NPTEL – Mechanical Engineering – Continuum Mechanics

Module-1: Tensor Algebra

Lecture-5: The Principal Invariants and
the Inverse of Tensor

As noted in Lecture-4, the components of tensor are altered with the change of basis
although the tensor is invariant. We now ask a question that are there any relations
among the components such that they are invariant under change of basis for a given
tensor. The answer is affirmative and in fact there are three such kind of invariant
relations exist for a second-order tensor. These three relations are known as principal
invariants. Of course, any other invariant relation can be expressed as function of these
three principal invariants. The relations can be obtained from the following equations.

Let {u, v, w} and {a, b, c} be two set of linearly independent vectors and T be a
second-order tensor. Then
[T u, v, w] + [u, T v, w] + [u, v, T w] [T a, b, c] + [a, T b, c] + [a, b, T c]
= (1)
[u, v, w] [a, b, c]
[T u, T v, w] + [u, T v, T w] + [T u, v, T w] [T a, T b, c] + [a, T b, T c] + [T a, b, T c]
= (2)
[u, v, w] [a, b, c]
[T u, T v, T w] [T a, T b, T c]
= (3)
[u, v, w] [a, b, c]

Problem 1. Let {u, v, w} and {a, b, c} are two sets of linearly independent vectors.
Then prove Eq. (1).

Proof. Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be an orthonormal basis. Then vectors can have the representation
u = ui ei , v = vi ei and w = wi ei . Therefore, we have

[T u, v, w] + [u, T v, w] + [u, v, T w] = [T (ui ei ), (vj ej ), (wk ek )]

+ [(ui ei ), T (vj ej ), (wk ek )]
+ [(ui ei ), (vj ej ), T (wk ek )]
= ui vj wk {[T ei , ej , ek ] + [ei , T ej , ek ] + [ei , ej , T ek ]}
= ui vj wk {Tmi mjk + Tmj imk + Tmk ijm }
= ui vj wk {Tmn δin mjk + Tmn δjn imk + Tmn δkn ijm }
= ui vj wk Tmn (δin mjk + δjn imk + δkn ijm ) (4)

Using Eq. (19) in Lecture-3, we can write a term on the right hand side of previous
equation
1
δin mjk = ipq npq mjk . (5)
2

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Applying Eq. (17) of Lecture-3 to previous equation, we obtain

1
δin mjk = ipq (δnm δpj δqk − δnm δqj δpk − δnj δpm δqk + δnj δqm δpk + δnk δpm δqj − δnk δqm δpj )
2
1
= (δnm ijk − δnm ikj − δnj imk + δnj ikm + δnk imj − δnk ijm )
2
= δnm ijk − δnj imk − δnk ijm (6)
Substitution of Eq. (6) in Eq. (4), yields
[T u, v, w] + [u, T v, w] + [u, v, T w] = ui vj wk Tmn δnm ijk
= ijk ui vj wk Tmm
= (T11 + T22 + T33 )[u, v, w]. (7)
Arbitrariness of u, v and w implies Eq. (1).

As stated in Lecture-3, [u, v, w] = 0 if u, v and w are linearly dependent. Thus,

[T u, v, w] + [u, T v, w] + [u, v, T w] = 0 if u, v and w are linearly dependent.
The first invariant of tensor associated with Eq. (1) is called the trace of tensor. If u,
v and w are linearly independent vectors then the trace of tensor is defined by

[T u, v, w] + [u, T v, w] + [u, v, T w]
tr(T ) =
[u, v, w]

Problem 2. Let {u, v, w} and {a, b, c} are two set of linearly independent vectors. Then
prove Eq. (2).

