CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.

E (IM) Session 2011

The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin

THE COMPUTER SYSTEM

ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM

A Computer System takes some input, processes it and produces some desired results. It is composed of
six parts:

1. Hardware 4. Procedures
2. Software 5. People
3. Data/Information 6. Communication

Hardware

The physical equipment is called the hardware. Hardware consists of the following categories:
a. Input hardware
b. Processing hardware
c. Output hardware
d. Storage hardware
e. Communication hardware

Figure 1 : The Computer System Hardware

Processing
View
Enter Data CPU Information
Input Output
Main Memory

Store data on disk for later retrievals

Storage

Communication Hardware

To another group of Computers

a. Input Hardware:

The function of input hardware is to collect data

and convert it into a form suitable for computer
processing. Examples are keyboard, mouse,
trackball, microphone, etc.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
b. Processing Hardware:

The function of processing hardware is to retrieve and execute (interpret) instructions provided to the
computer. Processing may consist of performing calculations and other logical activities. Its components
are central processing unit and main memory.

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

CPU is the brain of the computer. It reads and interprets software and
coordinates the processing activities that must take place. It is also called
processor. The design of CPU affects the processing power and speed of the
computer.

Main Memory:

It is also called primary storage. It includes RAM, ROM and cache. All
instruction and data ready for processing are held in memory. The larger
the memory the greater the number of instructions it can hold. RAM and
cache are temporary storage devices as they are volatile by nature (volatile
memories are those in which the contents are lost when power is turned
off).

c. Output Hardware:

The function of output hardware is to provide the user with the means to view information produced by
the computer system.

Information is output in either hardcopy or softcopy form.

Hardcopy can be held in hand (like paper with text or graphics
printed on it). Softcopy output is typically displayed on a
monitor. Audio output is another form of softcopy output.
Examples are printers, monitors, speakers etc.

d. Storage Hardware:

It is also called secondary storage. The function of this storage hardware is to provide a means of storing
instructions and data in a form that is relatively permanent i.e. nonvolatile and easy to retrieve when
needed for processing (nonvolatile memories are those which retain their contents even after the power is
turned off).

Examples are Hard disks, floppy disks,

Compact Disks (CDs), etc.

Floppy Disk
Hard Disk
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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
e. Communication Hardware:

The function of communication hardware is to facilitate the connections between computer and between
networks (group of computers). For example, modems, fax modems and cables.
Software

Computer hardware is useless without electronic instructions called software, which tells hardware what
to do. Software is composed of programs and programs are in turn composed of instructions. Software
generally comes on disks, purchased off-the-shelf (ready made from the market) or custom written. There
are two types of software:
a) Application software
b) System software

a. Application Software

Application software performs general-purpose tasks for users. Examples are

word processing, spread sheet programs, payroll processing, etc.

MS Office Suite
b. System Software

System software runs basic computer operations, manages computer resources

and enables application software to run on the computer. It does not solve
problems related to business or a profession. Examples are operating systems,
device drivers and utility programs.

Windows XP
Professional

Data / Information

The purpose of computer system is to convert data into information. Data consists of raw facts and
figures. Information is processed data. For example, the raw data of employees’ hours worked and wage
rate is processed by a computer into information of paychecks and payrolls.

Information produced by one program can be used as data for another program. For example, the
information of paychecks and payrolls may become data that goes into someone’s yearly financial
projections and tax returns.

Procedures

Procedures are description of how things are done, steps for accomplishing a
result. Procedures for computer systems appear in documentation manuals,
also called reference manuals, or CD-ROMs which contains instruction, rules
and guidelines to follow when using hardware and software.

Documentation Manual and CD-ROM with Hardware

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin

People / Personnel

They are the most important component of a system. They operate the hardware and create the software.
They can be generally categorized as:
 Computer operator
 Programmer
 System analyst

Computer Operator is a person who runs computer. They are capable of handling computers when they
malfunction.

Programmer is a person who writes software.

System Analyst is information specialist who performs system analysis, design and implementation. He
studies the information and communication needs of an organization to determine how to deliver
information that is more accurately, timely and useful. He is responsible for the development of an
information system. (Information system is an organization’s framework of standards and procedures for
processing data into usable information. It can be manual or computer based).

Communication

The function of communication hardware and software is to facilitate the

connections between computer and between networks (group of
computers).
Network of Computers

CLASSIFICATION OF COMPUTERS

1. On the basis of purpose

a. Special purpose computers

b. General purpose computers

a. Special Purpose Computers are designed to perform some specific tasks. For example, processors
installed automobiles to control fuel, ignition instrument and breaking system is a special purpose
computer.

b. General Purpose Computers can store different programs to perform different tasks and thus can be
used in countless applications. Examples are Personal Computers.

2. On the basis of types

a. Analog Computers
b. Digital Computers

a. Analog Computers

A signal that is continuously varying and representing innumerous values is an analog signal. It
represents infinite values. For example, temperature signals, telephone signals, voice signals, etc. An
analog computer is one which measures physical values such as temperature or pressure that fall along a
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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
continuous scale (analog quantities). For example, a service station gasoline pump contains an analog
processor that converts fuel flow measurements into quantity and price values.

b. Digital Computers

Digital signals are those, which are discontinuous and discrete. They represent finite values. For example,
binary signals. Computers communicate with each other in stream of bits transmitted as digital (binary)
signals, which are a series of on and off electrical pulses.
A digital computer is one that directly counts the numbers or digits that represents numerals, letters or
other special symbols.

Desirable features of analog and digital computers can be combined to form Hybrid Systems. For
example, in a hospital’s intensive care unit (ICU), analog devices can be used to measure a patient’s heart
function, temperature and other vital signs. These measurements are then converted into numbers and
supplied to digital computer that monitors the patient’s vital signs and signals a nurse station if abnormal
readings are detected.

