 46% probability. Sokode 8.980N has 41% probability. These levels for the towns
sharply vary from the situation for the towns In the lower latitudes where cloud cover is denser
and more common. The effect of the N.E trade wind is obviously clear here.
 In Benin Republic, all the illustrated towns below 100N are under the influence of the
penetrating S.W. Trade wind from the coast. The resulting cloudiness is felt far into the interior.
Hence the probability of seeing the eclipse is less than 30%. Only Kandi 1l.130N has 31 %
probability.
 In Nigeria, the southern towns have lower probabilities than the northern interior towns of
Gusau, Sokoto, and Zaria with probabilities between 35% and 46%.
  In Niger Republic, the northern locations have higher probabilities than the southern locations.
The highest probability is Bilma at 18.550N noted for its very high temperature with over 9% of
sunshine duration. Agadez closer to it in the south has 41 % probability.
 In Chad Republic where the eclipse is peripheral, the affected towns have no detailed records
but have very high percentage of possible sunshine 9.5 and 9.9 for Abeche and Faya-Largeau
respectively.
 In Libya, the three towns with full records score above 45% probability of observing the eclipse.
 In Egypt, apart from Alexandria along the Mediterranean Coast with 43% probability, the other
three towns in the table score 85%, 61% and 60% each. This is a high probability.

There is thus a direct relationship between latitudinal location of towns and the probability of observing
the eclipse clearly.

Table 6 below shows where people in the eclipse affected countries should gather to view the eclipse.
These are towns that have high potentials for economic advantage from the phenomenon.

Table 6: Most Potential African Towns by Countries for Eclipse Observation

Country Town Lat/Long % of Sunshine Probabili

in Degrees Possible ty
Cote d'Vore Bouake 7.7°N/5°W 54 44
Ghana Tamale 9.50N/.85W 67 55
Togo Mango 10. 37N1.42°E 68 54
Benin Kandi 11.13N/2.93E 70 31
Nigeria Sokoto 13.02N/5.25E 76 46
Niger Bilma 18.55N/13.35E 77 44
Libya Surt 31.29N/16.55E 64 53
Egypt Dakhla (Oasis) 25.48/29.00E NA 85
NA Not Available

This table highlights the fact that the farther north of the equator, the further away from moist and
cloudy atmosphere and the clearer the sky. Thus the probability of viewing the eclipse more clearly
becomes higher. The data in tables 5 and 6 show the mean weather conditions close to the period of the
eclipse. The probability is that the same weather conditions will obtain during the hour.
Factors of Accuracy in Observing and Prediction

A number of factors militate against understanding the eclipse:

1. The Nature of Prediction: Predictions of eclipses regarding time, location and type are functions
of
mathematical calculations which are subject to high level profitability and significance levels.
Definitely the predictions cannot be so precise to nature. Therefore allowances should be made
for little discrepancies. This is why scientists pay through the nose to get to the centers with
high probability of occurrences to find the real facts. For instance, it is noted that in Nigeria, the
29th March 2006 partial solar eclipse had some deviations as to the location and timing of the
eclipse - Total and Partial. The minor deviations cannot be regarded as serious inaccuracies.
2. Weather Conditions: This, as discussed above, can lead to atmospheric obscurities and poor
results in the observation.
3. Level of Development: In the developed countries especially those who are investing heavily in
space exploration, the eclipse event is of a serious positive concern for them. In developing
countries, there are mainly negative concerns leading to low interest and eventually high level
of suspicion among the traditionalists. The developing countries equally do not want to invest
on eclipse studies for apparent lack of obvious uses as in the developed areas.

The Importance of Eclipse to Man

The eclipse question has been bothering the world over the years. Diviners. Historians, astronomers,
scientists, students, all have one thing or the other to say about eclipse and man.

Believers in the unseen specifically addicts in that wise believe (wrongly) that eclipses are bad omens
foretelling the death of a hero or an important personality in the locality where the eclipse is viewed.
They quote the Bible, e.g. Amos Chapter 8 verse 9 and Interpret same wrongly not distinguishing direct
statements from figures of speech or personifications. These references are used to threaten the
unexposed who seek after remedies and atonements from these prophets of doom. Clever people have
used their knowledge of the eclipse to achieve favours as in the ancient story of Christopher Columbus
in Jamaica (Wanner, Internet) Wanner described other superstitious reactions to eclipse events as the
Indians, the Chinese and even the Americans reacted to eclipse events.