Proof. Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be an orthonormal basis. Then vectors can have the representation
u = ui ei , v = vi ei and w = wi ei . Therefore, we have
[u, T v, T w] + [T u, v, T w] + [T u, T v, T w] = [(ui ei ), T (vj ej ), T (wk ek )]
+ [T (ui ei ), (vj ej ), T (wk ek )]
+ [T (ui ei ), T (vj ej ), (wk ek )]
= ui vj wk {[ei , T ej , T ek ] + [T ei , ej , T ek ]
+[T ei , T ej , ek ]} (8)
1
We now consider ijk rpq rmn Tmp Tnq and expand using Eq. (17) of Lecture-3.
2
1 1
ijk rpq rmn Tmp Tnq = rmn Tmp Tnq [δir (δjp δkq − δjq δkp ) − δip (δjr δkq − δjq δkr )
2 2
+δiq (δjr δkp − δjp δkr )]
1
= rmn [δir (Tmj Tnk − Tmk Tnj ) − Tmi (δjr Tnk − Tnj δkr )
2
+Tni (δjr Tmk − Tmj δkr )]
1 1 1
= imn (Tmj Tnk − Tmk Tnj ) − jmn Tmi Tnk + jmn Tni Tmk
2 2 2
1 1
+ kmn Tmi Tnj − kmn Tni Tmj
2 2
= imn Tmj Tnk + jmn Tni Tmk + kmn Tmi Tnj
= imn Tmj Tnk + njm Tni Tmk + mnk Tmi Tnj
= [ei , T ej , T ek ] + [T ei , ej , T ek ] + [T ei , T ej , ek ] (9)

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Substitution of Eq. (9) in Eq. (8), yields

1
 
[u, T v, T w] + [T u, v, T w] + [T u, T v, T w] = rpq rmn Tmp Tnq ijk ui vj wk
2
1
 
= rpq rmn Tmp Tnq [u, v, w] (10)
2
Since u, v and w are arbitrary, above equation implies Eq. (2).

Expansion of right hand side term in Eq. (10) gives the following explicit relation to the
second invariant.
1
rpq rmn Tmp Tnq = (T11 T22 − T12 T21 ) + (T22 T33 − T23 T32 ) + (T33 T11 − T31 T13 ). (11)
2
As noted earlier, [u, v, w] = 0 if u, v and w are linearly dependent. Hence, [u, T v, T w]+
[T u, v, T w] + [T u, T v, T w] = 0 if u, v and w are linearly dependent.

Problem 3. If {u, v, w} and {a, b, c} are two set of linearly independent vectors then
prove Eq. (3).

Proof. Let {e1 , e2 , e3 } be an orthonormal basis. Then vectors u, v and w can be repre-
sented by ui ei , vi ei and wi ei , respectively. Therefore, the scalar triple product

[T u, T v, T w] = [T (ui ei ), T (vj ej ), T (wk ek )]

= ui vj wk [T ei , T ej , T ek ]
= ui vj wk lmn Tli Tmj Tnk . (12)
1
We now consider ijk lmn pqr Tlp Tmq Tnr and expand using Eq. (17) of Lecture-3 to obtain
6
following relation.
1 1
ijk pqr lmn Tlp Tmq Tnr = [δip (δjq δkr − δjr δkq ) − δiq (δjp δkr − δjr δkp )
6 6
+δir (δjp δkq − δjq δkp )] lmn Tlp Tmq Tnr
1
= lmn [Tli (Tmj Tnk − Tmk Tnj ) − Tmi (Tlj Tnk − Tnj Tlk )
6
+Tni (Tlj Tmk − Tlk Tmj )]
= lmn Tli Tmj Tnk (13)

Last step follows from lmn Tmj Tnk = −lmn Tnj Tmk , lmn Tnj Tlk = −lmn Tlj Tnk , lmn Tlj Tmk =
−lmn Tmj Tlk and lmn Tli Tmj Tnk = lmn Tmi Tnj Tlk = lmn Tni Tlj Tmk .
Substitution of Eq. (13) in Eq. (12), we get
1
 
[T u, T v, T w] = lmn pqr Tlp Tmq Tnr ijk ui vj wk
6
1
 
= lmn pqr Tlp Tmq Tnr [u, v, w] (14)
6
Arbitrariness of u, v and w implies Eq. (3).