3. On the basis of Capacity and Level of Power

a. Microcomputers
b. Minicomputers
c. Mainframes
d. Supercomputers
e. Micro controllers

a. Microcomputers

Microcomputers may be Personal Computers or Workstations.

Personal Computers(PCs)

PCs are desktop, floor standing, or portable computers that can run easy-to-use programs. Different sizes
of PCs are available including desktop and floor standing units, luggable, laptops, notebooks, sub-
notebooks, pocket PCs, and pen computers.

Desktops and Floor Standing PCs have monitor, keyboard, mouse, and system cabinet (having CPU,
storage devices, etc).
 Desktop PCs are those in which the system cabinet sits on a desk, the
monitor often on top and keyboard in front. It occupies more space.
 Floor Standing / Tower PCs are those in which system cabinet stands besides
the desk on the floor, giving more usable desk space.
Floor Standing PC

Note Books are portable computers equipped with LCD (Liquid Crystal
Display). They can be as powerful as some PCs. The keys in the keyboard are
closer together and are harder to read.

Note Book PC
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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
Pocket PCs these are handheld PCs and can be classified as:

 Electronic Organizers (digital diaries) – store appointments,

addresses
 Palmtops – they use the same software as PCs.
 Personal Digital Assistants – these are small, pen controlled
devices. A pen is used here to write out commands on
computer screens instead of a keyboard. Generally they are
used for digital receipts.
Personal Digital Assistant

Work Stations

These are microcomputers that are more powerful than Personal Computers and more expensive. They
are used mainly by engineers and scientists. The power of workstations needed for specialized applications
too large and complex to be handled by PCs. They are used for high quality graphics and movie special
effects. Capabilities of a low-end workstation may overlap those of a high-end desktop computer.

b. Minicomputers

Minicomputers were considered more powerful than microcomputers. Traditionally, minicomputers

have been used to serve the needs of medium size companies or of departments within larger companies,
and also as servers. Nowadays, minicomputers are rarely used as they have been outclassed by high-end
microcomputers.

c. Mainframes

Mainframes are the oldest category of computers.

Mainframes were designed to handle tremendous
amounts of input, output and storage, and are considered
more expensive and more powerful than minicomputers.
They require professional programmers and technicians,
working in a centrally managed department called
glasshouse. They are used by companies that need to
handle millions of transactions, like banks, airlines and
insurance companies. These days, mainframes are being
supplanted by smaller computers connected together in
networks.
Honeywell Bull Mainframe – March 1990

d. Micro Controllers

Micro Controllers are also called embedded computers, they are the tiny specialized microprocessors
installed for specialized applications. In micro controller based systems computers are performing
‘control’ functions by interfacing with real world to turn devices on and off, and to monitor conditions.
Unlike the microprocessors, which contain only a processor on a chip, micro controllers have all the
components of a computer system, like ROM, RAM, IO lines, ports, etc, on a single chip. They are found
in ovens, washing machines, alarm clocks, thermostat, VCRs, stereo equipment and musical instruments.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
e. Supercomputers

Supercomputers are built to process huge amount

of data and to do so quickly. Supercomputers are
more expensive than any other kind of computers.
They are the fastest calculating machines and are
used for such tasks as simulating car crashes into
walls, modeling nuclear explosions, weather
forecasting, oil exploration, aerodynamics (e.g.
parachute design – to calculate the flow of air in
and around the parachute during its descent), etc.
These problems cannot be handled by less
powerful machines. These are very costly
computers, but since main focus is highest possible
computation rate, therefore they take cost-is-no-
object approach. Supercomputers are designed in Columbia Supercomputer at NASA's Advanced
two ways: Supercomputing Facility at Ames Research Center

 Vector Processors

A vector processor is highly specialized processor that runs calculations at high speeds, using
special techniques like pipelining. There is a single processor that executes instructions in a serial
fashion. These are costly processors with high cooling requirements.

 Massively Parallel Processors

Here calculations are spread over hundreds or even thousands of standard, inexpensive
processors of the types used in PCs. Programs are divided out to great many processors, which
work simultaneously. Program division is a difficult task here. Still with the right software, 100
small processors can often run a large program in far less time than the largest serial vector
processor running one instruction at a time.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE OF THE PROCESSING UNIT

Central Processing Unit Main Memory

000
ALU 001
(Arithmetic & Control Unit System Bus 002
Logic Unit) 003
004
005 Contents
006
Address
Internal
Registers
CPU Bus

IO Module

Expansion Buses
(Connecting IO module to different IO devices)

Figure 2 : Internal Interconnections of a Computer System

Central Processing Unit (CPU)

CPU performs the main function of processing. It is contained on an IC (Integrated Circuit) chip. It is
composed of the following main parts:

a) Control Unit, CU

Control unit tells the rest of the computer how to carry out a program’s instruction. It directs the
movement of the electronic signals between main memory and the arithmetic / logic unit. It also directs
the electronic signals between main memory and the IO devices.

b) Arithmetic and Logic Unit, ALU

It performs arithmetic operations (like addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical
operations (like comparison and gate operations).

c) Registers

These are special, temporary storage areas that enhance the performance of the system. They store data
during processing and provide working area for computation. Memory is the area that stores data to be
processed a bit later whereas registers hold material that is to be processed immediately. Control unit
loads data and instructions from main memory into these registers, which helps the computer process
faster.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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Buses

Buses are electrical path ways through which bits are transmitted within the CPU and between CPU and
other devices in the system unit. Typically a bus consists of multiple communication pathways, or lines.

According to location, buses are classified as follows:

 Internal CPU Bus: These lines are internal to the CPU and used to connect ALU, control unit and
various registers.

 System Bus: It connects the CPU with the main memory and the main IO module that serves as
the interface to the slower IO devices.

 Expansion Buses: It connects the CPU with peripheral devices via IO module.

Bus lines are also classified into three functional groups as follows:

 Data lines provide a path for moving data between system modules. These lines collectively are
called data bus.