Ancient Astronomers and astrologers made names as they individually and collectively identified the
existence, contents and movements of bodies in space. They were able to give reliable Information on
the eclipse including dates, hours and types of eclipse occurrences. These ancient scientists especially
the Greeks
and the Romans in the Middle East gave impetus to present day inquiries Into the Space. The use of
artificial Satellites to study the space is because of unconcluded assertions by these Greeks. Incidentally
scientific and astronomical inventions and discoveries can never be conclusive. Otherwise the world of
research would end. Today American Space Agency (NASA) have made several journeys into space.
NASA RP 1383 was specifically on the study of eclipses - their nature, movement and their future. It is no
longer the Americans competing with Russia in the space inquiry and struggle for possession. Many
European countries, China,
India and Nigeria among others today have their Satellites orbiting the space along with the natural
satellites. Our advanced awareness of the past, present and future eclipses covering upwards of six
thousand years (Six Millennia) is sequel to the impetus engendered by the ancient astronomers.
A solar eclipse offers students a unique opportunity to see a natural phenomenon that illustrates some
basic principles of Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry and Biology which are presently advanced into
introductory technology. Eclipses illustrate the Laws of motion and the Mathematics of orbital motion,
optics and camera and telescope functioning, Radiometric principles are illustrated in the rise and fall of
environmental light levels. The behaviours of humans, plants and animals during eclipses illustrate our
studies in biology. The observation of eclipses helps children either to acquire observation experiences
or perfect in same as they watch the motions of the moon and the earth and compare them with
existing photographs. This substantiates the efforts of Geoinformatics students to observe the sun at
certain hours of the day and for several days so as to achieve an average situation. Geographers, earth
and environmental scientists add reasons to explain the shape of the earth and other heavenly bodies in
their three dimensional forms and their interactions in the interest of man. The meteorological effect of
the eclipse is more or less obvious but silent. The day-night temperature variation is reflected on the
areas experiencing eclipse event as the situation prevails. Temperatures normally drop. At high levels,
the energy emitted from the corona often has outburst of parcels of extremely high temperature that
influence the upper surface pressure systems. A steep vortex situation prevails leading to an outburst of
electromagnetic waves above. An incursion of this wave into the lower atmosphere results to serious
meteorological hazards - strong winds - capable of knocking out among others some electrical
installations, or electro-attractive bodies such as white buildings or buildings with bright aluminium
covers GSM masts- all in spite of their being equipped with lightening arrestors.

Eclipses have some economic relevance. Tourism is stimulated as scientists, students and anxious
individuals travel across national and regional boundaries to observe the eclipse. Accommodation
and feeding fees in hotels are increased. Foreign currencies accrue to states through which the eclipse
passes.

Business minded individuals can make brief businesses in different ways through media adverts
especially through governments wishing to inform her nationals to be on the alert. It is not an
overstatement that fraudsters will make money by duping people who have had series of misfortunes.
The fraudsters recall the problems of their victims and promise them that with the dupers'
prayers on payments from victims, the latter's problems would be solved. These fraudsters also
pretentiously opt to arrange hotel accommodations for innocent tourists only to disappear with the
travelers' money. Others will also try to make handbills, T-shirts of historical importance to educate the
people, sensitize them psychologically to be receptive of the eclipse situation.

The eclipse event is a dateline for people in uncertainties:

 Where were you before the 2006 eclipse?

 Was your house built before this date?
 When did you study and actually graduate in ESUT?
 Do you remember the year, month and date your grandparent went to the hospital?
 When were you married?
 When did you get your first child, first male, female or pass
your first school leaving certificate examination?

All these and other questions can be answered accurately when they are cued to a red-latter event like
the eclipse dates.
CONCLUSION

Contemporary scientists are indebted to Nicolaus Copernicus (1473-1543, Johannes Kepler (1571 to
1630), Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642) and Sir Isaac Newton (1643 - 1727) for their insight into the solar
system through their mathematical concepts and theories, especially as these sciences relate to motion
and gravity. Their discoveries later introduced the concept of eclipse which had been in operation as
early as the sun began to shine on the earth and the moon. Subsequent scientists used their foundation
ideas to extend their experiments on space objects and their motions.

Along with understanding the phases of the moon and an outcome of the interaction of the sun, the
earth and the moon, the eclipse was idealized by the Greeks as a shadow effect when the moon is
positioned directly between the earth and the sun. If we follow closely the evolution of ideas, theories
and concepts about the solar systems, the eclipse situation should not frighten us. Rather it ought to
lighten our minds about nature and encourage inquiry.

The developed world out of anxiety, ambition and need extended Greek inquiries into space to the
introduction of artificial satellites into the same space. The developing world because of her plenty
of blessings from nature feel reluctant to make adventures to improve herself. Her total reliance on
nature is majorly responsible for her cultural attribution of natural events like the eclipse to magic and
threats of punishment from the gods, and restrained them from asking further questions that would
excite them. This should not be so! The developing world should join in the march into space for the
benefits therefrom particularly economic and political if not for the exposure to science, awareness
creation and mental/emotional comfort.

REFERENCES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

Amos, (No date): The Holy Bible King James Version Chapter 8 verse 9.

Chou, B. R. (2005) Eye Safety During Solar Eclipse: http://sunearth.gsfe.nasa.gov

.eclipse/SEhelp/safety2.html

Fred, Espenak, (2000), Lunar Eclipse for beginners. http://www.mreclipse.com/Special/LEprimer.html

Harold Fullard (1977), West African Modern Atlas George Philip, London.

Hermit Eclipse: Total Solar Eclipse: march 29, 2006. http://www/hermit.org/eclipse/2006-03-29

NASA, (20010 Eclipse safari, http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2001/ast19jnn_1.htm

NASA, The Sun-earth connection Education Forum (2006) Solar Eclipse-stories from the Path of Totality
Exploratorium.

http://www.exploratorium.edu.eclipse/index.html

Priore Del I.V (1991) ‘Eye Damage from a Solar Eclipse’, in M.litman and K.Willeox Totality: Eclipses of
the Sun University of Hawaii, Honolulu, P. 130.

Rasecholl J. M, (1997) "Solar Eclipses and Public Education" International Astronomical

Union Colloqium #162 New Trends in Teaching Astronomy D Me Nally (ed)London.
 Strahler, A.N. and Strahler A.H. (1978) Modern Physical Geography John Wiley, New York

Tarbuck, EJ. and Lurgens F.K. (1976) Earth Sciences Charles E Men II.
Weather Prospects: Weather Prospects 29 March 2006 Total Solar
Eclipse.http://home.cc.umanitoba.cal-jander/tot2006/
weather. html

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