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Expansion of right hand side term in Eq. (14) gives the following explicit relation for the
third invariant.
1
lmn pqr Tlp Tmq Tnr = T11 (T22 T33 − T23 T32 ) − T12 (T21 T33 − T23 T31 ) + T13 (T21 T32 − T31 T22 )
6
(15)
The third invariant of tensor associated with Eq.(3) is known as determinant of tensor.
If u, v and w are linearly independent vectors then the determinant

[T u, T v, T w]
det(T ) =
[u, v, w]

Properties of trace:
(i) tr(T T ) = tr(T ) ∀T ∈ V 2
(ii) tr(αT ) = α tr(T ) ∀T ∈ V 2 and ∀α ∈ <
(iii) tr(RS) = tr(SR) ∀R, S ∈ V 2
(iv) tr(I) = 3, where I is identity tensor.
Properties of determinant:
(i) det(T ) =det(T T ) ∀T ∈ V 2
(ii) det(αT ) = α3 det(T ) ∀T ∈ V 2 and ∀α ∈ <
(iii) det(RS) = det(S)det(R) = det(SR) ∀R, S ∈ V 2
(iv) det(I) = 1, where I is identity tensor.

Cofactor of tensor:
We dicussed how the vectors are being transformed under the action of tensor (i.e., change
in length and orientation of vectors under action of tensor). We now want to know how
the area is being transformed under the action of tensor. Recall from Lecture-3 that area
of parallelogram formed with two vectors can be obtained by the cross-product. We now
define a new tensor called cofactor of tensor that takes care of areal transformation.
Definition of cofactor:
The cofactor of tensor T is defined by

cof T (u × v) = T u × T v, ∀u, v ∈ V. (16)

We note that the cofactor of tensor cof T is also a second-order tensor as input and
output are vectors.

Problem 4. Let R and S are two second-order tensors. Then show that

cof (RS) = (cof R)(cof S) (17)

Proof. Let u, v be arbitrary vectors. Then

(cof R)(cof S)(u × v) = cof R(Su × Sv)

= (RSu) × (RSv) (Since Su, Sv ∈ V)
= cof (RS)(u × v) (Since RS is a second-order tensor)

Arbitrariness of u, v implies Eq. (17).

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The second invariant and trace of cofactor:

We now show that the second invariant of tensor T is equal to the trace of cofactor of
tensor T . Let us consider second invariant shown in Eq. (10), i.e.,
1
 
imn ipq Tmp Tnq [u, v, w] = [T u, T v, w] + [T u, v, T w] + [u, T v, T w]
2
= w · (T u × T v) + v · (T w × T u) + u · (T v × T w)
= w · cof T (u × v) + v · cof T (w × u) + u · cof T (v × w)
= (cof T )T w · (u × v) + (cof T )T v · (w × u)
+(cof T )T u · (v × w)
= [u, v, (cof T )T w] + [u, (cof T )T v, w]
+[(cof T )T u, v, w]
= tr((cof T )T )[u, v, w]
= tr(cof T )[u, v, w] (18)

Arbitrariness of vectors u, v and w imply the trace of cofactor tensor, tr(cof T), which
is also equal to the second invariant of the tensor T .

Problem 5. Let T be a second-order tensor. Then prove that the components of cofactor
1
(cof T )ij = imn jpq Tmp Tnq . (19)
2

Proof. Let us consider the ij th component of cofactor,

(cof T )ij = ei · (cof T )ej (By definition of ij th component of tensor)

1 1
= ei · (cof T ( jpq ep × eq )) (Using an identity, ek = kmn em × en )
2 2
1
= jpq ei · (T ep × T eq ) (Using the definition of cofactor)
2
1
= jpq ei · (Tmp em × Tnq en )
2
1
= jpq ei · (Tmp em × Tnq en )
2
1 1
= jpq Tmp Tnq ei · (em × en ) = [ei , em , en ]jpq Tmp Tnq
2 2
1
= imn jpq Tmp Tnq
2
It is evident from Eq. (10) that the trace of cofactor is indeed second invariant.

Relation between cofactor and determinant:

We have studied how the area transforms under the action of tensor. We now want to
study the transformation of volume. Recall from Lecture-3 that the volume of paral-
lelepiped formed with three vectors can be defined by the absolute value of triple scalar
product. Therefore, the volume can be defined under the action of tensor T as

[T u, T v, T w] = det(T )[u, v, w] (20)

where u, v, w are linearly independent vectors.