 Address lines carry addresses generated by the CPU to access a memory location or an IO device.

 Control lines are used to control the access and the use of the data and address lines.

In addition, there may be power distribution lines that supply power to the attached module.

Main Memory

Main Memory is the primary storage medium. It holds:

 Data to be processed
 Instructions to process data
 Processed data

Main memory is contained on an IC chip. Memory is divided into locations. Each location is uniquely
identified by an address. The contents of a memory location can change but the addresses always remain
constant.

IO (Input / Output) Module

The purpose of an IO system is to enable user to communicate with the computer. IO devices are attached
to the computer by means of an IO module, whose function is to control data transfers between IO
devices and the rest of the system. The reason for using the IO module is that IO devices are extremely
slow as compared to the CPU therefore it is a sheer wastage of CPU’s time to connect it directly with the
IO devices. The CPU accesses both main memory and IO module in the same way, however, it usually
takes much longer by the CPU to access data from IO module than to access data from memory because
most IO operation are quite slow.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin
INSTRUCTION PROCESSING

Machine Cycle
Machine cycle is the shortest interval in which an elementary operation can take place within the
processor. It comprises a series of operations performed to execute a single program instruction.

Instruction Cycle

The processing required for a single instruction is called instruction cycle.

The instruction cycle consists of two parts:

a) Fetch Cycle : During this stage the Control Unit

 fetches the instruction from main memory
 decodes the instruction (determines what the instruction means)

b) Execute Cycle : During this stage the Arithmetic/Logic Unit

 executes the instruction
 stores the result in a register or main memory

MAIN MEMORY CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT MAIN MEMORY CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT
Fetch Cycle CU Fetch Cycle CU
1 Fetch 1 Fetch

2 Decode Add a,b 2 Decode

ALU ALU
3 Execute 3 Execute
a = 50 50
b = 20 20
4 Store 70 4 Store 70
Execute Cycle Execute Cycle

Figure 3: Example Demonstrating Instruction Processing

MEMORY CAPACITY

The following terms are used to express memory capacity:

 Bit: Each 0 or 1 is called a bit. It is denoted by ‘b’.

 Byte: A group of 8 bits is called a byte. It is denoted by ‘B’.
 KB (Kilo byte): 1024 B = 210 B = 1 KB.
 MB (Mega byte): 1024 KB = 220 B = 1 MB.
 GB (Giga byte): 1024 MB = 230 B = 1 GB.
 TB (Tera byte): 1024 GB = 240 B = 1 TB.
 PB (Peta byte): 1024 TB = 250 B = 1 PB.
 EB (Exa byte): 1024 PB = 260 B = 1 EB.

REPRESENTATION OF DATA AND PROGRAMS

Computers use binary system to represent data. The binary system has only two digits: 0 and 1,
representing the two states on and off. In the computers these two numbers are represented by electrical
voltages. Thus, in the computer the binary 0 can be represented by a low voltage and 1 by a high voltage.
All data and programs that go into the computer are represented by these two numbers.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
The Computer System Course Instructor: Syed Jaseemuddin

Binary Coding Schemes

Letters, numbers and special characters are represented within a computer system by means of binary
coding schemes. That is, the on/off 0s and 1s are arranged in such a manner that they can be made to
represent the characters, digits, or other values. Following are the coding schemes most commonly used:

a) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

It is an 8-bit code that means it uses different combinations of 8 bits to represent each character. These 8
bits can represent at most 256 (=28) characters. This is the most widely used coding system with
microcomputers. Windows 95 uses ASCII coding system.

b) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

This is another 8-bit code. Here also, the maximum number of characters that can be represented is 256
(=28) characters. This system is used in large computers like mainframes.

c) UNICODE (Universal Code, Universal Character Set)

This is a 16-bit code, that is, it can represent 65536 (=2 16) characters. Thus it allows almost all the written
languages of the world to be represented using a single character set. Windows NT used this coding
system.

THE POWER OF PERSONAL COMPUTER

The power of the personal computer is measured according to three main units of measurement:
 RAM Capacity
 Word Size Capability
 Processor Speed

RAM Capacity

The main memory capacity of most microcomputers is stated in megabytes (MB). If a microcomputer has
less than 512 MB RAM, it will not be able to handle some of today’s sophisticated software programs.
Many software manufacturers recommend 32 MB RAM or more of RAM for microcomputers.

The RAM capacity of many mainframes and some supercomputers is measured in gigabytes (GB). Other
supercomputers’ RAM capacity is measured in terabytes (TB).

Word Size

Processor capacity is expressed in terms of word size, which refers to the number of bits it can hold in its
registers, process at one time, and send through its internal (local) bus, the electronic pathway between
the CPU, memory, and registers. Often the more bits in a word, the faster the computer. A 32-bit
processor will work with data and instructions in 32-bit chunks. A 64-bit word processor is faster,
working with data and instructions in 64-bit chunks. Other things being equal, a 64 bit computer
processes 8 bytes in the time it takes a 32-bit machine to process 4 bytes.

Expansion bus capacity is also measured by word size, Expansion buses connect the processor, RAM, and
registers to the computer’s peripheral devices. In other words, a processor can be characterized by the
number of bits it can work with at a time and the number of bits it can send or receive at a time. The

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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microcomputer with a 32-bit local bus but a 16-bit expansion bus, in this case, certain input/output
operations would slow down to the speed of 16 bit word size.

Processing Speeds

For Microcomputers: Computer with a large word size can process more data in each instruction cycle.
However, with transistors switching off and on at perhaps millions of times per second, the repetition of
the machine cycle occurs at blinding speeds. Every computer contains a system clock---an internal timing
device that switches on when the power to the computer is turned on. The system clock controls how fast
all the operations take place. The system clock uses fixed vibrations from a quartz crystal to deliver a
steady stream of digital pulses to pace the processor. The faster the clock the faster the processing,
assuming that the computer’s internal circuits can handle the increased speed.

Microcomputer speeds are commonly measured in Megahertz (MHz), with 1 MHz equal to 1 million
beats (machine cycles) per second. Microcomputers purchased today commonly run at 3 GHz or more.
Assuming that all the computer’s other specifications are the same, the faster the gigahertz rating, the
faster the computer.

For Workstations, Minis and Mainframes: The unit used is MIPS (millions of instructions per second).
Here the processing speed is measured according to the number of instructions per second that a
computer can process.

For Supercomputers: The unit used is FLOPS (floating point operations per second). The floating point
operation is a special kind of mathematical calculation. This measure, usually used with supercomputers,
and is expressed as megaflops (MFLOPS), gigaflops (GFLOPS), teraflops (TFLOPS) and even in petaflops
(PFLOPS).

THE SYSTEM CABINET/UNIT

The system unit houses the motherboard (including the processor chip and memory chips), the power
supply, and storage devices.

A. The Power Supply

The electricity available from a standard wall outlet is alternating current (AC), but a microcomputer
runs on direct current (DC). The power supply is a device that converts AC to DC to run the computer.
The on/off switch in the computer turns on or shuts off the electricity to the power supply. Because the
electricity can generate a lot of heat, a fan inside the computer keeps the power supply and other
components from becoming too hot.

Electric power drawn from a standard AC outlet can be quite uneven. For example, a sudden surge, or
spike, in AC voltage can burn out the low voltage DC circuitry in your computer. Instead of plugging the
computer directly into the wall electrical outlet, the computer is plugged into a power protection device.
The three principal types are:

a. Surge Protectors

A surge protector, or surge suppressor, is a device that protects a computer from being damaged by
surges (spikes) of high voltage. The computer is plugged into a surge protector, which in turn is
plugged into a standard electrical outlet.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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b. Voltage Regulators

A voltage regulator, or line conditioner, is a device that protects a computer from being damaged by
insufficient power brownout in voltage. Brownouts can occur when a large machine such as a power
tool starts up and causes the light in the house to dim.

c. UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply)

A UPS is a battery operated device that provides a computer with electricity if there is a power
failure. The UPS will keep the computer going 5 – 10 hours or more. It goes into operation as soon as
the power to the computer fails.

B. The Motherboard

The motherboard or system board is the main circuit

board in the system unit. It contains the microprocessor,
RAM chips, ROM chips and some sockets called
expansion slots where additional circuit board called
expansion boards, may be plugged in.

Mother Board showing above mentioned details

The Microprocessor Chip

Most microprocessors today use microprocessor of two kinds:

 Made by Intel
 Made by Motorola

Intel Chips: Intel makes chips for personal computers such as Compaq, Dell, Gateway, Tandy, Toshiba,
and Zenith. Variations of Intel chips are made by other companies, such as Advanced Micro Devices
(AMD), Cyrix Inc and Chips and Technologies.

Intel used to identify its chips by numbers 8086, 8088, 80286, 80386, 80486: the X86 series. Intel’s successor
to X86 chips is the Pentium family of chips. Listed from slowest to fastest, the current chip models
available from Intel are the Pentium, Pentium with MMX technology, Pentium Pro, Pentium II, Pentium
III, Pentium IV, Dual Core, and Core 2 Duo.

MMX stands for Multi Media eXtension. This technology intended to speed up any application that uses
multimedia such as games and slide presentations.

About 90% of the microcomputers use Intel-type microprocessors thus, most application software
packages have been written for Intel Platforms.

Motorola chips: Motorola produces the family of chips for Apple Macintosh computers. These chips use
RISC architecture.

Most new chips are downward/backward compatible with older chips.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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Downward/backward compatible means that you can run the software written for computers with older
CPU chips on a computer with newer chips. For example, the word processing program and all the data
files that you used for your 386 machines will continue to run on a 486 machines, thus 486 machines are
downward compatible. However the reverse compatibility is not necessarily true. Upward compatible
means that software written for a machine with a newer chip will run on a machine with an older chip.
Thus if you have a 486-powered PC and buy an old 286 portable, you may or may not be able to run your
software on both.

RAM (Random Access Memory) Chips

Microcomputers come with different amounts of RAM. The more RAM you have, the faster the software
can operate. If, for instance, you type such a long document in a word processing program that it will not
all fit into your computer’s RAM, the computer will put part of the document onto your disk (either hard
disk or diskette). This means you have to wait while the computer swaps data back and forth between
RAM and disk. Microcomputers with 1GB RAM are common these days.

Additional RAM chips can be added by plugging memory modules, which are circuit boards that contain
memory chips, into a memory socket on the motherboard. There are two types of RAM: SRAMs and
DRAMs.

SRAMs – Static RAMs: In SRAMs, binary values are stored using traditional flip-flops (a flip flop is a
logical storage element made up of logic gates that can store a single binary bit). A SRAM can hold its
data as long as power is supplied to it. Since they do not require any refreshing, they are fast. They are
more expensive than DRAMs. Examples of such memories are cache memories.

DRAMs – Dynamic RAMs: These memories are made with cells that store data as charge on capacitors.
The presence or absence of charge on a capacitor is interpreted as a binary 0 or 1. As, the capacitors have
natural tendency to discharge, DRAMs require periodic charge refreshing to maintain data storage.
Hence they are slow. Examples of these memories are the traditional RAMs used in the PCs.

Types of DRAM Modules

SIMM - Acronym for Single Inline Memory Module, a small circuit board that can hold a group of
memory chips. Typically, SIMMs holds up 8 (on Macintoshes) or 9 (on PCs) RAM chips. On PCs, the
ninth chip is often used for parity error checking. SIMMs, are easier to install than individual memory
chips. A SIMM is either 30 or 72 pins.

DIMM - Acronym for Dual Inline Memory Module, a small circuit board that holds memory chips. A
single in-line memory module (SIMM) has a 32-bit path to the memory chips whereas a DIMM has 64-bit
path., because the Pentium processor requires a 64-bit path to memory. A DIMM contains 168 pins.