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Thus, det(T ) represents the scale factor for the volume transformation under the action
of tensor T . Using the definition of scalar triple product in Eq. (20), we get

det(T )[u, v, w] = T u · (T v × T w)
=⇒ [det(T )u, v, w] = T u · ((cof T )(v × w)) (By definition of cofactor)
=⇒ det(T )Iu · (v × w) = (cof T )T T u · (v × w) (Using definition of transpose)

where I is the identity tensor. Arbitrariness of u, v and w implies

(cof T )T T = det(T )I (21)

Using Eq. (19) and Eq. (21), we can obtain the following expression for determinant in
indicial notation.

tr((cof T )T T ) = tr(det(T )I) =⇒ (cof T )ij Tij = det(T )tr(I)

1
=⇒ det(T ) = imn jpq Tij Tmp Tnq (Since tr(I) = 3)
6
Summary of principal invariants:
In summary, we have the following principal invariants.

• First invariant or trace

IT ≡ tr(T ) = Tii .

• Second invariant or trace of cofactor

1
IIT ≡ tr(cof T ) = imn ipq Tmp Tnq .
2

• Third invariant or determinant

1
IIIT ≡ det(T ) = imn jpq Tij Tmp Tnq .
6

The inverse of tensor:

The inverse of second-order tensor T , denoted by T −1 , is defined by

T −1 T = T T −1 = I (22)

where I is the identity tensor. If the determinant of tensor T is non-zero, i.e., det(T ) 6= 0
then there exists a unique inverse. Using Eq. (21), the inverse can be written as
1
T −1 = (cof T )T (23)
det(T )
Properties of inverse:
(i) If T is invertible and T u = v then u = T −1 v
(ii) T −1 (αu + βv) = αT −1 u + βT −1 v
The above properties show that the inverse is a second-order tensor.

Problem 6. Let u and v be arbitrary vectors. Then show that

cof (I + u ⊗ v) = (1 + u · v)I − v ⊗ u. (24)

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Proof. Let x and y be two vectors. Then

cof (I + u ⊗ v)(x × y) = ((I + u ⊗ v)x) × ((I + u ⊗ v)y)
= (x + (u ⊗ v)x) × (y + (u ⊗ v)y)
= x × y + ((u ⊗ v)x) × y + x × ((u ⊗ v)y)
+((u ⊗ v)x) × ((u ⊗ v)y)
Since ((u ⊗ v)x) × ((u ⊗ v)y) = ((v · x)u) × ((v · y)u) = 0, we can write
cof (I + u ⊗ v)(x × y) = x × y + (v · x)u × y + x × (v · y)u
= x × y + u × ((v · x)y − (v · y)x)
= x × y − u × (v × (x × y))
= x × y − (u · (x × y))v + (u · v)x × y
= x × y + (u · v)x × y − (v ⊗ u)x × y
= (1 + (u · v))x × y − (v ⊗ u)x × y
= ((1 + (u · v))I − v ⊗ u)(x × y)
Arbitrariness of x and y implies Eq. (24).
Problem 7 (Sherman-Morrison formula). Let T be an invertible tensor and let u
and v be two vectors such that 1 + v · T −1 u 6= 0. Then show that
T −1 (u ⊗ v)T −1
(T + u ⊗ v)−1 = T −1 − (25)
1 + u · T −1 v

Proof. Since given tensor T is invertible, we get

 −1
(T + u ⊗ v)−1 = T (I + T −1 (u ⊗ v)
 −1
= I + T −1 (u ⊗ v) T −1 (Since (RS)−1 = S −1 R−1 )
   −1
= I + T −1 u ⊗ v T −1 (Since R(x ⊗ y) = (Rx) ⊗ y)
 
T
[cof (I + (T −1 u) ⊗ v)]  −1
=  T (Using the definition of inverse)
det(I + (T −1 u) ⊗ v)

It is easy to see from the definition of determinant that det(I + x ⊗ y) = 1 + x · y. Using

the determinant formula and previous problem, we get
(T −1 u) ⊗ v T −1 (u ⊗ v)
! !
−1 −1
(T + u ⊗ v) = I− T = I − T −1
1 + v · T −1 u 1 + v · T −1 u
T −1 (u ⊗ v)T −1
= T −1 −
1 + v · T −1 u
This update-formula for inverse is known as Sherman-Morrison formula. Since the rank
of u ⊗ v is one, some authors refer this formula as rank-one update. This formula is also
applicable to higher dimensional vector space.

Reference

1. C. S. Jog, Continuum Mechanics: Foundations and Applications of Mechanics, Vol-

ume I, Third edition, 2015, Cambridge University Press.

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