RIMM – The memory module used with RDRAM chips. It is similar to a DIMM package but uses
different pin settings. Rambus trademarked the term RIMM as an entire word. It is the term used for a
module using Rambus technology. It is sometimes incorrectly used as an acronym for Rambus Inline
Memory Module. A RIMM contains 184 pins. Note must use all sockets in RIMM installation.

Types of DRAM

SDRAM - Short for Synchronous DRAM, A new type of DRAM that can run at much higher clock speed
than conventional memory. SDRAM actually synchronizes itself with the CPU's bus and is capable of
running at 133 MHz. SDRAM delivers data in high speed burst.
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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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DDR SDRAM - Short for Double Data Rate Synchronous DRAM, a type of SDRAM that supports data
transfers on both edges of each clock cycle effectively, doubling the memory chip's data throughput.
DDR-SDRAM is also called SDRAM II.

RDRAM - Short for Rambus DRAM, a type of memory (DRAM) developed by Rambus, Inc. In 1997, Intel
announced that it would license the Rambus technology for use on its future motherboards, thus making
it the likely de facto standard for memory architectures.

ROM (Read Only Memory) Chips

ROM contains permanent pattern of data that cannot be changed. It is also known as firmware. They are
non-volatile and non-erasable. While it is possible to read a ROM, it is not possible to change its data.

In microcomputer systems, one ROM chip holds the boot-up sequence of instructions called the ROM
bootstrap, another ROM chip helps the processor transfer information between the keyboard, screen
printer, and other peripheral devices to make sure all units are functioning properly. These instructions
are called ROM BIOS, or basic input/output system. ROM BIOS is an interface, a connector and a translator
between the computer hardware and the software programs.

Three variations of ROM chips are: PROM, EPROM, and EEPROM

a. PROM (Programmable Read-Only Memory)

A PROM is a memory chip on which data can be written only once. Once a program has been written
onto a PROM, it remains there forever. Unlike RAM, PROMs retain their contents when the computer is
turned off. The difference between a PROM and a ROM (Read-Only Memory) is that a PROM is
manufactured as blank memory, whereas a ROM is programmed during the manufacturing process. To
write data onto a PROM chip, you need a special device called a PROM programmer or PROM burner.
The process of programming a PROM is sometimes called burning the PROM.

b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

 EPROMs are erased when exposed to ultraviolet light.

 Erasure time is 20min or more.
 Smaller in size / more dense as compared to EEPROM.
 Their endurance is 100 programming cycles, i.e. EPROMs can be reprogrammed 100 times before the
chip gets damaged.
 Portions of EPROMs cannot be erased. The erasure process erases whole contents of the chip.

c. EEPROM (Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory)

 EEPROMs are erased when they are subjected to certain electrical voltages.
 Erasure time is 10ms.
 Larger in size as compared to EPROM.
 Their endurance is 100,000 programming cycles.
 Byte level erasure is possible in these chips.

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Cache Memory

Cache memory is a high-speed device that works between the RAM and CPU to enhance the overall
performance of the system. Nowadays the PC systems use two caches, L1 and L2. L1 (Level 1) cache is
found on the processor chip. Its size range is 8K to 256K. L2 (Level 2) cache is placed between RAM and
CPU chip. Its usual size ranges from 64KB to 2MB.

Flash Memory

Flash memory is intermediate between EPROM and EEPROM in both cost and functionality. Like
EEPROM, flash memory uses an electrical erasing technology. An entire flash memory can be erased in
one or a few seconds, which is much faster than EPROM. In addition, it is possible to erase just blocks of
memory rather than the entire chip. However, flash memory does not provide byte level erasure. Their
endurance is 10,000 program cycles. They are used in video cards, pagers, cell phones, MP3 players,
printers, digital cameras and even for storing BIOS in some new systems.

C. Ports And Cables

A port is a connecting socket or jack on the inside of the system unit into which are plugged different
kinds of cables. A port allows you to plug in a cable to connect a peripheral device, such as a monitor,
printer, or modem, so that it can communicate with the computer system. Ports can be broadly classified
as serial and parallel ports.

a. Serial Ports: Serial ports are used for transferring slow data over long
distances. A line connected to a serial port will send bits one after another.
Because individual bits must follow each other, a serial port is usually use to
connect devices that do not require fast transmission of data, such as
keyboard, mouse, monitors, and modems.
Serial Port

b. Parallel Ports: Parallel ports are used for transferring fast data over short
distances. A line connected to a parallel port allows 8 bits (1 byte) to be
transmitted simultaneously. Parallel lines move information faster than serial
lines do, but they can transmit information efficiently only up to 15 feet.
Thus, parallel ports are used principally for connecting printers or external
disk or magnetic tape backup storage devices. Parallel Port

Some important ports used in general PC system are as follows:

 SCSI Port: SCSI (small computer system interface) is used for transferring fast data up to seven
devices in a daisy chain. SCSI, pronounces skuzzy, allows data to be transmitted in a daisy chain to
up to seven devices at speeds (32 bits at a time) higher than those possible with serial and parallel
ports. Among the devices that may be connected are external hard disk drives, CD-ROM drives,
scanners and magnetic tape backup units. The term daisy chain
means that several devices are connected in series to each other,
so that data for the seventh device, for example, has to go
through the other six devices first. Sometimes the equipment on
the chain is inside the computer, an internal daisy chain;
sometimes it is outside the computer, an external daisy chain. SCSI Port

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 USB Port: USB (Universal serial bus) can theoretically transfer data up to 127 devices in a daisy chain
to one general-purpose port. USB ports are useful for peripherals such as digital cameras, digital
speakers, scanners, high speed modems, and joysticks. In addition USB permits plug and play, which
allow peripheral devices and expansion cards to be automatically configured while they are being
installed.
Different types of USB connectors
are shown in the figure, from left to
right:
 Micro USB plug
 Mini USB plug
 B-type plug
 A-type receptacle
 A-type plug
The Mini-B, Micro-A, Micro-B, and Micro-AB connectors are used for smaller devices such as PDAs,
mobile phones or digital cameras.

 Dedicated Ports: Dedicate ports are used for special purpose. Among these are round ports also
called PS/2 ports for connecting keyboard and mouse. There are also jacks for speakers and
microphones, modem-to-telephone jacks (Modem line) and jack for LAN connection. Finally there is
one connector that is not a port at all – the power plug socket, into which is inserted the power cord
that brings electricity from the wall plug. Some of the dedicated ports stated above can be seen in the
figure below.

 Video Adaptor Ports: Video adaptor ports are used to connect video display monitor outside the
computer to the video adaptor card inside the system unit.

 Infrared Ports: An infrared port allows a computer to make a cable less connection with infrared
capable devices, such as transferring data to a mobile device. This type of connection requires an
unobstructed line of sight between transmitting and receiving ports, and they can only be few feet
apart.
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Expansion and Upgrading

Expansion is a way of increasing a computer’s capabilities by adding hardware to perform tasks that are
beyond the scope of the basic system. For example, adding video or sound card to a system, which it did
not have before. Upgrading means changing to a newer, usually more sophisticated versions. For example,
changing system to a more powerful processor or adding more memory chips.

Whether or not a computer can be expanded depends on its architecture – open or closed. Closed
architecture means a computer has no expansion slots, open architecture means it does have expansion slot.
Closed architecture is a computer design whose specifications are not made freely available by the
manufacturer. Thus, other companies cannot create ancillary devices to work with it. With open
architecture, the manufacturer shares specifications with outsiders.

a. Expansion Cards

Expansion cards, also known as expansion boards, adaptor cards, interface cards, plug in boards,
controller cards, add-ins and add-ons, are circuit boards that provide more memory or that control
peripheral devices. Expansion slots are sockets on the motherboard into which expansion cards are
plugged. Various cards commonly found in most systems are:

 Coprocessor Board: Contains specialized processor chips that increase processing speed of computer
system.
 Emulator Board: Permits microcomputers to be used as a terminal for a large computer system.
 Fax Modem board: Enables computer to transmit and receive fax messages and data over telephone
lines.
 Graphics Adaptor Board: Permits computer to have a particular graphics standard.
 Memory Expansion Board: Enables additional RAM to be added to the computer system.
 Sound Board: Enables certain type of systems to produce sound output.
 Network Interface Cards: Allows remote communication via cables.
 PC Cards: Originally called PCMCIA (Personal Computer Memory Card International Association)
cards, PC cards are thin, credit card sized (2.1 by 3.4 inches) devices used principally with laptops
computers to expand capabilities. Examples are extra memory, sound cards, modem, hard disks and
even pagers and cellular communications. At present there are three sizes for PC cards – I (thin), II
(thick), and III (thickest). Type I is used primarily for flash memory cards. Type II, is most often used,
and is used for fax modems and network interface cards. Type III is for rotating disk devices, such as
hard disk drives, and for wireless communication devices.

b. Expansion Buses

Expansion card are made to connect with different types of buses on the motherboard. Buses are electrical
data roadways through which bits are transmitted. The bus that connects the CPU with expansion slots
on the motherboard and thus with peripheral devices is the expansion bus. Some of the expansion buses
to be aware of are as follows:
 ISA (Industry Standard Architecture) Bus: Used for ordinary low speed uses. It is the most widely
used expansion bus. It is also the oldest, at 8 or 16 bits, the slowest at transmitting data, though it is
still used for mouse, modem cards, and low-speed network cards.
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Bus: It is a higher speed bus, and at 32 or 64 bits wide it is
over four times faster than ISA buses. PCI is widely used to connect graphics card, sound cards,
modems, and high-speed network cards.
 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) Bus: It transmits data at even higher speeds and was designed to
support video and three dimensional (3D) graphics. An AGP bus is twice as fast as PCI bus.
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 USB (Universal Serial Bus): Discussed before – USB Ports.

A USB hub is shown in the figure.

Several devices can be connected
through this hub.

D. The Secondary Storage – Sometimes called Auxiliary Storage

Benefits of Secondary Storage

The benefits of secondary storage can be summarized as follows:

Space: Organizations may store the equivalent of a roomful of data on sets of disks that take up less space
than a bread box. A simple diskette for a personal computer can hold the equivalent of 500 printed pages,
or one book. An optical medium can hold the equivalent of approximately 500 books.

Reliability: Data in secondary storage is basically safe, since secondary storage is physically reliable.
Also, it is difficult for untrained people to tamper with data on disk than with data stored on paper in a
file cabinet.

Convenience: With the help of a computer, authorized users can locate and access data quickly.

Economy: Together with the three previous benefits indicate significant savings in storage costs. It is less
expensive to store data on a tape or disk than to buy and house filing cabinets.

Storage Fundamentals

The process of retrieving information from a storage device is referred to as reading. The process of
copying information to a storage device is referred to as writing.

Information is read from and written to a storage device according to a specific method called the data
access method. The method used affects its speed and its usefulness for certain applications.

Sequential Storage means that the data is stored in sequence, such as alphabetically. Tape storage falls in
the category of sequential storage. Thus, you would have to search a tape past all the information from A
to J, say, before you got to K. Sequential storage is ideal when information must be accessed in sequential
order. However, it bogs down when information must be accessed randomly.

Direct Access Storage also called random access storage, the computer can go directly to the information
you want. Such storage is ideal when information is to accessed in random order. However it slows down
when information must be accessed sequentially. Hard disks and other types of disks generally fall in this
category.

Indexed Sequential Access Method has some of the advantages of both the sequential and direct form of
storage Indexed-sequential file organization stores data in sorted order. However the file in which the
data is stored contains an index that lists the data by key fields and identifies the physical location on the

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disk. This type of file organization results in quick data access, either sequentially or randomly.

No matter what drive or data access method is used, data is always stored in the form of a file.

Types of Files
 Program files
 Data files
 Image files
 Audio and Video files

Storage Media:

1. Magnetic Disk Storage

A disk is a circular platter constructed of metal or of plastic Track 1

coated with a magnetizable material. Data are recorded on Track 2
and later retrieved from the disk via a conducting coil named
the head. During the read or write operation, the head is
Sector 1
stationary while the platter rotates beneath it. Binary data is
stored on a disk by magnetizing tiny regions of the surface,
and data is read from the disk by sensing that magnetization.
Data on a disk is stored in concentric circles, called tracks.
The disk is further divided into sectors. See figure 3. Each Sector 2
track and each sector is numbered, so the portion of a
particular track within a particular sector defines one block of
data having a specific track and sector address. Figure 3 : Tracks and Sectors on a Platter

A soft-sectored disk is one for which all remaining sectors must be defined and identified by the disk
controller and computer system before the disk can be used. This procedure is called formatting the disk.
The disk is said to be soft sectored because formatting is performed under the control of a program
(software) and because the formatting can be changed at will. A hard-sectored disk has all sectors defined
at the time of manufacture.

a) Diskettes or Floppy Disks:

 Made of flexible Mylar plastic coated with Iron oxide.
 Diskette record data as magnetized spots on tracks on its surface.
 Most computer uses 3.5” diskettes.

b) Hard Disks:
 Hard disk is a metal platter coated with magnetic oxide that can be magnetized to represent
data.
 Several disks can be assembled into a disk pack.
 There are different types of disk packs with the number of platters varying by model.

Hard Disk Drive:

It is a device that allows data to be read from and written onto a disk. A disk pack is mounted on a disk
drive that is separate unit connected to the computer.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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It is a sealed aluminum box with controller electronics attached to one side. The electronics control the
read/write mechanism and the motor that spins the platters. The electronics also assemble the magnetic
domains on the drive into bytes (reading) and turn bytes into magnetic domains (writing). The electronics
are all contained on a small board that detaches from the rest of the drive. Below is a typical hard-disk
drive:

Removing the cover from the drive reveals an extremely simple but very precise interior that can be seen
below.

In this picture you can see:

The platters - These typically spin at 3,600 or 7,200 rpm when the drive is operating. These platters are
manufactured to amazing tolerances and are mirror-smooth (as you can see in this interesting self-
portrait of the author... no easy way to avoid that!).

The access arm - This holds the read/write heads and is controlled by the mechanism in the upper-left
corner. The arm is able to move the heads from the hub to the edge of the drive. The arm and its
movement mechanism are extremely light and fast. The arm on a typical hard-disk drive can move from
hub to edge and back up to 50 times per second.

The read/write head on the end of the access arm hovers just above the track but does not actually touch
the surface. When read/write head does accidentally touch the disk surface, it is called head crash and
data can be destroyed.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard disks have multiple platters.
Two read/write heads are on each arm, one facing up to access the surface above it and one facing down
to access the surface below it. However, only one read/write head can operate at any one time.
Below is given a drive having three platters and six read/write heads:

Hard Disk Controllers

Hard disk controller is a special purpose circuit board that positions the disk and the read/write heads
and manages the flow of data and instructions to and from the disk. Popular hard disk controllers are:

 ATA (Also called EIDE)

 SATA
 SCSI

 Advanced Technology Attachment (ATA) : is a standard interface for connecting storage devices such
as hard disks, solid state disks and CD-ROM drives inside personal computers. Many synonyms and
near-synonyms for ATA exist, including abbreviations such as IDE (Integrated Drive Electronics) or EIDE
(Enhanced Integrated Drive Electronics) and ATAPI (Advanced Technology Attachment Packet
Interface). Also, with the market introduction of Serial ATA (SATA) in 2003, the original ATA was
retroactively renamed Parallel ATA (PATA).

Parallel ATA standards allow cable lengths up to only 18 inches (46 centimeters) although cables up to
36 inches (91 cm) can be readily purchased. Because of this length limit, the technology normally appears
as an internal computer storage interface. It provides the most common and the least expensive interface
for this application

 Serial Advanced Technology Attachment (SATA) : is a computer bus primarily designed for transfer of
data between a computer and mass storage devices such as hard disk drives and optical drives. The main
advantages over the older parallel ATA interface are faster data transfer, ability to remove or add devices
while operating (hot swapping), thinner cables that let air cooling work more efficiently, and more
reliable operation with tighter data integrity checks.
It was designed as a successor to the Advanced Technology Attachment standard (ATA), and is expected
to eventually replace the older technology (retroactively renamed Parallel ATA or PATA). Serial ATA
adapters and devices communicate over a high-speed serial cable.

 Small Computer System Interface (SCSI) : is a set of standards for physically connecting and
transferring data between computers and peripheral devices. The SCSI standards define commands,
protocols, and electrical and optical interfaces. SCSI is most commonly used for hard disks and tape
drives, but it can connect a wide range of other devices, including scanners and CD drives. With the
advent of SATA drives, provision for SCSI on motherboards is being discontinued. A few companies still
market SCSI interfaces for motherboards.
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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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Optical Memory

Optical disks are removable disks on which data is written and read using laser technology. Like
magnetic disks, here also the information is organized as tracks and sectors. The optical disk technology
used with the computers consists of these main types:

 CD-ROM
 CD-R
 CD-RW
 DVD/DVD-ROM
 Blu-ray Disc

CD-ROM:

CD-ROM stands for Compact Disk Read Only Memory. They contain prerecorded data (data recorded by
the manufacturer). Both the audio CD and CD-ROM share a similar technology. The main difference is
that CR-ROM players are more rugged and have error correction devices to ensure that the data is
properly transferred from disk to computer. Both types of disks are also made the same way. The disk is
formed from a resin, such as polycarbonate, and coated with a highly reflective surface usually
aluminum. Digitally recorded information is imprinted as a series of microscopic pits on the reflective
surface. This is done, first of all with a finely focused, high intensity laser to create a master disk. The
master is used, in turn, to make a die to stamp out copies. The pitted surface of the copies is protected
against dust and scratches by a top coat of clear lacquer.

Information is retrieved from a CD or CD-ROM by a low power laser housed in an optical disk player or
drive unit. The laser shines through a clear protective coating while a motor spins the disk passed it. The
intensity of the reflected light of the laser changes as it encounters a pit. This change is detected by a
photo sensor and converted into a digital signal.

CD-ROM is appropriate for the distribution of large amounts of data to a large number of users. Because
of the expense of the initial writing process, it is not appropriate for individualized applications.
Compared with traditional magnetic disks, the CD-ROM has three major advantages:

1. The information storage capacity is much greater on the optical disk.

2. The optical disk together with the information stored on it can be mass replicated inexpensively
unlike magnetic disk.
3. The data on a magnetic disk has to be reproduced by copying one disk at a time using two disk
drives.

The disadvantages of the CD-ROM are as follows:

1. It is read only and cannot be updated

2. It has an access time much longer than that of a magnetic disk drive.

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CS-101 Introduction to Computers F.E (IM) Session 2011
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CD-R:

CD-R stands for Compact Disk Recordable. With CD-R, users record their own data on blank optical disks.
For CD-R, a disk is prepared in such a way that it can be subsequently written once with a laser beam of
modest intensity. To provide for more rapid access, the CD-R uses constant angular velocity, at the
sacrifice of some capacity.

A typical technique for preparing the disk is to use a high powered laser to produce a series of blisters on
the disk. When the preformatted medium is placed in a CD-R drive, a low powered laser can produce
enough heat to burst the prerecorded blisters. During a disk read operation, a laser in the CD-R drive
illuminates the disk surface. Because the burst blisters provide higher contrast than the surrounding area,
these are easily recognized by simple electronics.

The CD-R optical disk is attractive for large storage of documents and files. It provides a permanent
record of large volume of user data.

CD-RW:

CD-RW stands for Compact Disk ReWritable. The CD-RW disk can be repeatedly written and over written
as with any magnetic disk. Although a number of approaches have been tried, the only pure optical
approach that has proved attractive is called phase change. The phase change disk uses a material that
has two significantly different reflectivities in two different phase states. There is an amorphous state in
which the molecules exhibit a random orientation and which reflect light poorly and a crystalline state,
which has a smooth surface that reflects light well. A beam of laser light can change the material from one
phase to the other. The primary disadvantage of the phase change optical disk is that the material
eventually and permanently loses its desirable property. Current material can be used for between
500,000 and 1000,000 erase cycles. As with CD-R, CD-RW disk also uses constant angular velocity.

The CD-RW disk has the obvious advantage over CD-ROM and CD-R that it can be rewritten and thus
can be used as a true secondary storage. As such it competes with magnetic disks. The principal
advantages of CD-RW disk compared to magnetic disk are as follows:

1. Capacities are much higher than magnetic disks.

2. CD-RW disks can be removed from the drive.
3. The engineering tolerances for optical disks are much less severe than for high capacity magnetic
disks. Thus they exhibit higher reliability and longer life.

DVD/DVD-ROM:

DVD stands for Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk. Like a CD or CD-ROM, the surface of a DVD
contains microscopic pits, which represent the 0s and 1s of digital code that can be read by laser. The pits
of the DVD, however, are much smaller and grouped more closely together than those on a CD, allowing
far more information to be represented. Also, the laser beam used focuses on pits roughly half the size of
those on the current audio CDs. In addition, the DVD format allows for two layers of data defining pits
not just one. Finally, engineers have succeeded in compressing more data into fewer pits, principally
through data compression. DVD used a form of video compression known as MPEG for high quality full
screen pictures.

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The DVD will replace the video tape used in video cassette recorders (VCRs) and more important, replace
the CD-ROM in personal computers and servers. The DVD takes video into the digital age. It delivers
movies with impressive picture quality and it can be randomly accessed like audio CDs, which DVD
machines can also play. Vast volumes of data can be cramped onto the disk, currently seven times as
much as a CD-ROM. With DVD’s huge storage capacity and vivid quality, PC games will become more
realistic and educational software will incorporate more video.

Comparative capacities of DVDs:

Format Capacity Approx. Movie Time

Single-sided/ Single-layer 4.38 GB 2 hrs
Single-sided/ Dual-layer 7.95 GB 4 hrs
Double-sided/ Single-layer 8.75 GB 4.5 hrs
Double-sided/ Dual-layer 15.9 GB Over 8 hrs
Blu-ray Disc:

Blu-ray Disc also known as Blu-ray or BD is also an optical disc storage media format. Its main uses are
high-definition video, data storage and PlayStation 3 games. The disc has same dimensions as a standard
DVD or CD.

The name Blu-ray Disc is derived from the blue-violet laser used to read and write this type of disc.
Because of its shorter wavelength (405 nm), more data can be stored on a BD than on the DVD format,
which uses a red (650 nm) laser. A dual layer BD can store 50 GB, almost 6 times the capacity of a single
sided/dual layer DVD.

Magnetic Tape
Tape systems use the same reading and recording
techniques as disk systems. The medium is flexible Mylar
tape coated with magnetic oxide. The tape and the tape
drive are analogous to a home tape recorder system. The
tape medium is structured as a small number of parallel
tracks. Earlier tape systems typically used 9 tracks. Newer
tape systems use 18 or 36 tracks. As with the disk, data are
read and written in contiguous blocks, called physical
records, on a tape. Blocks on the tape are separated by gaps
referred to as inter-record gap. Figure 5 suggests the
structure for a 9-track tape. As with the disk the tape is
formatted to assist in locating the physical records.

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